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Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure, Palm Jumeirah

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 Journal of Coastal Research 27 2 384–393 West Palm Beach, Florida March 2011

Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal

Megastructure, Palm Jumeirah Lagoon, Dubai, UAE
Geórgenes H. Cavalcante{*, Björn Kjerfve{**, David A. Feary{1, Andrew G. Bauman{ {{,
and Paolo Usseglio{{{
www.cerf-jcr.org
{ { 1
Institute for Water World Maritime University URS Corporation–Abu Dhabi
Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) S-201 24 Malmö, Sweden Al Dhafrah Towers, 1st Floor
United Nations University Istiqlal Street, P.O. Box 43855, Abu Dhabi,
175 Longwood Rd. S. United Arab Emirates
Hamilton, ON L8P0A1, Canada
georgenes.uff@gmail.com

{{ {{
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Hawaii Cooperative Fishery Research
Studies Unit
James Cook University Department of Zoology
Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia University of Hawaii
2538 The Mall
Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
CAVALCANTE, G.H.; KJERFVE, B.; FEARY, D.A.; BAUMAN, A.G., and USSEGLIO, P., 2011. Water currents and
water budget in a coastal megastructure, Palm Jumeirah Lagoon, Dubai, UAE. Journal of Coastal Research, 27(2), 384–
393. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

Palm Jumeirah is the most completely developed of several man-made coastal island megaconstructions in Dubai, United
Arab Emirates. The palm-shaped island, surrounded by an elliptical breakwater, was developed 7 y ago, has an overall
footprint of 23 km2, of which the constructed island surface area is 7.9 km2, and is connected to shore via a 5-km-long
spine from the mainland to the crescent tip. Time-series observations of hydrographic variables and currents within the
interior of the development (Palm Jumeirah Lagoon) during 30 d in April–May 2008 were utilized to examine current
flow, tide variability, water budget, vertical mixing, and turnover time within this megastructure. Currents within Palm
Jumeirah Lagoon varied between stations; however, similar water temperatures and salinities were apparent
throughout all the stations. Palm Jumeirah Lagoon tides were mixed and mainly semidiurnal, with spring and neap
tidal ranges measuring 116 and 56 cm, respectively, and no difference in amplitude or phase throughout Palm Jumeirah
Lagoon. There were substantial differences in water discharge between the east and west entrances, with high discharge
on average exiting the eastern entrance and low discharge exiting the western entrance. These results indicate that the
eastern and western halves of Palm Jumeirah Lagoon are flushed unequally and show differences in residence times (1.2
and 42 d, respectively), due to differences in tidal currents, wind influence, and variability of the bathymetric contour.
Previous numerical modeling studies of water residence time within Palm Jumeirah Lagoon did not capture this
difference, which could be associated with the exclusion of bathymetric variability in the previous modeling. Due to the
strong shear and weak saline stratification, the water column throughout Palm Jumeirah Lagoon remained instable,
with vertical mixing present during the spring-neap tidal cycle and well-mixed conditions predominating throughout the
lagoon system.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Circulation, residence time, vertical mixing, tides, winds, semi-enclosed system.

