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3326 International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2022, 57, 3326–3332

Review
Innovations and applications of 3-D printing in food sector

Akriti Taneja,1 Ruchi Sharma,1 Krishna Ayush,1 Anshu Sharma,2 Amin Mousavi Khaneghah,3
Joe M. Regenstein, 4
Francisco J. Barba, 5
Yuthana Phimolsiripol6,7* & Somesh Sharma1*
1 School of Bioengineering and Food Technology, Shoolini University, Solan HP, 173229, India
2 Department of Food Science and Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan HP, 173230, India
3 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
4 Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853-7201, USA
5 Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat
de Val
encia, Avda. Vicent Andres Estelles s/n, Burjassot 46100, Spain
6 Faculty of Agro-Industry, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
7 Center of Excellence in Materials Science and Technology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
(Received 27 December 2021; Accepted in revised form 6 March 2022)

Abstract 3-D printing is a neoteric technology that can make existing food value chains client-desirable and sus-
tainable by providing on-demand food production, enabling automated food personalisation, and min-
imising food wastage. It can address food scarcity in countries where affordable and fresh ingredients are
inaccessible by integrating nutrient-rich substrates, probiotics, bioactive compounds, and functional ingre-
dients into complex fabricated foods. The global food processing industries are endorsing 3-D food print-
ing technology to make production more efficient and self-reliant, anticipating a compound annual
growth rate of ~55%. This review paper provides a holistic outlook of the technology beginning with the
various techniques utilised for 3-D printing and printers available in the market. Substantial raw ingredi-
ents used for printing and the components in the future precision and personalised foods are discussed.
The pros and cons of this technology along with its potential applications and future perspectives of 3-D
food printing are also evaluated.
Keywords 3-D food printing, additive manufacturing, food design, modelling, personalised food.

for them to download original data files and print

Introduction
3-D printing can be referred to as additive manufac-
turing (AM) or solid freeform fabrication (SFF). It is
a technique used to fabricate three-dimensional objects
with precision and accuracy in all dimensions and
finds applications in several industries, including avia-
tion, engineering, textiles, construction, packaging¸
automotive, pharmaceuticals, medical, and food
(Gholamipour-Shirazi et al., 2020) and offers a range
of potential convenience, as it can be ecologically ben-
eficial because these printers help in the conversion of
alternative ingredients such as icing sugar, low-gluten
flour proteins from seaweeds, and insects (Yang et al.,
2019). With the evolution of printing technology,
designs of fabricated foods can be generated and
shared among culinary professionals, providing it easy
*Correspondent: E-mails: someshsharma@shooliniuniversity.com
(S. S.) yuthana.p@cmu.ac.th (Y. P.)
foods as desired (Sun et al., 2015).
The trend of 3-D technology in the industry has
been estimated to reach ~425 million USD by 2025.
The worldwide spending on 3-D printing including
hardware, materials, software, and services is expected
to reach $23 billion by 2022 (Attarin & Attaran,
2020). Consumers can access designs from an e-
commerce platform through websites or mobile appli-
cations and this will reduce warehousing, packing, and
distribution costs. It is anticipated that online trading
of 3-D food printing recipes will soon enter the mar-
ket, creating competition in terms of the appearance of
fabricated products, cost, and product versatility. An
additional issue is that customised products would
reach the end user much faster than conventional food
processing (Nachal et al., 2019). With reduced distri-
bution times, product safety can be improved, even
possibly eliminating the use of polymeric packaging
materials and chemical preservatives. Furthermore,
multistep processing of food products can be reduced

doi:10.1111/ijfs.15691
© 2022 Institute of Food Science and Technology

to a single step. Principle, advantages, disadvantages,
raw material and processing factors involved in 3-D
food printing techniques are shown in Table S1.
Hence, the current article presents a brief description
of different 3-D printers used in the food industry
along with their applications with different foods.
