GRADE 10 SUMMER HOMEWORK

ALL STUDENTS IN ORDER TO BE RECOMMENDED TO DO

CHEMISTRY MUST COMPLETE WORK BELOW IN
PREPARATION FOR A TEST GIVEN IN THE SECOND WEEK OF
SEPTEMBER.
Answer ALL questions FULLY:

1. Define green chemistry- Green chemistry is the design of

chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or
generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across
the life cycle of a chemical product, including its design,
manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal. Green chemistry is also
known as sustainable chemistry.

2. Outline the principles of green chemistry-

  

1. Prevention
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has
been created. Prioritize the prevention of waste, rather than cleaning up
and treating waste after it has been created. Plan ahead to minimize
waste at step.

2. Atom Economy
Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of
all materials used in the process into the final product. Reduce waste at
the molecular level by maximizing the number of atoms from all reagents
that are incorporated into economy to evaluate reaction efficiency.
  

3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses

Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and
generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and
the environment.
 

4. Designing Safer Chemicals

Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function
while minimizing their toxicity. Minimize toxicity directly by molecular
design. Predict and evaluate aspects such as physical properties, toxicity
and environment fate throughout the design process.
Example: Bio renewable solvent  

5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries

The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.)
should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when
used. Choose the safest solvent available for any given step. Minimize the
total amount of solvents and auxiliary substance used, as these make up
a large percentage of the total waste created.

6. Design for Energy Efficiency

Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for
their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If
possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature
and pressure.
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks
A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting
whenever technically and economically practicable. Use chemicals which
are made from renewable (i.e. plant-based) sources rather than other,
equivalent chemicals originating from petrochemical sources.

8. Reduce Derivatives
Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/
deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes)
should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require
additional reagents and can generate waste.

9. Catalysis
Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric
reagents. Choose catalysts to help increase selectivity, minimize waste,
and reduce reaction times and energy demands.
 

10. Design for Degradation

Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function
they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist
in the environment.

 
11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-
time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous
substances.
 

12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process
should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents,
including releases, explosions, and fires.

3. Discuss the harmful effects of non-metal on living systems

and the environment; include Pollution and role played by
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, oxide
of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrates,
phosphates, herbicides and pesticides; problem of
disposal of solid waste (non-metal, example, plastics).

Air pollution is caused by the release of waste gases and particulates into the
atmosphere. These include carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Carbon particles,
Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxides and Hydrogen sulphide.
Carbon monoxide, CO, is formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
Exposure to CO can result in death by suffocation, as it prevents the transport of
oxygen around the body. CO will bind more strongly to hemoglobin than oxygen.
This causes the cells to be starved of oxygen, leading to dizziness,
unconsciousness and death.
Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) are
produced from the combustion of fossil fuels in power stations, industries and
motor vehicles. These are acidic gases and readily dissolve in rainwater to form
acid rain.
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) carbonic acid SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)
sulphurous acid 2 NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO3 (ag) + HNO2 (aq) nitric and nitrous
acids.
Acid rain causes the acidification of water bodies such as lakes and rivers,
resulting in damage to aquatic organisms and the ecosystem. It also lowers soil
pH, damages plants and corrodes metals and buildings.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can also combine with smoke and water
vapours to form smog, which affects the respiratory system when inhaled,
increasing incidences of asthma and lung infections. These gases also irritate skin
and eyes.
Water pollution is caused by the release of nitrates and phosphates (NO3-, PO43-
and SO42) from untreated sewage, detergents and fertilizers into water bodies
such as lakes, ponds and rivers. These result in the rapid growth of plants and
algae, which use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose. This results in oxygen
depletion and death of aquatic organisms. This process is called eutrophication.
Release of insecticides and herbicides used in agriculture can become toxic to
animals and can become concentrated up the food chain. Consumers at the top
of the food chain are harmed and this can lead to a reduction in the population of
some animals.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used in refrigerators and air conditioners as well
as a propellant in some aerosol sprays. CFCs are effective because they are inert
(unreactive) in the atmosphere; however, they are broken down in the upper
atmosphere (stratosphere) and react with ozone (in the ozone layer). This leads
to the breakdown of the ozone layer, thereby allowing harmful UV radiation to
reach Earth. Increased exposure to UV radiation leads to an increase in skin
cancers. Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic gas. It has a very bad smell, often
identified in rotten egg and stink bombs. Hydrogen sulfide interferes with cellular
respiration. If inhaled, Hydrogen sulfide combines with Mongolia in the bodies of
human beings and other mammals substance in the blood which carries oxygen
to tissues. Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless. People breathing
it usually fall asleep without realizing they are poisoned. Sodium nitrate, a
preservative that's used in some processed meats, such as bacon, jerky and
luncheon meats, could increase your heart disease risk.
It's thought that sodium nitrate may damage your blood vessels, making your
arteries more likely to harden and narrow, leading to heart disease. Nitrates may
also affect the way your body uses sugar, making you more likely to develop
diabetes.
And you already know that most processed meats are high in sodium and some
are high in saturated fat, which can disrupt a heart-healthy diet. When the
nitrites manufactured in our mouth are swallowed, one of the things that can
happen is that they react in the strongly acidic environment of the stomach to
form nitrosamines, some of which are carcinogenic and have been linked with
bowel cancer. The pesticides most frequently detected in drinking water, the
thiazine and the acetanilide, cause a litany of health effects, including cancer,
birth defects, and disruption of the endocrine (hormone) system. The thiazine
herbicides (atrazine, cyan zine, simazine) cause mammary gland cancer in
repeated studies in female rats through interference with the normal functioning
of the hormone system. In press statements announcing its regulatory review of
the thiazine in November, 1994, EPA cited the possible relationship between
thiazine exposure and the increased rate of breast cancer in women as a reason
for formal review of these weed killers (EPA 1994). Cyan zine is also a
reproductive toxin, causing heritable genetic mutations in a number of tests, and
birth defects in rabbits and rats.