INTRODUCTION continues unabated. These man-made megastructures (includ-

Large-scale land reclamation projects along the coast of
Dubai, United Arab Emirates, are set to expand 45 km of
natural shoreline to more than 1500 km by 2010 if construction
DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-09-00177.1 received 30 December
2009; accepted in revision 17 August, 2010.
* Present address: URS Corporation–Qatar, Al Sadd Street, 5th
Floor, Office 33, P.O. Box 22108, Doha, Qatar.
** Present address: Department of Geography and Department of
Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843,
U.S.A. E-mail: kjerfve@wmu.se.
Published Pre-print online 16 November 2010.
’ Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2011
ing Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali, and The World) will be
mixed-use developments (low-rise residential, high-rise urban,
and marinas) and are distinguished from coastal developments
globally by including a main internal lagoon made of
interconnected channels (‘‘fronds’’). These megastructures
have been mainly constructed from sediments dredged from
borrow areas approximately 25 km offshore of the Dubai
coastline, and each is protected by a large rocky breakwater
running along its outer perimeter. Palm developments (i.e.,
Palm Jumeirah and Palm Jebel Ali) have four separate
entrances, one on each of the eastern and western sides of the
breakwater and one on each of the eastern and western sides at
the base of the development (Figure 1).
 Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure
Figure 1. Map of study area in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and the megareclamation development projects currently under construction in Dubai.
The Palm Jumeirah is the oldest and most complete of the
megastructures within the Dubai coastline, and it has been
designed to house approximately 75,000 people. The majority of
the residential development within this man-made structure
has occurred throughout the system of fronds, which have been
built out from a main spire (Figure 1) that is intersected by a
large, semi-enclosed lagoon (hereafter called Palm Jumeirah
Lagoon [PJL]). Semi-enclosed systems and coastal waters are
intensely affected by pollutants released into the environment
by wastewater and industrial discharges or storm-water
overflow discharges (Beer, 1997). Throughout PJL, predicted
increases in the residential and commercial population may
have substantial effects on lagoonal water quality. Increased
disposal of brine from local desalination plants and heated
effluent from cooling plants are expected to increase within the
area, while trapping of sediment and organic and inorganic
materials will also increase in the lagoon as residents utilize
agrichemicals for gardening, and automotive and boat traffic
increases. Increased chemical load within the lagoon may have
a substantial effect on the health risk for marine life and
residents, with increased potential for algal blooms, fish kills,
and substantial eutrophication (Howarth et al., 1996; Nixon,
1995; Peierls et al., 1991). Such detrimental changes to the
lagoonal system will depend, however, not only on local nutrient
load, but also on a range of physical factors predominantly
influenced by tidal and wind processes, including mixing and
transport processes. In regions of restricted water exchange
(i.e., lagoonal systems), knowledge of the timescales for
transport and removal of materials that enter the water body
will be especially important for estimating not only the system
response to nutrient input, and therefore the ability of the
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
385
system to withstand eutrophication processes, but also the time
lag between management improvements and ecosystem im-
provements (Dettmann, 2001; Monsen et al., 2002).
Microtidal systems (i.e., within lagoonal systems) have low
mixing capacity, which, within coastal systems, predominantly
will depend on input (e.g., riverine input) and external
movement mechanisms (i.e., wind direction and strength).
Along the shallow shelf of the Dubai coastline, although there is
no riverine discharge, this region is subject to strong wind-
generated currents and large incident wave forcing (Smit et al.,
2008). Wind stress can be a major causal factor responsible for
substantial vertical mixing and local current variability, as
well as tidal forcing. In the semi-enclosed system of PJL, the
geometric design of the development suggests that tidal-driven
and wind-generated currents will control buoyancy, time of
residence, stratification and gravitational circulation, salinity,
and bottom oxygen depletion. Because the response of these
parameters to the tide and wind forcing can be strongly
nonlinear, oceanographic measurements together with regres-
sion modeling are necessary to estimate the importance of
different forcing factors in material exchange into and out of
the lagoonal system. In addition, due to the asymmetric bottom
topography of PJL, interior currents and water exchange are
expected to vary substantially throughout the system. Stronger
currents and greater material transport, as well as lower water
temperature and salinity, can be expected to occur in areas
‘‘close’’ to the breakwater entrances during peak ebb and flood
tides. Also, stagnant water close to the inner sections of the
fronds may lead to increased nutrient buildup and elevated
turbidity.
The aim of this study was to examine currents, water budget,
386 Cavalcante et al.
and turnover time throughout the PJL. Water and material
transport between PJL and the surrounding coastal waters
was quantified, while the role of tidal processes in the
propagation of material throughout the PJL was estimated
and compared with previous numerical simulation modeling of
the PJL carried out by WL|Delft Hydraulics (2004).
STUDY AREA
The marine system of the southern Persian Gulf (termed
‘‘gulf’’ hereafter) is an environment characterized by physical
extremes (Coles, 1997, 2003; Feary et al., 2010). Due to
evaporation in excess of river runoff and precipitation, the gulf
exhibits a reverse estuarine circulation. A lateral geostrophic
balance explains the inflow of Indian Ocean Surface Water
(IOSW) along the Iran coast and outflow mostly (at depth)
following the coastline of UAE (Johns et al., 2003; Reynolds,
1993; Swift and Bower, 2003). Salinity is relatively high
throughout the gulf (38–42), though it fluctuates seasonally
due to the inflow of IOSW, strengthening in late spring and
summer as it moves into the gulf and along the coast of Iran
(Reynolds, 1993; Swift and Bower, 2003). This leads to the
formation of a pronounced summer salinity front in the gulf
with the 39 isohaline following the 40 m isobath (Reynolds,
1993). During winter months, the salinity front retreats
,200 km toward the Strait of Hormuz (Swift and Bower,
2003), resulting in hypersaline waters along the coast of Dubai.
Along the Dubai coastline, the natural sediment drift is
primarily wave driven, and net movement is from southwest to
northeast (Smit et al., 2008). Tides in Dubai are semidiurnal,
with a range of 0.7 (neap) to 1.8 m (spring). Coastal tidal
currents reach speeds of 0.2–0.3 m/s and do not contribute
significantly to sediment movement along the shore; wind-
