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Gillian Deichmann

Kitamura

English 1010

25 October 2022

Upward Mobility: A Literature Review

Introduction

The American Dream was initially coined by a historian named James Truslow Adams. It

has captivated the United States and many immigrants. The phrase has taken on many meanings,

but overall describes equal opportunities for attaining a successful life, specifically in the United

States. The idea that anyone could achieve a high financial status became desirable.

Upward mobility is the foundation of the American Dream and is the main topic when

discussing the plausibility of the dream. Many scholars argue that upward mobility is hindered

by disproportionate distribution, while others insist that economic growth is increasing

throughout the years despite unequal opportunities. Some even say that upward mobility is solely

based on perseverance and hard work. Altogether, there are several opinions on the effectiveness

of upward mobility in America. In this paper, I will review multiple pieces of literature to better

understand the factors that impact opportunities for economic growth. I will specifically focus on

location differences, education, and race. Evaluating these topics should create a better, more

complete perspective on the conversation of upward mobility.

Location Difference

Location difference is an essential topic when discussing upward mobility in America.

There are differing opinions on whether upward mobility depends on a person's placement. Some

insist that perseverance and hard work is the only factor to achieve upward mobility, while others
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maintain that one's location will significantly impact their likelihood of improving economic

status. Both offer valid arguments and offer insight into how location differences influence one's

economic growth.

The locational difference is crucial, according to several authors. Raj Chetty, a nationally

recognized American economist, and other authors wrote "The fading American dream: Trends

in absolute income mobility since 1940," indicating the significance of placement by focusing

mainly on the sharp decline of personal economic growth in the Midwest. Chetty et al.'s data

show that "rates of absolute mobility fell by 48 percentage points in Michigan and about 45

percentage points in Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio." (7). Chetty et al.'s point are that even though

most states declined in absolute mobility, there is an even sharper decline in certain states. The

article suggests that the drop in absolute upward mobility is disproportionate, creating the ability

to move up economic status dependent on location. In addition, Reeves and Krause fully agree

with Chetty et al. regarding placement. They discuss the uneven distribution of opportunity for

upward mobility. The chart given by Reeves and Krause shows low mobility in the Deep South

and the Midwest. They add to Chetty et al. by emphasizing how upward mobility differs "right

down to the county and city level."

The view of Chetty et al. is one of many perspectives on the locational difference. Adam

B. Coleman, a journalist and book author, argues in their article, "There's no greater dream than

the American Dream–and anyone can attain it," that America as a whole increases the chance of

upward mobility compared to other countries. Coleman believes immigration in America is high

because "[immigrants] understand we have something special." The likelihood of someone

achieving upward mobility is heightened significantly just by living in America. Coleman

continues to imply that the reason natural-born citizens are not achieving the American Dream in
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some places is not due to their placement but instead because they "take what we have for

granted and don't realize how some aspects of typical American life are absolutely abnormal in

many countries." (Coleman). Chetty et al. and Coleman would strongly disagree with the

importance of location.

Ultimately, the discussion of location differences is complex and takes on many different

viewpoints. Although some argue that one will have to work harder to achieve upward mobility

based on an individual's location, others would say that the distribution is equal and takes some

grit.

Education

There is a push for education in America due to its increasing benefits of upward

mobility. Scholars say that education is a highly contributing aspect of the conversation

concerning the American Dream. Many argue that education benefits are tremendous. Reviewing

the multitude of benefits should clarify how much education affects upward mobility.

Education starts young. When most discuss the influence of education on future income, they

discuss college education. However, Richard V. Reeves, a Senior Fellow of Economics and the

Director for the Future of Middle-Class Initiative, and Eleanor Krause, a Harvard research

assistant, argue that the influence of education starts as early as kindergarten. In fact, in their

article "Raj Chetty in 14 charts: Big findings on opportunity and mobility we should all know,"

they say, "An experienced kindergarten teacher boosts earnings by $1,104 on average."

Therefore, it implies that having a good kindergarten teacher with ten or more years of

experience will significantly influence one's income.

On the other hand, a college education is still an essential factor for upward mobility.

Pew Charitable Trust, a non-profit organization focused on serving the public, and the writer of
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"Pursuing the American Dream: Economic Mobility Across Generations," insist on the benefits

of college, precisely the effect on income and the movement of statuses. Pew Charitable Trusts

states, "A four-year college degree promotes upward mobility from the bottom." The author

suggests that gaining a college degree will raise someone from a lower class upward.