Primal matter used for 3-D printing
Naturally printable food materials
These materials usually have shear-thinning behaviour
so that they can be extruded smoothly from the syr-
inge, e.g. hydrogels, cake frostings, cheese, hummus
and chocolates (Perez et al., 2019). The mixture of
cereals, starch, sugars and mashed potatoes that have
been evaluated as powdered materials using an
extrusion-based 3-D printer have been fabricated to
demonstrate the technique (Sun et al., 2015). A mix-
ture of milk powder and whole-grain rye flour was
used to formulate protein and dietary fibre-rich snack
products using an extrusion-based 3-D printer in com-
bination with baking. Xylitol, maltitol and isomaltose
with sweetness values of ~40-50% of sucrose have been
used as sugar substitutes to produce a 3-D printed
chocolate containing composite polysaccharides (Zhao
et al., 2021). Due to their gelling properties, various
types of proteins have been utilised to formulate food
inks, e.g. pea protein. Chuanxing et al. (2018) studied
the textural, thermal and structural properties of
starch-based ink and showed that they were substan-
tially improved when 1% pea protein was added.
Thus, the incorporation of an appropriate amount of
pea protein in the ink mix improved the stability of
the structure, enhanced the texture and balanced the
nutritive value of the printed food product. Liu et al.
(2018) designed and produced printing paste prepared
using a whey protein isolate (WPI) mixed with whey
protein concentration (WPC) at a ratio of 2:5. That
was reported to have the best printability as incorpora-
tion of WPI and WPC decreased the apparent viscos-
ity and softened the resulting paste, which was
beneficial to the printing process. In a study by Liu
et al. (2019c), a milk protein composite material was
made by mixing WPC into a sodium caseinate solution
so that the 3-D ink contained ~400–450 g L 1 total
protein. The results showed that this mixture had the
best printing performance and the best match with the
model designed. These naturally printable materials
allow extensive modification of food materials based
on their texture, nutritional value and taste. Some of
these materials are stable enough to hold the shape
after deposition so they do not require further post-
processing and can also be used for medical and space
applications. Other complex formulations such as pro-
tein pastes and raw batters may require post-
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3-D printing in food sector A. Taneja et al. 3327
deposition cooking processes, which makes it more dif-
ficult to retain the food products shape (Lille et al.,
2020).
Non-printable traditional food materials
Food materials such as meat, fruit, rice and vegetables
are not printable naturally. The combination of hydro-
colloids such as xanthan gum (XG) and gelatin with
these solid materials has been approved and utilised in
many gastro-culinary fields to enhance their extrusion
capacity. For example, brown rice was mixed with XG
and guar gum using the Fab@Home3-Dextruder. Tex-
tural, rheological properties and microstructure of
brown rice were modified using different hydrocolloids,
to develop brown rice gels with good printing perfor-
mance. A combination of spinach leaves, broccoli and
carrots with XG had good printing capability. Its high
hydration ability limited the expansion of the vegetable
powder particles so that the rheological value of the
gel system before and after the powder addition did
not change significantly (Kim et al., 2018a). Kim et al.
(2019) showed that XG solved the deformation prob-
lem of 3-D printed cookie products with post-
treatment processes such as baking by adding 0.5 g
XG 100 g 1 into the raw material. This improved the
heat resistance of the 3-D printed cookie sample, and
its texture was similar to those of the control cookies
(baked) in hardness and crushability. Pectin is a plant-
based natural hydrocolloid which is typically used in
3-D printed objects as a gelling or a thickening agent.
Vancauwenberghe et al. (2018) studied pectin-based 3-
D printing including applications using low methoxy-
lated pectin gels as part of the 3-D-ink to print pectin-
based food simulants. In these studies, Ca2+ was used
to produce the pectin gels through the formation of
Ca cross-links between free carboxyl groups. Utilisa-
tion of elementary additives to redesign traditional
recipes into composite geometries and new formula-
tions was also done. Transglutaminase enzyme and
agar were added to the printable form of turkey meat;
the defects in the physical structure were minimised
during a post-printing cooking process (Lipton et al.,
2015).