generated waves are the major contributor to sediment
transport (Smit et al., 2008). Dubai’s wave climate is character-
ized by calm periods interspersed with energetic waves during
‘‘shamal’’ events (northwesterly wind) from November to July.
The man-made coastal island megaconstruction Palm Ju-
meirah measures 5.2 km west to east and 5.0 km from the coast
to the crescent tip along the spine (Figure 1). This man-made
development encompasses both a central spire (termed ‘‘trunk’’)
and several extensions off the main spire (termed ‘‘fronds’’). The
water depths on the shelf at the seaward and landward
extremes of the development are 12 and 4 m, respectively.
The Palm Jumeirah constructed land area measures 7.9 km2
(GHD, 2004). The lagoonal system encapsulated by the PJL
measures 15.1 km2 and is connected to the coastal waters
through four passages (145–180 m long). The widths of these
openings vary from 137 to 165 m across the island crescent and
440 m at the base of the trunk on either side of the causeway
(Figure 2). The bathymetry of the PJL is symmetric along its
main axis with an 18-m-deep zone in the main semicircular
channel and 5–10 m depth inside the fronds (Figure 2).
METHODS
Experimental Design
This study assessed the water budget of PJL by quantifying
total inflow and outflow during one lunar month. The
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
Figure 2. ADCP moored location sites and transect areas in Palm
Jumeirah Lagoon are marked with a dotted line and labeled. EE 5 east
entrance; WE 5 west entrance; AM 5 Atlantis monorail; TB 5 trunk
bridge. Rotation angles are shown with Ox axis oriented positively toward
the mouth in PJL.
experiment ran from 27 April to 27 May 2008, which
corresponded to 118–148 in Julian days. The Northern
Hemisphere spring was chosen for the experimental time
period because the strongest currents into and out of the PJL
occur during this period due to the prevalence of shamals
within the region. Time is given in year days, according to the
convention that 12.00 UTC on 1 January 2008 5 year day 0.5,
and that 12.00 UTC on 31 December 2008 5 year day 365.5.
Bottom-moored Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs)
were positioned approximately 100 m seaward of the west
entrance (WE, 25.10208u N, 55.11363u E), approximately 100 m
seaward of the east entrance (EE, 25.13743u N, 55.14908u E),
under the bridge trunk entrance (BT, 25.10355u N, 55.15279u
E), and inside PJL under the Atlantis Monorail (AM, 25.12789u
N, 55.12096u E). WE and EE ADCPs were installed in a water
depth of 9.5 m, BT in 4.5 m, and AM in 12.0 m (Figure 2).
A fifth towed ADCP was utilized to measure vertical current
profiles in the cross sections of the four locations. Cross-
sectional measurements during a spring tide were undertaken
during three sequential days, 6–8 May 2008; 13 sequential
hours were allocated for measurements at each entrance.
Cross-sectional measurements were made every 30 min for 13 h
on the hour and half-hour to cover an entire tidal cycle in each
channel cross section. Cross-sectional neap tidal measure-
ments were similarly performed 14 d later during three
sequential days, 20–22 May 2008. The cross-sectional towed
ADCP measurements were augmented with conductivity-
temperature-depth (CTD) casts from surface to bottom in the
middle of each channel every 30 min.
Since it was not possible to monitor the in-out flow through
the PJL entrances for the entire lunar month, detailed cross-
sectional flow measurements were correlated with the simul-
taneous vertical current profiles from the moored ADCPs.
Subsequently, a regression model was developed for each
 Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure
Figure 3. Wind speed time-series measurements obtained at Dubai
International Airport April–May 2008. (a) Wind data plotted as stick
diagrams, and (b) 12 h averaged current and wind speed measured at EE
and WE stations between April 27 and May 27.
location to allow an estimation of the month-long flow
exchanges to allow calculation of the water budget.
Measurements
The moored ADCPs were 600 kHz RD Instrument Work-
horse Sentinels mounted to stationary tripods attached to the
seafloor in an upward orientation with the transducers 0.5 m
above the seafloor and located in the center of the tripod
(Figure 3). The ADCPs were programmed to sample every 0.5 m
vertically, with the first bin 1.65 m above the head and the last
bin depending on water depth but always yielding more than 10
bins at BT, 15 bins at WE and EE, and 18 bins at AM. The exact
number of bins used was computed from the depth of water
above the ADCP at the time of measurement and the cosine of
the beam angle; this computation avoided the incorporation of
bins with interference from acoustic reflections off the water
surface (Simpson and Oltman, 1993). Recorded data for each
bin consist of a 2 min average, made up of 120 pings at 1 Hz for
each bin. Sampling was repeated every 10 min.
The cross-sectional current measurements made in a towed
mode from the boat utilized a 600 kHz RD Instrument
Workhorse Marine instrument facing down. To maximize
sampling resolution, ADCP data were continuously recorded
along the boat transect from surface to bottom. The ADCP data
were acquired at a vertical resolution of 0.5 m and 2 s sampling
ensembles.
The hydrographic measurements in the PJL cross sections
were made with a profiling SBE 19 plus CTD instrument,
measuring vertical profiles of conductivity, temperature,
pressure, and dissolved oxygen, with salinity, density, and
depth calculated. While profiling, the CTD made internal
measurements at a rate of 0.25 Hz, allowing detailed resolution
of the vertical variability of each parameter. The CTD
measurements were converted to salinity (S) and sigma-t
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
387
according to the Practical Salinity Scale (PSS-78) and the
International Equation of State of Sea Water (IES-80).
Water-level measurements were obtained from each of the
four ADCPs using the internal pressure sensor, which has an
accuracy of 0.02 m at the depth of installation. These data were
used to calculate hourly tidal water-level time series for the 30 d
experiment as input for the harmonic analysis to compute
amplitudes and phases of diurnal and semidiurnal tidal
constituents (Franco, 1998).
Ten-minute wind velocity and direction measurements at
standard 10 m elevation were obtained from the Dubai
International Airport (25.2525u N, 55.3301u E), 28 km north-
east from PJL and 10 km inland.
Quality Control
Instrument Specifications
Four 600 kHz RD Instruments Workhorse Sentinel ADCPs
were mounted to a stationary tripod on the seabed in an
upward-looking orientation fixed in a flat square aluminum
steel frame having a square base of 2 3 2 m. The transducers
were approximately 50 cm above the benthos and located
within the center area. The central long axis of the frame was
parallel to the axis through transducers 3 and 4. The ADCP was
placed under four pipes forming a ‘‘cage.’’ The mooring frame
weighed 30 kg out of the water. It was fixed to the seabed
through drilled holes in two sides and hollow concrete blocks to
the others sides; a mooring buoy was attached to one of the
blocks. Using this setup, the ADCP was fixed in space to within