Hazardous wastes in the environment leech into the ground, and

ultimately, into ground water. This water is used for many things, from
watering the local fields to drinking. Toxic liquid chemicals from waste
can also seep into water streams and bodies of water.
Untreated sewage can threaten marine life that comes into contact
with the contaminated water. It can destroy and suffocate marine
habitats, such as corals. Contaminated water is also dangerous and
harmful to humans who consume fish and other marine life.

4. Relate the unique properties of water to its functions in

living systems; Include density changes, solvent
properties, specific heat capacity, volatility.
Polar molecule, is a neutral or unchanged molecule that has an asymmetric
internal distribution of charge, leading to partially positive and partially
negative regions. Cohesion, is the attraction of molecules for other molecules
the same kind. Adhesion, is the attraction of molecules for other molecules of
different kind. Density, is the mass per unit volume of a substance. Specific
heat capacity, is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degrees Celsius. Heat of vaporization, is the
amount of energy needed to charge one gram of a liquid substance to gas at
constant temperature. The properties of water that make it essential to life as
we know it: polarity, "universal" solvent, high heat capacity, high heat of
vaporization, cohesion, adhesion and lower density when frozen. Density has
obvious importance when it comes to the buoyancy of objects. Broadly, if
something is denser than water (having a density over 1,000 kg/cubic meter)
it will sink, but if something has a lower density it will float. Water is called the
"universal solvent" because it is than water, capable of dissolving more
substances than any other liquid. This is important to every living thing on
earth. It means that wherever water goes, either through the air, the ground,
or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and
nutrients. Water is the solvent for chemical reactions in the human body. It
has a unique chemical formation that helps it to dissolve a wide variety of
molecules (like salts). The hydrogen atoms of water (positively charged)
attract negatively charged atoms of the particles it dissolves and oxygen atoms
of water (negatively charged) attract the positively charged atoms of the
particles. A high specific heat of a substance means that a large amount
of heat is required to raise the temperature of the substance. ... Water covers
around 70% of the Earth's surface and its high specific heat plays a
very important role as it is able to absorb a lot of heat without a significant
rise in the temperature. Living organism can survive and reproduce only if
their temperatures are maintained within a limited range. For aquatic
organisms the high heat capacity of water means that their environment
maintains a much more stable temperature than on land. The high specific
heat capacity of water, 1 cal/g x degree C is what enables the oceans to
absorb energy and assist in stabilizing our planets livable conditions. It is also
what enables ‘warm-blooded’ animals such as humans (75–80% water) to
 maintain our body temperatures. Also, it takes a lot of solute to change its
boiling point/freezing point, which makes it quite stable as a solvent for
moving required nutrients throughout our bodies as a major component of
our blood. The high specific heat capacity of water, 1 cal/g x degree C is what
enables the oceans to absorb energy and assist in stabilizing our planets
livable conditions. It is also what enables ‘warm-blooded’ animals such as
humans (75–80% water) to maintain our body temperatures. Also, it takes a
lot of solute to change its boiling point/freezing point, which makes it quite
stable as a solvent for moving required nutrients throughout our bodies as a
major component of our blood.