Alternative ingredients
This category of ingredients includes extracts from
algae, fungi, insects, lupine, cultured meat, seaweeds
and coffee 3-D filaments (Sun et al., 2015). AlgaVia a
company from the USA used microalgae to develop a
protein powder with impressive functional attributes
such as non-allergenic, gluten-free and a good source
of dietary fibre, which helps when making fortified
vegan protein. The edible insects are dried into a pow-
der, flour is mixed with icing butter, cream cheese,
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2022

3328 3-D printing in food sector A. Taneja et al.
water, gelling agent and flavouring to obtain the right
consistency to go through the nozzle of the 3-D prin-
ter. As a sustainable source of high-value protein
which varies between ~40-70% (w/w) and minerals,
e.g. Ca, depending on the species and life cycles, the
use of insect protein as an ingredient for 3-D printing
is a way to promote this sustainable food source and
an innovative way to soften people’s reluctance to con-
sume insects (Severini et al., 2018). Severini et al.
(2018) produced a 3-D printed snack containing differ-
ent proportions of wheat flour with yellow mealworm
powder and then baked (200 °C) them. They had a
total essential amino acid content of 41.3 g 100 g 1
protein.
AlgaVia, a company from the USA, used microalgae
to develop a protein powder with impressive functional
attributes such as being non-allergenic, gluten-free and
a good source of dietary fibre, which helps when mak-
ing fortified vegan protein, e.g. Nostoc sphaeroides bio-
mass, being a natural gelling material with good
rheological properties, has also been used for 3-D
printing. Residues from the current food processing
and agriculture sector can be transformed into biologi-
cally active metabolites, enzymes and food flavouring
compounds, as sustainable eco-friendly raw materials
for printing (Lupton & Turner, 2018).
Printers available to the food industry
Currently, the 3-D food printing market is at its initial
phase with a great deal of ongoing active research.
However, commercially available 3-D printers are
becoming available in the market, although as with
any technological innovations, their prices are a bit
high. With a ~55% growth rate food printing technol-
ogy is emerging, and the industry is estimated to reach
a worth of 400 million USD by 2024 (Kewuyemi
et al., 2021). The various attributes of a 3-D printer
are shown in Fig. 1. The parameters that influence
successful 3-D food printing are the food properties
such as its rheology and texture which are measured
as shear modulus, viscosity, hardness and springiness;
food ink structure; external experimental design (e.g.
3-D printing equipment); printing parameters (e.g.
printing speed, layer height, nozzle height and diame-
ter); processing techniques (e.g. cooking, baking and
freezing) and print design (Zhang et al., 2021).
Table S2 shows the commercially available 3-D food
printers at the time of this writing and Table S3 shows
the 3-D printed foodstuffs along with their printing
parameters.
Applications in the food processing industry
3-D printing technology is in its early stages.
Although, McKinsey predicts that the SFF market will
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have an annual economic impact of $550 billion by
2025, and recent industry research reports suggest that
its global market will reach USD~30 billion by 2022,
growing at a compound annual growth rate of 28.5%
between 2016 and 2022 (Nachal et al., 2019). It is
envisaged that the technology can emerge as a one-
stop solution for personalised nutrient intake, cus-
tomised food products, and developing prototyping
tools to fabricate new designs. The sustainability of
any application depends on the scope for mass cus-
tomisation and properties of the material supply. With
the expansion in technology and a better understand-
ing of food printability, AM should lead to many
applications in the food processing industry. Such
potential applications are discussed in this section.
Food customisation/tailor-made food
The most exploited application of AM is food cus-
tomisation. Commercial production technologies usu-
ally focus on bulk production, creativity, and tailoring
of shapes, flavours and structures that are limited to
certain food items and skilled personnel. An interest-
ing example is the extrusion of bean paste and Mexi-
can sauces to customise burritos (Pallottino et al.,
2016). Researchers have also customised foods such as
cookies and pizzas using the Foodini printer, a com-
mercial printer that uses the hot-melt extrusion tech-
nique. Improvement in taste profiles can also be
obtained using SFF. Jelly-like capsules with shapes
and flavours can be modified products with antioxi-
dant activity and high phenolic content from fruits
and vegetable blends with acceptable sensory attributes
(Severini et al., 2016).