the resolution of the internal tilt sensors (, 0.01u) and compass
(, 0.01u). The ADCP beam angles were slanted 20u from the
vertical with a beam of 1.5u (half-power level), and the relative
energy loss was 30 6 40 dB in directions 620u off the main
beam (first side lobe) (Gordon, 1996).
At each station, a CTD survey was conducted with a SBE
19plus CTD measured at a fixed resolution to the high-salinity
water; conductivity resolution was (S/m) 0.00007, with a range
0–9, temperature had a resolution of (uC) 0.0001 and a range of
25 to +35, while pressure had a resolution of (m) 0.0025% at
full-scale range (600 m).
Calibration and Intercomparisons
Before instrument deployments, the bottom and towed
ADCPs were calibrated in the laboratory for compass magnetic
corrections, alignment offsets, pressure sensor, and to enter the
salinity at the measurement site. In addition to the ADCPs, the
CTD sensor, which was used for in situ measurement of
dissolved oxygen, was also calibrated priory the field survey. To
ensure correct readings during field use, the CTD was
stabilized by taking sustained measurements during 3 min at
a fixed depth (just below the water surface) and then slowly
lowered down the water column.
Wind speed data (from the Dubai International Airport) was
compared to recorded current data (measured by the bottom-
mounted ADCPs at EE and WE stations). Wind speed and
current data were averaged over 12 h to compare correlation
coefficients. In order to verify the results from the WL|Delft
Hydraulics numerical model reports, the simulated results
388 Cavalcante et al.
were compared to the experimental currents for EE and WE
stations, looking at typical ebb/flood currents and estimated
residence time.
Error Bars and Anomaly Estimation
To identify the variability of the mean along the time series,
the inferential error bar known as standard error (SE) was
pffiffiffi
used. SE is defined as SE 5 SD= n, where SD refers to
standard deviation, and n is the sample size. The 12-h-averaged
current and wind speed data cover a 29 d period. The current
and wind speed anomalies (CWSA) were estimated from the
bottom-mounted ADCPs at EE and WE, and winds from Dubai
International Airport. The CWSA 5 CWS 2 CWS, where CWS
represents an average over a 12 h period of current and wind
speed, and the bar represents a mean over the 29 d period. The
anomalously large values were recorded only for less than
30 min, and then we decided to remove them from the original
time series for graphical purposes but mention them here.
Cross-Section Velocity, Discharge Estimation and
Richardson Number
Current flow vector time series were decomposed for each
moored ADCP location into along (u) and cross-channel (v)
components with the x-axis at each station oriented into PJL,
resulting in different decomposition/rotation angles at each site
(Figure 2). A 13 h time series of flow discharge (Qmeasured, m3/s)
was calculated for each cross section during spring and neap
tides based on the towed ADCP transects, using
ð ð
Qmeasured ~ u( y, z, t) dydz,
y z
where u is the velocity in or out of PJL, y indicates lateral
position across the channel, and z indicates depth. A single
discharge measurement was computed every 0.5 h from the
cross-sectional measurements as the boat was traveling across
the channel and then returning. For the moored ADCPs, a
vertically integrated discharge per meter (m2/s) normal to the
cross-section some 200 m away was calculated,
ð lagoon, showing good agreement with results of Lardner,
QADCP ~ uðz, tÞ dz,
and regressed QADCP on Qmeasured for each location and 13 h
sampling period to calculate a 30 d time series of cross-sectional
discharge, Qtransect (m3/s) for the entire lunar month for each
cross section. In theory, summing the three Qtransect time series
at EE, WE, and BT over the 30 d experiment would be expected
to yield the overall water budget.
Residence Time and Richardson Number
Residence time (tq) is a measure of the mean amount of time a
parcel of water will remain within a volume, and it was
calculated as the ratio of the water volume of PJL (Vf) to the
water discharge (Qf).
In addition, the gradient of the Richardson number (Ri) was
estimated at each entrance. This is a nondimensional number
that quantifies the tendency for the formation of turbulence by
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
comparing a measure for the stratification with a measure of
the vertical current shear and is defined as
g dr
r dz
R i ~  2 :
du
dz
Here, g is gravity, r is density, and u is the velocity. The
vertical density gradient dr/dz measures the stratification,
while the vertical change of velocity du/dz gives the current
shear. For larger values of Ri, the relative role of stratification
is larger, and the presence of active turbulence is less likely.
For smaller values of Ri, the relative role of current shear is
larger, and the presence of turbulence is more likely.
RESULTS
Tidal Analysis
The water-level measurements showed that there was
almost no variability in the main diurnal and semidiurnal
tidal constituents at the four locations in and around PJL.
These measurements were corroborated with a 6 mo hourly
water-level time series from Jebel Ali Port (JAP, 24.9933u N,
55.0316u E), located 16 km southwest of PJL. The main
constituent amplitude and phase data are presented in Table 1.
The tidal range during the experiment varied from 0.8 m
during neap tide to 1.95 m during spring tide. Tidal constituent
amplitude changes between the four locations and the JAP
location were largely nonexistent, and, similarly, tidal phases
between all five stations (four experimental stations and JAP
location) were at most a few minutes out of phase. The tidal
form-number, (defined by A. Courtier in 1938: Defant, 1960), to
classify the tidal type as a ratio of the main diurnal and
semidiurnal amplitudes (K1 + O1)/(M2 + S2), was likewise
almost identical, 0.65–0.70 (Table 2) among the five measured
locations, indicating that the tide along the Dubai coast is
mixed mainly semidiurnal. In PJL, the estimated phases for
M2, K1, S2, and O1 were 0u, 157u, 44u, and 18uG (Greenwich
Phase), respectively, for the entrances and interior areas of the
Belen, and Cekirge (1982). The dominant M2 component tide in
PJL was very similar to the results obtained from Lardner,
Belen, and Cekirge (1982). However, our results yield slightly
higher amplitude for K1 as compared to Elshorbagy, Azam, and
Taguchi (2006).
The relative importance of the constituents varied somewhat
from month to month, influenced by the daily heating cycle and
random weather events. If the tidal wave were purely
semidiurnal, the two high waters each day would be of equal
height, as would the two low waters. In PJL, inequality varies
from D 5 102u to 104u, implying that the inequality is exhibited
in both high and low waters. Similarly, inequality also showed
the same variation at JAP (D 5 105u) (Table 2). The mixed,
mainly semidiurnal tides, in which M2 is the predominately
constituent, indicate a mean range of 95–99 cm at the four
stations and at JAP (Table 2). The spring tide range, 2(M2 + S2),
measured 116–122 cm and 124 cm, respectively, and the neap
tide range, 2(M2 – S2), measured 56–58 cm and 54 cm in PJL
 Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure 389