5. Discuss the consequences of the solvent properties of

water; include hardness of water (temporary and
permanent), leaching.
Poisons can be dissolved in water. Too much water in the ground can
dissolve the salts and sink deeper into the ground. The soil then has too few
minerals. Too much water in the ground can dissolve the salts and sink deeper
into the ground. The soil then has too few minerals. Some dyes are soluble in
water. When the clothes are washed the colours fade, or the dissolved dyes
stain other clothes. Cooking, due to the presence of dissolved hardness-
producing salts, the boiling point of water is elevated. Consequently, more
fuel and time are required for cooking certain foods such as pulses, beans and
peas do not cook soft in hard water. Also tea or coffee, prepared in hard
water, has an unpleasant taste and muddy-looking extract. Moreover, the
dissolved salts are deposited as carbonates on the inner walls of the water
heating utensils. Drinking, hard water causes bad effect on our digestive
system. Moreover, the possibility of forming calcium oxalate crystals in urinary
tracks is increased. Hard water does not lather freely with soap solution, but
produces sticky scum on the bath-tub and body. Thus, the cleansing quality of
soap is depressed and a lot of it is wasted.
Textile industry, hard water causes much of the soap (used in washing yarn,
fabric etc.) to go as waste, because hard water cannot produce good quality of
lather. Moreover, precipitated of calcium and magnesium soaps adhere to the
 fabrics. These fabrics, when dyed latter on, do not produce exact shades of
color. Iron and manganese salts-containing water may cause colored spots on
fabrics, thereby spoiling their beauty. Laundry, Hard water, if used in laundry,
causes much of the soap used in washing to go as waste. Iron salts may even
cause coloration of the clothes. Permanent hardness is due to the presence of
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. It is not removed by
boiling. However it can be removed by following methods: (i) When sodium
carbonate or soda ash is added to water, it removes both temporary and
permanent hardness of water. Temporary hardness can also be removed by
adding lime or calcium hydroxide (Clark’s process) to water. Lime absorbs
carbon dioxide and precipitates of calcium carbonate are formed which settle
at the bottom and separated by filtration. Temporary hard water on boiling
leads to deposit of a layer of calcium carbonate on inside walls of boilers and
kettles which is known as scaling or furring of boilers. Hardness of water it is
harmful to the health as in certain cases it may lead to diarrhea and other
digestive disorders. Leaching removes vital nutrients and micronutrients, such
as water-soluble boron, from the soil, causing potential deficiencies in crops.
For example, when crops suffer from boron deficiency, they exhibit visual
symptoms including: Misshapen, thick, brittle, small leaves. Short stems and a
"shrunken" appearance. When leaching removes too much nitrate content
from the soil, however, the pH drops too far and the soil become over-acidic.
Soil acidification yields numerous negative consequences in itself, including
alteration to the types of soil microbes, surface water contamination and
declining populations of earthworms.

6. Describe the methods used in the treatment of water for

domestic purposes; Boiling, filtering, chlorinating,
softening, include equations for softening water.

Sedimentation- The first step of water treatment is often sedimentation,

especially in the cases of turbid water. Generally, the methods used are
very simple. The goal is to let the silt sink down and decant the clear water.
 Since this takes some time, the sedimentation process takes up to two
days. Within this time, even pathogen bacteria can be reduced by 97%.
Sedimentation can be done in simple, covered containers. Also simple flow-
through sedimentation tanks can be built.
Although the water is normally fairly clear after the sedimentation process, it
is not treated enough for drinking. At least one further step, the filtration,
is required.

Filtration- Filtration is the next step after sedimentation. It is an easy and

cheap way to treat contaminated water. Depending on the types of filter,
up to 100% of bacteria and most of the viruses as well as all bigger
organisms (cysts, worm eggs, etc.) are being removed. There are multiple
types of filters: sand filters, ceramic filters, and cloth filters.
 Sand filters-he principle of a sand filter is the following: driven by
gravity, water flows through a layer of previously washed sand and gets
cleaned from solid particles, dissolved compounds as well as to a
certain part microorganisms. In slow sand filtration, a biological layer is
formed on top of the sand, which is additionally active in deactivation
and removal of pathogens from the water. In rapid sand filtration this
additional biological filter is missing and, hence, the water is often
chemically pretreated before filtration. Rapid sand filters are suitable
for large urban centers where land scarcity is an issue, whereas slow
sand filters tend to be more suitable for areas where land is more
available, since they need a much larger surface area to treat the same
amount of water. Slow sand filtration is simpler to operate than rapid
filtration, as frequent backwashing is not required and pumps are not
always necessary.
 Ceramic filter-Ceramic filters have a pore diameter of about 200 nm,
which means that it can filter bacteria (usually bigger than 300 nm) and
reduce but not totally filter viruses (which can be as small as 20 nm).
One simple form of ceramic filters is clay pots. The ceramic filters often
have a coating of colloidal silver, which acts as bactericide and
enhances the purification effect. Furthermore, the silver hinders
bacteria from growing on the ceramic filter surface. 
  Cloth filter-Cloth filters, mostly made of cotton also filter particles with
the size of their pores. Since microorganisms are associated
with plankton or other bigger particles, they can also be removed by
filters with bigger pore sizes than the size organisms themselves. Cloth
filters showed to be effective against cholera or the Guinea worm.