Food wastage minimisation
Worldwide one-third of the food mass-produced gets
wasted. AM technology limits food wastage by utilis-
ing unpreserved fruits and vegetables and low-value
by-products like meat off-cuts. These raw materials are
blended and combined to produce a puree, which were
later seasoned with spices and herbs (Gholamipour-
Shirazi et al., 2020). The puree is then 3-D printed,
and these prints are baked and dehydrated so that the
resulting product is crunchy and durable. In a recent
study, broken wheat grains and grape pomace were
used as raw materials to produce value-added func-
tional cookies using an extrusion-based 3-D printer
called Controlled Additive-Manufacturing Robotic Kit
(CARK) (Jagadiswaran et al., 2021).
Personalised nutrition
Precision food formula involves the preparation or
production of formulations with the exact levels of
© 2022 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Figure 1 Various attributes of a 3-D printer.
nutrients and functional compounds essential to pre-
vent malnutrition and diseases (Severini et al., 2016).
To overcome difficulties in swallowing, TNO has come
up with concepts for the printing of pureed food to
help elderly people who suffer from chewing and swal-
lowing problems. Fabricated meal can also be pre-
pared with age-specific nutrient compositions (Sun
et al., 2015). Under the project “Performance about
Development of Personalised Food using Rapid Man-
ufacturing for the Nutrition of Elderly Consumers”,
Biozoon Food Innovation prepared cookies from
insect-derived flours for people suffering from mastica-
tion problems.
Sustainable food packaging
3-D food printing is integrating with the food packag-
ing industry with the concept of rapid prototyping.
Fabricated biodegradable cups with 3-D printed poly-
capsule of energy drink ingredients has been developed
(Gholamipour-Shirazi et al., 2020). Smart Cups, a US-
based company, is working on cups that make hot,
cold and even fizzy drinks, and this practice can be
extended to other packaging types (Nachal et al.,
2019). AM technology promotes the reuse of plastic
wastes and the use of biopolymers for food packaging
applications. Though pricing is a constraint, leading
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3-D printing in food sector A. Taneja et al. 3329
food companies are experimenting with the best SFF
applications for smart and intelligent package proto-
types.
Eco-friendly 3-D printed meats and insects
Plant-based meats are being fabricated as replacements
for meats in this ongoing project. Nova meat is the
world’s largest piece of whole-cut meat, a cell-based
analogue that chews like sirloin and pulls like pork
and is prepared using 3-D printing (Ramachandraiah,
2021). The company’s proprietary technology mimics
the texture, nutritional properties, taste and appear-
ance of animal meat products (Dick et al., 2019).
Israel startup Redefine Meat has also incorporated
insects into foods using 3-D printing (Lupton &
Turner, 2018).
Medicine infused foods (Telemedicine System)
3-D printing has given new opportunities for cus-
tomised foods for patients with a need for infused
medicines (Kim et al., 2018b). One of the advantages
of infusing medicines using 3-D printing of foods is
that this technology along with a telemedicine system
at low temperature maintains antioxidants and pre-
serves energy without the requirement of long-term
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2022

3330 3-D printing in food sector A. Taneja et al.
heat exposure of the food. The COVID-19 pandemic
has led to the need for a remote delivery system for
the use with cannabidiol (CBD) to safely approve and
track the disease treatments. The World Health Orga-
nization has validated the use of CBD. The positive
results of medical cannabis at optimum concentrations
for curing childhood epilepsy, panic and sleeping dis-
orders have already been approved in many countries.
However, its use is still restricted in many parts of the
world due to its addictive and hallucinatory properties.
Recently, Kim et al. (2021) successfully used CBD
within food using modern 3-D technology for use with
a telemedicine system. They reported no issue of print-
ability with food materials even at high viscosity. They
infused CBD successfully in food products. However,
in liquid and semi-liquid foods, they failed to maintain
the 3-D structure due to softness and a porous texture.