Table 1. Summary of tidal water-level harmonic constituents, amplitude (H, cm) and Greenwich phase (Gu), calculated from four water-level time series
measured by the bottom-moored ADCP current meters for 30 d in May 2008 at Palm Jumeirah stations and for 6 mo at Jebel Ali Port from Valeport tide gauge
maintained by the Dubai Ports Authority.

Atlantis Monorail
East Entrance (EE) West Entrance (WE) Bridge Trunk (BT) (AM) Jebel Ali Port (JAP)
Period
Name of Partial Tide Symbol (h) H (cm) G (u) H (cm) G (u) H (cm) G (u) H (cm) G (u) H (cm) G (u)

Long-term components
Solar semi-annual Ssa 2191.43 – – – – – – – – 4.4 282
Lunar monthly Mm 661.30 – – – – – – – – 1.7 169
Diurnal components
Elliptical lunar Q1 26.87 3.1 83 2.9 83 2.8 79 3.1 80 3.5 77
Principal lunar O1 25.82 18.4 101 18.4 99 18.8 99 18.8 100 17.0 101
Luni-solar K1 23.93 20.7 157 21.1 157 21.4 156 21.6 157 27.0 153
Semidiurnal components
Larger lunar elliptic N2 12.66 9.9 334 9.6 335 9.8 330 9.9 333 9.8 335
Principal lunar M2 12.42 44.2 0 43.1 0 45.0 358 44.8 0 44.8 359
Principal solar S2 12.00 15.5 44 15.0 42 16.3 43 15.6 44 17.6 47
Luni-solar K2 11.97 4.2 48 4.1 49 4.4 47 4.3 48 5.2 30
Shallow water
First M2 over-tide M4 6.21 2.6 0 2.4 358 2.6 354 2.5 1 1.9 359