Additionally, education is a prevention tactic to stop one from falling down the economic ladder.

Pew Charitable Trusts says that "45 percent without a college degree are stuck in the bottom"

(25). This quote emphasizes how a college education significantly increases the likelihood of

economic growth. However, Reeves and Krause would slightly disagree with Pew Charitable

Trust. They still agree that education does raise the possibility of upward mobility but only levels

the playing field. Therefore, instead of a significant increase, like Pew Charitable Trusts says, a

college education decreases the "correlation between parents' income and the adult incomes of

their children." In other words, Reeves and Krause notice that education does not put a child's

income above their parent's but instead acts as a leveler.

The discussion of education does not stop with just the benefits of having an education,

but also how one gets there and who is likely to. Greg Rosalsky, a journalist for NPR and writer

of "Why the American Dream is more attainable in some cities than others," explains how

economic connectedness influences the people who attend college. Economic connectedness is

characterized as connections between different socioeconomic classes. Rosalsky points out,

"Growing up in a place with lots of connections between high-income and low-income folks

likely influences low-income folks to go to college." In this context, the relationship between the

higher and lower classes can heavily influence the lower class to a college education.

Education is a prominent aspect of upward mobility. Most argue that an increase in upward

mobility is contingent on the level of education that one has. There is debate on whether the
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growth is exponential or levels the playing field. The impact of economic connectedness on

education is major. Overall, many authors conclude that there are benefits to having an education

in upward mobility.

Race

Race is another crucial factor in upward mobility. Racial disparities influence a multitude

of things, including economic growth. The impact of racial barriers is a must when discussing

opportunities for financial gain. The conversation of race is highly talked about amongst many

scholars.

Racial barriers have been a contributing factor for several decades. Jazmine Ulloa, the

journalist of "How a Storied Phrase Became a Partisan Battleground," discusses how racial

barriers make upward mobility almost insurmountable. Ulloa explains that the American Dream

was once targeted to only a specific group of people, white Americans. This caused mobility

upward to be nearly impossible for other races. Ulloa states, "To politicians of old, "the

American dream" was a supremely optimistic rhetorical device, albeit one that often obscured

the economic and racial barriers." Here, she is saying that the skewed perspective of the

American Dream severely impacted racial minorities.

Moreover, racial inequality has not been eradicated regarding economic mobility. Pew

Charitable Trusts conducted many studies showing the persistent racial disparities in economic

growth. Statistics show that "only 23 percent of blacks raised in the middle exceed their parents'

wealth compared with 56 percent of whites." (3). In making this claim, Pew Charitable Trust

says there is a noticeable difference in economic growth between white and black people. To add

further, "[h]alf of blacks (56 percent) raised in the middle of the family income ladder fall to the

bottom two rungs as adults compared with just under a third of whites (32 percent)." (Pew
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Charitable Trusts, 3). Therefore it indicates that many black people struggle to maintain their

economic status and fall back into poverty.

Not only this, but a friendship bias factor inhibits African Americans' ability to surpass

their parent's income. A friendship bias happens when people from a certain status only befriend

those from a similar level. This phenomenon dramatically affects upward mobility for racial

minorities. In fact, Rosalsky claims, "[e]conomic and racial segregation plays a huge role in

preventing unequal groups from interacting with each other in many communities." This quote

emphasizes how friendship bias drastically hinders one's ability to achieve a higher status in

America. Separate classes need to interact because it increases the likelihood of a lower-class

individual moving upward. Due to a large part of African Americans being in the lower class, it

is crucial to have various economic connections.

Many agree that racial barriers affect upward mobility for minorities. Past perspectives on

different races have severely hindered their ability to have equal opportunities for economic

growth. Several mention how prevalent inequality for people of color is to this day. Another

aspect is how friendship bias stops essential financial connections from occurring. Overall,

several people insist that racial barriers significantly influence racial minorities.

Conclusion

In summary, upward mobility is complex and takes on many different factors. All of

these articles indicate a prominent influence of certain factors. Whether it be education

influencing how much a child can surpass their parent's income or the racial barrier that still

inhibits a person of color from achieving upward mobility. A few scholars would say that

education starts young, and others would imply that a college education is the most impactful.