Based on low energy processing, the telemedicine
approach has a great power for nutrition maintenance
and oxidation avoidance. This technique is capable of
printing not only meat but also seafood, veggies,
cheeseburger, CBD-infused ice cream and chocolate
syrup.
3-D printing projects/ventures
The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific
Research in 2016 developed the first fresh pasta 3-D
printer with the company. The machine utilises a blend
of water and flour to create layer-by-layer pasta with
unique shapes while maintaining its flavour. An Italian
company WASP (World’s Advanced Saving Project)
has a project to produce gluten-free 3-D food printers.
WASP modified a Delta WASP 20-40 3-D printer and
included a new type of extruder, designed for mass
extrusion (Zheng et al., 2021). The company printed
different shapes and designs specifically for those who
need gluten-free diets. Sugar lab is the first true digital
bakery established by Kyle and Von Hasseln in Los
Angles in 2013, which aimed at fabricating 3-D food
structures out of sugars with flavours including choco-
late, vanilla, cherry, watermelon, mint and sour apple.
A restaurant in Japan serves Biometric 3-D printed
sushi. Using biometric data including DNA, urine and
stools of customers, the sushi singularly uses this
information to 3-D print the meal that addresses their
specific nutritional requirement (Fukuhara et al.,
2013). Various 3-D printed food fabrications along
with their description are shown in Table S4.
Positive impacts of 3-D printing in the industry
The probability of a tabletop 3-D printer that can
print tasty meals at modest prices without much need
for cooking knowledge is a goal. 3-D printed foods
have a longer shelf life and are easy to transport, thus
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2022
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reducing overall production costs and increasing effi-
ciency. These printers have introduced extended mass-
customisation capabilities and artistic capabilities for
fine dining in the industrial culinary sector which helps
in achieving high-value and low volume food customi-
sation and fabrication processes. They also provide
research tools to manipulate the structural develop-
ment of solid food materials at various scales (Sun
et al., 2015). 3-D printing allows food customisa-
tion according to the choice and needs of the con-
sumer, as the 3-D printer can control the quantity of
nutrients such as carbohydrates, vitamins and fatty
acids (Perez et al., 2019). In general, user control of
shapes, flavours, structures, and food creativity are not
possible as most food manufacturing techniques are
developed for mass production. Food printers provide
a platform for consumer experimentation with food
forms and flavours (Manstan & McSweeney, 2020).
Previously, the customisation procedure involved
mainly hand-made products with low production rates
and high costs, but these technologies could potentially
overcome these barriers by offering more freedom for
food customisation and design of flavours, colours and
shapes for home users. These 3-D printers can also
lead to better design solutions such as customised
chocolate shaping and personalised full-colour images
put on solid foods. Another asset of 3-D printing is
that it is less time-consuming than traditional cooking.
Users can set up food 3-D printing and move on to
other activities. There is no more need for manual
operation once the food printing starts. The problem
of food scarcity may also be decreased once the food
production process focuses on making the food ingre-
dients that go into the 3-D food printer. In the near
future, the process of food production will change.
Rather than producing different varieties of food, the
agriculture sector will shift its focus to producing dif-
ferent ingredients. Consequently, agriculture would
need to compensate for this change and transform
drastically and this transformation would result in a
smaller human footprint and will hopefully reduce cli-
mate change. Food technologists in the industry have
developed printers that enable nutritious and healthy
foods to be made daily. 3-D food printers not only use
fresh ingredients for a variety of recipes but also allow
strict control over food portion sizes, thereby minimis-
ing over-consumption (Liu et al., 2017). Another
advantage of these printers is that the preservatives,
additives and other chemicals added to the food can
be more limited, potentially leading to healthier meals.
Future of food printing
3-D food printers are still lacking the capability of
cooking or baking. These tasks may be done by cook-
ing robots in the future. The 3-D printing process
© 2022 Institute of Food Science and Technology

develops food in minimal time and may limit the cook-
ing of food at certain temperatures, which may allow
microbes to multiply and contaminate the food.