and JAP, respectively. There was little difference in the phase
and amplitude of tide constituents between the different tide
stations, signifying that the PJL system is small compared to
the tidal wavelength, and there is little modification by the
topographic and lateral boundaries of this system on the overall
propagation of the tidal wave (Table 2).
Winds
Throughout the experimental time period, there was
relatively high variation in wind direction and speed. Hourly
mean wind speed at both EE and WE stations during the 30 d
study was 7.9 m/s (Figures 3a and b), mainly originating from
210u. However, predominant wind direction changed to 180u on
6 May (day 127) and reached a relatively high maximum speed
(20 m/s). Wind velocities again increased to 18 m/s, originating
from 150u–210u, during days 147–148. Such high wind events
were also mirrored in current direction and speed within PJL,
as indicated by the anomalously large values at EE, WE, and
BT stations, which all showed maximum current speeds on day
127 (1.10, 1.20, and 1.10m/s at EE, WE, and BT, respectively)
(Figure 3b). Overall, however, there was little correlation
between wind direction and velocity and current movement
for PJL throughout the experimental time period as indicated
by the coefficients at EE (R2 5 0.01) and WE (R2 5 0.4)
(Figures 4a and b). Such low correlation between wind and
tidal movement at both locations may be associated with their
close proximity to the PJL entrances, where they may be more
likely to be influenced by ebb/flood cycles.
Currents and Water Discharge
All four moored ADCPs yielded typical inflow current
velocities (ranging from 0.25 m/s to 0.40 m/s). In comparison,
the same pattern in current flow was not shown in outflow
events, with 0.20 and 0.15 m/s typically recorded at EE and WE
stations, respectively, while current flows of 0.20 and 0.60 m/s
were apparent at AM and BT stations, respectively. Through-

Table 2. Summary of tide statistics from Palm Jumeirah stations and Jebel Ali Port based on the harmonics constants from four ADCP current meters for
30 d in May 2008 and 6 mo at Jebel Ali Port from Valeport tide gauge.

Value

Parameter Formula (EE) (WE) (BT) (AM) (JAP) Interpretation

Form number (K1 + O1)/(M2 + S2) 0.65 0.68 0.66 0.66 0.70 Mixed mainly semidiurnal tide
Mean tidal range (cm) 2.2 (M2) 97 95 99 99 99 Average tidal range
(semidiurnal and diurnal)
Spring tidal range (cm) 2.0 (M2 + S2) 119 116 122 120 124 Average range during spring
tide (semidiurnal)
Neap tidal range (cm) 2.0 (M2 – S2) 57 56 57 58 54 Average range during neap
tide (semidirunal)
Tropic range (cm) 2.0 (K1 + O1) 78 79 80 81 88 Average range during tropical
tide (diurnal tide); moon at
maximum northern or
southern declination)
Equatorial range (cm) 2.0 (K1 – O1) 5 5 5 6 20 Average range during
equatorial tide (diurnal
tide); moon above equator

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

390
Figure 4. Correlation coefficients of currents vs. wind speeds for both EE (a) and WE (b) for the 12 h averaged measurements.
out all four stations, differences in current velocity from surface
to bottom were minor, indicating a lack of any significant shear
throughout the water column.
There was relatively high directional variability in current
movement throughout all four locations. At WE, current
direction differed between the surface and bottom due to high
exposure to wind and tidal currents at this location. Surface
currents at WE moved oceanward towards 315uT at 0.25 m/s
and coastward toward 140uT at 0.20 m/s, while bottom currents
predominantly moved lagoonward toward 5uT at 0.20 m/s and
coastward toward 210uT at 0.25 m/s (Figure 5a). At EE, both
surface and bottom layers showed enhanced movement ocean-
ward, with surface waters moving toward 205uT at 0.30 m/s,
while bottom layers moved toward 30uT at 0.55 m/s and showed
a high synchronization to the local ebb/flood cycle (Figure 5b).
At the AM station, current fluctuations were dominated by
tidal reversals; stronger currents were observed during spring
tide on the surface at 0.50 m/s toward 10uT, and 0.30 m/s
toward 30uT on bottom. This pattern was mirrored during neap
tide but showed less variability in current speed between
surface and bottom layers, with averaged current of 0.20 m/s
and 0.15 m/s both towards 10uT, respectively (Figure 5c). Both
surface and bottom currents were similar in both direction and
speed at BT. Water movement was predominantly parallel to
the coast, with the strongest surface and bottom currents
reaching 0.75 m/s toward 225uT, indicating a bidirectional
current flow throughout the water column (Figure 5d). This
station was located in a relatively shallow, narrow area of the
PJL, which resulted in a relatively high pressure gradient
throughout the entire water column.
The results from this experimental time period were
compared to numerical simulations of current and material
dispersion throughout Palm Jumeirah during 2002 and 2005
(obtained from WL|Delft Hydraulics). Although the raw data
were unavailable for comparison, the technical results of the
WL|Delft Hydraulics (2004) work were available and showed
relatively high correlation to the present study’s results. WL|
Delft Hydraulics showed that during normal spring tides, peak
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
Cavalcante et al.
current strength would reach 0.60 m/s between the village
center and the trunk. In comparison, within the present study,
the simulated peak currents at BT (equivalent to the WL|
Delft Hydraulics station modeled) were 0.60 m/s. However, the
results from the WL|Delft Hydraulics (2004) modeling of Palm
Jumeirah overestimated overall peak flow through the PJL
entrances, while they underestimated by up to 50% both flood
and ebb peak current strength at both EE and WE (WL|Delft
Hydraulics, 2004).
There was a pronounced difference in net water discharge
between entrances during both spring and neap tidal cycles. The
residual water discharge for the 30 d experimental cycle,
integrated across all entrances, indicated a greater net water
influx at WE as compared to EE (+26 m3/s as compared to +0.7
m3/s), varying from +29 to 26 m3/s in WE and from +46 to 222
m3/s in EE (where inflow is denoted positive and outflow
negative).
Hydrography
The water temperature at all four sampling stations
remained at 30.9uC throughout the experimental period, with
no recorded diel temperature oscillation. Similarly, there was
no vertical salinity stratification throughout the lagoon during
the tidal cycles, and well-mixed conditions occurred for most of
the stations (Table 3), indicating a constant value of 40.0 6 0.3
for salinity within the water column (Table 3 ) and little
temporal variability as indicated by minimum and maximum
values of 39.0 and 40.9, respectively (Table 4). Lastly, oxygen
was found to be close to saturation and homogeneously
distributed within the lagoon, with little vertical variability
among the stations (Table 3). Dissolved oxygen (DO) was high
throughout the lagoon, varying from a minimum of 90.2% to a
maximum of 107.7% of saturation. At EE and WE stations, the
Richardson number (Ri) remained at unstable conditions below
the theoretical stability threshold of 0.25 throughout the
majority of the experimental time period (Figure 6), varying
between 1021 and 1025.
 Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure 391