Most individuals would say race impacts a person's opportunities. Another aspect is the impact
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of locational differences and how they could change a person's chance to grow financially. While

some say America, as a whole, is enough of a placement to increase economic growth, others say

that only specific places in America contain the proper setup to achieve upward mobility.

The importance of this literature lies deeper than the topic itself. How people view

upward mobility can severely impact their approach to achieving the American Dream. Looking

at all these barriers could change how someone sees their opportunity or suggest answers for

those who have struggled with upward mobility. On the other hand, it could ignite a change in

how the country handles upward mobility. Not only this but literature like this shares insight into

the more extensive conversation of if the American Dream is fading into the abyss or is still

thriving. It asks whether Adams' original definition of the American Dream still holds true or if

another meaning for the American Dream is coming to light.

Further Inquiry

Something that should be touched on when discussing the influences of upward mobility

is how the United States government has helped or hindered the opportunity for financial growth.

Determining whether specific laws have been passed to help could change the perspective on

what needs to be fixed if anything. Maybe the change needs to come from the government, or the

change needs to come from the people individually. Government influence is briefly mentioned

in Reeves and Krause's article. They indicate "that these barriers are not insurmountable, and can

be lowered through the sustained application of good policies." Even though they touch on it,

they do not detail the consequences these policies could have. Ulloa talks about how politicians

have changed their perspective but needs to detail what they have directly changed to impact

upward mobility. Plus, no other authors talk about laws being made or not made by the

government to combat the barriers. Now that the obstacles affecting upward mobility are coming
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to light, many recognize the complexity of achieving the American Dream, but adding what the

government has accomplished regarding financial growth to the conversation could give more

direction for the future.

Another topic not mentioned in any of the articles is the impact of mental health on

success. This data could be crucial for a better understanding of the decrease in upward mobility

and its cause. It would create a scope of what personally affects someone's ability. Coleman

discusses how perseverance is the only quality needed to achieve the dream, but he never

discusses how mental health could cause a decrease in the ability to do so. It would be interesting

to discover if mental health does take a toll on upward mobility. This discussion could bring up

how poverty affects mental health, therefore, either decreasing or neutralizing the opportunity for

economic growth. Adding mental health to the conversation concerning upward mobility could

transform people's perspectives on how complicated the achievement of upward mobility can be.

One more aspect that has yet to be discussed is the impact on women. Although the

difference between men and women is mentioned in a few articles, none specifically discuss how

upward mobility affects women. Studies on women are harder to come by because they enter the

workforce much later than men. This also means that the date given for women could be skewed

due to their mothers before them making virtually no money at all. For a significant time, men

were the breadwinners of the home; however, societal roles were shifting. It would be interesting

to see how upward mobility for women has changed and whether that change is drastic.

Several mentioned aspects could significantly shift or add to the perspective on upward

mobility. There are never-ending additions to the conversation that could shed light on another

point of view. The discussion of government policies regarding upward mobility, the influence of
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mental health, and more studies on women in the economy could heavily impact the

conversation.
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Works Cited

Coleman, Adam B. “There’s no greater dream than the American Dream - and anyone can attain

it.” New York Post, July 4, 2022,

https://nypost.com/2022/07/04/than-the-american-dream-and-anyone-can-attain-it/

Chetty, Raj, et al. “The fading American dream: Trends in absolute income mobility since 1940.”

Science, April 28, 2017, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aal4617

Krause, Eleanor, and Reeves Richard V. “Raj Chetty in 14 charts: Big findings on opportunity

and mobility we should all know.” Brookings, January 11, 2018,

https://www.brookings.edu/blog/social-mobility-memos/2018/01/11/raj-chetty-in-14-char

ts-big-findings-on-opportunity-and-mobility-we-should-know/

Pursuing the American Dream: Economic Mobility Across Generations. The Pew Charitable

Trusts, 2012.

Rosalsky, Greg. “Why the American Dream is more attainable in some cities than others.” NPR,

August 1, 2022,

https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2022/08/01/1114661467/why-the-american-dream-is

-more-attainable-in-some-cities-than-others

Ulloa, Jazmine. “How a Storied Phrase Became a Partisan Battleground.” New York Times,

August 21, 2022,

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/21/us/politics/republicans-american-dream.html
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