Hence, to avoid spoilage and food safety-related
issues, manufacturers need to follow certain stringent
guidelines while processing the food and in cleaning/
storing of the equipment. Many types of raw materials
cannot be used for printing; hence they should be in
the form of a paste such as cream or mashed potatoes
(Lipton et al., 2015). The next hurdle is the price
which depends on the variety of 3-D printable ingredi-
ents available and the build volume of the printer. In
general, the minimum price for a 3-D food printer is
around $1,000. However, prices may decrease in the
future, just as they have for regular extrusion printers.
Another challenging factor is slow speed. The contem-
porary speed of 3-D printing food could be sufficient
for home use, but the process is time-consuming for
mass production in industry. Simple fabrications take
1–2 min, detailed designs take 3–7 min, and designs
that are more intricate may take even longer. 3-D food
printing technology has many advantages, but whether
the technology will evolve fast enough and is the mar-
ket equipped with opportunities for such a big change
are various questions that need to be answered (Top-
uza et al., 2018). Definitely not today, but they may
provide an interesting alternative to traditional meals,
as well as an edible decoration limited only by the
imagination of users. Then rest is up to the technologi-
cal development, the extent of the food components
palette useful for printing, lower prices of printers, as
well as the development and availability of recipes.
Many experts believe that 3-D food printing may even-
tually address global food shortage challenges. Some
organisations have even begun pioneering the poten-
tials of 4-D food printing (Teng et al., 2021) which
offers an exciting extra dimension where layers of 3-D
printed objects incorporate additional materials that
change the shape, flavour, taste, colour and size of the
fabricated structure when activated by an external
stimulus such as water absorption, temperature and
pH change. Since there is still a requirement of techno-
logical advances in various aspects including software,
hardware and materials, at present, 4-D printed mate-
rials are mainly limited to soy protein isolate, starch
gels and hydrogel systems. Developing adaptation of
the 4-D concept is expected to further increase the
application of 3-D technology leading to more options
to innovate with 3-D printed foods (Teng et al., 2021;
Zhao et al., 2021).
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Center of Excellence
in Materials Science and Technology, Chiang Mai
University for financial support under the
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3-D printing in food sector A. Taneja et al. 3331
administration of Materials Science Research Center,
Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University. This
research work was also partially supported by Chiang
Mai University under the Cluster of Agro Bio-
Circular-Green Industry.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest.
Author contributions
Akriti Taneja: Conceptualization (equal); Project admin-
istration (equal); Supervision (equal); Writing – original
draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Ruchi
Sharma: Conceptualization (equal); Project administra-
tion (equal); Supervision (equal); Writing – original draft
(equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Krishna
Ayush: Conceptualization (equal); Project administration
(equal); Supervision (equal); Writing – original draft
(equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Anshu
Sharma: Conceptualization (equal); Project administra-
tion (equal); Supervision (equal); Writing – original draft
(equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Amin Mou-
savi Khaneghah: Writing – review & editing (supporting).
Joe REGENSTEIN: Writing – review & editing (sup-
porting). Francisco Jose J Barba: Writing – review &
editing (supporting). Yuthana Phimolsiripol: Conceptual-
ization (equal); Project administration (equal); Supervi-
sion (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing –
review & editing (equal). Somesh Sharma: Conceptualiza-
tion (equal); Project administration (equal); Supervision
(equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing –
review & editing (equal).
Ethical approval
Ethics approval was not required for this research.
Peer review
The peer review history for this article is available at
https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.15691.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon reason-
able request.
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Supporting Information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in
the online version of this article:
Table S1. A brief overview of the principle, advan-
tages, disadvantages, raw material, and processing fac-
tors involved in 3-D food printing techniques.
Table S2. Commercially available 3-D food printer.
Table S3. Different 3-D printed foodstuffs along
with their printing parameters.
Table S4. 3-D Printed food fabrications along with
their description.
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