Figure 5. ADCP time-series current measurements obtained in the Palm Jumeirah entrances, main channel, and under bridge during April–May 2008
experiment. The stick diagrams represent 12 h averaged currents on surface and bottom layers (a) at west entrance, (b) at east entrance, (c) Atlantis
monorail, and (d) bridge trunk D. Error bars represents the standard error.

DISCUSSION
Current Variability, Water Budget, and Residence Time
The results show that currents adjacent to and inside the
PJL are predominantly forced by tides, although they can be
strongly modified by local winds and waves. The PJL forms a
substantial obstruction to the tidal flow along the coast, forcing
coastal waters to accelerate through its narrow entrances into
the inner lagoon. Once inside the lagoon however, tidal
currents substantially decrease due to the complex array of
boundaries and physical resistance from the numerous frond
structures. In addition, within the lagoonal complex, although
there are substantial differences in bathymetry, this work
found that this has little effect on the strength of the tidal
currents along the main channel. In contrast, outside of the
inner lagoon of the Palm Jumeirah (station BT), although

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

392 Cavalcante et al.

Table 3. Overall vertical depth–averaged distribution of temperature,

salinity, and oxygen vs. adimensional depth based on the CTD profiles for
30 d in May 2008.

Adimensional Temperature Salinity Oxygen

Depth (uC 6 std) (6 std) (mg/L 6 std)

0 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.1 6 0.8

20.1 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.1 6 0.8
20.2 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.2 6 0.8
20.3 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.1 6 0.8
20.4 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.2 6 0.8
20.5 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.2 6 0.8
20.6 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.2 6 0.8
20.7 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.2 6 0.8
20.8 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.3 6 0.8 Figure 6. Richardson number estimation vs. tidal cycle for EE and WE
20.9 31.3 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.3 6 0.8 during May 6–7 and May 20–21. The tidal height used is similar for both
21 31.4 6 1.1 40.0 6 0.3 5.3 6 0.8 tidal cycles.