Boiling- Boiling is the simplest method to remove all pathogens from water. If
the water is heavily contaminated, a boiling duration of 3 minutes is
recommended. The water should not be poured in another vessel since it
could be re-contaminated. 
The disadvantages of boiling are the bland taste of the water after cooking
and the large amount of energy needed. For one litre of water one kilogram
of wood is needed for cooking. In areas with scarce wood availability, it is
often hard for the women to collect enough fire wood even for cooking. In
forest areas, water treatment by boiling increases the pressure on the forest,
which can lead to deforestation and subsequent problems like erosion, water
scarceness, and loss of biodiversity.

Chlorination- Chlorination is still a worldwide used method for

the disinfection of water. When used with water filtration methods, chlorine
is effective against virtually all microorganisms. Chlorine is easy to apply and
small amounts of the chemical remain in the water as it travels in the
distribution system or is stored in a tank or cistern. This level of effectiveness
ensures that microorganisms cannot re-contaminate the water after
treatment.
Chlorination is useful for the treatment of a central water supply in a village
but not for individual household use, since its application has to be done in a
professional way. The application of chlorine can produce certain by-products
that can lead to health problems.
Chlorine can also be used as an emergency measure for the disinfection of a
water storage that has been accidentally contaminated, e.g. after a storm or
by a dead animal.
 Softening-Water softening is a process in which the ions of calcium,
magnesium and sometimes iron are removed. It is these ions in hard water
that make it difficult for products with other positively charged ions to
dissolve in the water. By doing this, the water softening removes the
offending minerals from the water. The following equilibrium reaction
describes the dissolving/formation of calcium carbonate scales: CaCO3 + CO2 +
H2O = Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
Calcium and magnesium ions can be easily removed by the ion exchange
process.

7. Explain the importance of metals and their compounds on

living systems and environment; include organometallic
compounds such as chlorophyll (containing magnesium)
and hemoglobin, (containing iron), importance of trace
metals, for example, zinc.
Magnesium and iron are important constituents of chlorophyll in green
plants. ... Zinc, copper, manganese and cobalt are examples of trace
elements needed by plants and animals for their proper growth and
development. Copper compounds are ingredients in wood treatment
chemicals and pigments. Mining and metal manufacturing and the
processing and transport of copper bearing ores are the largest emission
sources of copper in Australia. Copper is one of a number of essential
metals, and a small daily intake is required to maintain a healthy life. Zinc
occurs widely in nature, and is another metal essential in trace quantities for
good health. Lead in its elemental form is a soft grey metal commonly used
in the manufacture of a wide range of products like batteries and solders.
With the removal of leaded petrol, airborne lead has reduced significantly in
urban areas. Irons forms part of the haemoglobin molecule found in red
blood cells. Calcium is essential for the formation of healthy teeth and
bones. Ions of sodium and potassium are needed for transmission of nerve
impulse. Zinc, copper, manganese and cobalt are examples of trace elements
needed by plants and animals for their proper growth and development.
8. Discuss the harmful effect of metals and their compounds
to living systems and the environment; include reference
to toxicity of certain metals example: Lead
Inhaling or consuming lead and its compounds can affect the human body,
particularly the nervous system, and may result in growth and
developmental problems in children. Copper is one of a number of essential
metals, and a small daily intake is required to maintain a healthy life.
However, ingesting high levels of the element can lead to adverse health
effects, as some of its compounds are toxic. Insufficient zinc intake has a
detrimental effect on growth, and immune and reproductive system
development. Adverse health effects generally only occur where the
exposure is high. Inhalation of nickel compounds is associated with an
increased risk of lung and nasal cancers. Adverse health effects generally
only occur where the exposure is high. Heavy metal toxicity can either be
acute or chronic effects. Long-term exposure of the body to heavy metal can
progressively lead to muscular, physical and neurological degenerative
processes that are similar to diseases such as Parkinson's disease, multiple
sclerosis, muscular dystrophy and Alzheimer's disease.