alongshore northeastward tidal influences are important in
water movement, wind pressure gradients also had a substan-
tial effect on water movement.
There was asymmetry in discharge from PJL between
entrances, with estimated residence times of 1.2 and 42 d for
the east and west portions of PJL, respectively. These results
indicate that, during the experimental period, the eastern PJL
water mass was flushed quicker than the western portion,
which was relatively poorly flushed. The alignment of the
entrances and the interaction between wind and tide effects at
each station, might offer an explanation for this spatially
unbalanced net transport in PJL. At WE, this work has shown
that both wind and tidal forces play an important role in
residence times and flushing of the water body. In comparison,
at EE, the tidal cycle is the most important force, with little
influence of wind stress. In addition, the wide asymmetry
between eastern and western residence times may also be
partly due to the asymmetric bottom contour within PJL.
Bottom bathymetry will determine the areal volume that will
accumulate within an area, due to deeper areas retaining a
large water volume and therefore needing a longer time to
renew the accumulated mass of water during ebb/flood cycles.
This study used the most up to date bathymetric data for this
region (performed in 2007), and these showed an average depth
of 216 m and 212 m at WE and EE, respectively. Such
differences in the bathymetry between stations will have been
important in the different residence times found between EE
and WE.
Residence times for PJL had previously been numerically
modeled by WL|Delft Hydraulics (WL|Delft Hydraulics,
2004), which estimated the residence time of PJL to vary from
7 to 14 d, depending on location within the PJL. Comparing our
results to the simulations from the Delft model, this work
showed that water residence time in the western portions of
Table 4. Summary of salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen for
Palm Jumeirah based on the CTD profiles for 30 d in May 2008.
Temperature Oxygen
Salinity (uC) (mg/L)
Min 39.0 29.2 4.0
Max 40.9 32.9 6.3
Mean 6 std 40.0 6 0.3 30.9 6 1.2 5.1 6 0.8
PJL is significant longer; this is in disagreement with results
from the WL|Delft Hydraulics numerical simulation, which
indicated similar residence times in the areas adjacent to the
east and west entrances. Delft estimated complete flushing of
the water body in 7 d in the east portion of PJL, as compared to
1.2 d from our data. However, more significantly, WL|Delft
Hydraulics estimate for residence time in the west portion of
PJL was 14 d, whereas the present study indicated a 42 d
turnover time within this station. Such differences in computed
residence times between this study and the results of the WL|
Delft Hydraulics study may be due to differences in model
parameters between studies. The present study utilized an
asymmetric bottom contour for the PJL (using the most up to
date bathymetry data for the area). In comparison, the WL|
Delft Hydraulics modeling work utilized a symmetric bathym-
etry for the PJL. The WL|Delft Hydraulics modeling did not
take into account the dredging activities both within PJL and
surrounding the Palm Jumeirah since 2004 and the substantial
natural changes to the benthos due to artificial sediment
remobilization and any erosional or accretion process occurring
within the PJL.
Differences in currents and bathymetry throughout the inner
area of the PJL are expected to play a key role in the degree of
water flushing between different sections of the PJL. Within
PJL, critical areas with longer residency time (i.e., the western
portion of the PJL) are expected to form ‘‘dead ends’’ due to
reduced water flow and concomitant mixing within the water
column. It can then be expected that problems with water
quality will likely occur within this area of the PJL, possibly
resulting in high risk of local eutrophication due to nuisance
algae blooms, depletion of dissolved oxygen, and reduced water
transparency. Such differences between the present research
and WL|Delft Hydraulics (2004) measurements for the PJL
show the importance of comparing modeling results with
ground-truth data and highlight further work needed to
examine the role of flushing processes throughout PJL.
Vertical Mixing
DO Saturation
(%)
The present study found that PJL waters were relatively well
90.2 mixed, as indicated by vertically isothermal conditions through-
107.7 out the lagoon. Spatially, there was little variation in water
101.1
temperature, which shows that areas open (i.e., entrances) and

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

 Water Currents and Water Budget in a Coastal Megastructure
enclosed (i.e., within the PJL at the AM station) are susceptible
to the same isothermal conditions. This fact, associated with no
observed salinity stratification, indicates that turbulent mixing
occurs during both spring and neap tides and that mixing is
fully developed in PJL; this was also shown by the nondimen-
sional Richardson number (Ri), which showed an increasing
trend to zero. There is no stability occurrence in PJL, and the
tide enhances vertical mixing and the vertical fluxes. In PJL,
the shear and the lack of saline stratification play an important
role in water-column instability at both stations, where tidally
induced vertical shear is large enough to overcome the weak
stabilizing influence of stratification by salinity.
CONCLUSIONS
This work showed that PJL water discharge is spatially
variable and has a substantial effect on water outflow and
residence time, most predominantly between the east and west
areas of PJL. We found no bottom friction effect on tide
propagation throughout PJL; in fact, PJL was characterized by
an in-phase mixed mainly semidiurnal tide throughout. The
spatial difference in current speed throughout the PJL will
affect the flux of materials transported into and out of the
lagoon and the ecological balance within the water column. The
effects of circulation, varying tidal currents, and changing
intensities of inflow and outflow to PJL on lagoon residence
time and vertical mixing indicated an unbalanced system,
while tidal currents, winds, and differences in bottom contour
bathymetry had substantial effects on the residence time
throughout the PJL. However, our results suggest that the lack
of intensification in the vertical stratification in the internal
areas of the PJL during the flood and ebb cycle is due to efficient
mixing by tidal currents and winds. Because the eastern half of
the lagoon was well flushed by currents through the east
entrance, and the western half of the lagoon was in contrast
very poorly flushed, we argue that the flushing mechanism
may differ considerably between the two halves of the lagoon as
a result of strong winds and different wind effects in the two
lagoon halves. Since a long water residence time can increase
the risk of either harmful algal blooms or elevated bacterial
counts in a semiclosed system, the eastern lagoon may present
a lower potential health risk compared to the western half.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper resulted from the Nakheel–United Nations
University Institute for Water, Environment and Health
research program to understand the dynamics of the marine
ecosystems surrounding the Nakheel marine developments.
Funding was provided by Nakheel Private Joint Stock Company.
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