C.

Signaling in the
Nervous System
UNIT 1
By:
Fundamentals of Erwin F. Pascual, MD, MMHoA FPSMS

Neuroanatomy
 OUTLINE

I. Membrane potential
II. Generator potential
III. Action potential
IV. Ion channels
V. The effect of myelination
VI. Conduction of action potentials
VII. Synapse
NEURONS - excitable, responds to stimuli by generating
electrical impulses.

Local - restricted to the place that received the stimulus

Propagated - travel through the neuron and its axon

Propagated electrical impulses - Action Potentials

Neurons communicate with each other - synaptic transmission

Stimulus
Electrical Electrical
impulses impulses
I. Membrane Potential
Resting Potential = - 70mV
 Resting Potential
K+

Two passive forces

that maintain an
equilibrium of Na+
and K+ across the
Na+
membrane:
Chemical
Electrical
 Equilibrium Potential

When the Chemical and Electrical forces

are equally strong.
II. Generator Potentials
III. Action Potentials
Response to Stimulation: Action Potentials
Neurons typically interact at chemical synapses, where
liberation of a transmitter substance is produced by the
arrival of action potentials, or spikes, at the synaptic
boutons. The transmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and
activates receptors embedded in the membranes of target
neurons. The receptors activate transmitter-gated ion
channels to alter the level of polarization of the target
neuron. Receptors activated by an inhibitory transmitter
cause the membrane potential to increase beyond the
resting value of −70 mV, perhaps to −80 mV or more, a
process known as hyperpolarization. Excitatory
transmitters cause the membrane potential to diminish, a
process of depolarization.
 Nerve Impulse Generation
There are three phases:
A. Depolarizing Phase: A stimulus first causes sodium channels to open.
Because there are many more sodium ions on the outside, and the
inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside, sodium ions
rush into the neuron. Remember, sodium has a positive charge, so
the neuron becomes more positive and becomes depolarized.
B. Repolarizing Phase: In response to the inflow of Na +, K + channels
open, this time allowing K + on the inside to rush out of the cell. The
movement of K + out of the cell causes repolarization by restoring the
original membrane polarization. Unlike the resting potential,
however, in repolarization the K + are on the outside and the Na + are
on the inside. Soon after the K + gates open, the Na + gates close.
C. Hyperpolarization Phase: By the time the K + channels close, more
K + have moved out of the cell than is actually necessary to establish
the original polarized potential. Thus, the membrane becomes
hyperpolarized (about –80 millivolts).
The action potential is then propagated along the axon.

There are two types of refractory periods: The absolute refractory

period is a period where it is completely impossible for another
action potential to be activated, regardless of the size of the trigger
(stimulus). This is because the sodium channels are inactivated and
remain that way until hyperpolarization occurs.

Refractory period: With the passage of the action potential, the cell
membrane is in an unusual state of affairs. The membrane is
polarized, but the Na + and K + are on the wrong sides of the
membrane. During this refractory period, the axon will not respond
to a new stimulus (Absolute refractory period). To reestablish the
original distribution of these ions, the Na + and K + are returned to
their resting potential location by Na +/K + pumps in the cell
membrane. Once these ions are completely returned to their resting
potential location, the neuron is ready for another stimulus.
IV. Ion Channels
• Passive (non-gated) channels are open at all
times, permitting ions to move across the
membrane.
• Voltage-gated channels contain a
voltage-sensitive string of amino acids that cause
the channel pore to open or close in response to
changes in membrane voltage.
• Channel pumps are energy-driven ion exporters
and/or importers designed to maintain
steady-state ion concentrations. The Na+–K+
exchange pump (usually referred to as the sodium
pump) is vital to maintenance of the resting
membrane potential.
• Transmitter-gated channels abound in
postsynaptic membranes. Some are activated
directly by transmitter molecules, others
indirectly.
• Transduction channels are activated by
peripheral sensory stimulation. Sensory nerve
endings exhibit different stimulus specificities in
different locations, for example mechanical in
muscle; tactile, thermal, or chemical in skin;
acoustic in the cochlea; vestibular in the
labyrinth; electromagnetic in the retina;
gustatory in the tongue; olfactory in the upper
part of the nasal mucous membrane.
V. Effect of Myelination
Functions of the Myelin Sheath

•The presence of a myelin sheath increases

the velocity of conduction (for a nerve
fiber of the same diameter).
•It reduces the energy expended in the
process of conduction.
•It is responsible for the color of the white
matter of the brain and spinal cord.
VII. Synapse and Neurotransmitters
Types of Synapses:
A. Chemical
B. Electrical
Several criteria should be fulfilled for a substance to be accepted as a
neurotransmitter.
• The substance must be present within neurons, together with the
molecules, including enzymes, required to synthesize it.
• The substance must be released following depolarization of the nerve
endings that contain it, and this release must be induced by entry of
calcium.
• The postsynaptic membrane must contain specific receptors that will
modify the membrane potential of the target neuron.
• The isolated substance must exert the same effect when applied to a
target neuron.
• Specific antagonist molecules, whether delivered through the
circulation or by iontophoresis, must block the effect of the putative
(‘thought to be’) transmitter.
• The physiologic mode of termination of the transmitter effect must be
identified, whether it be by enzymatic degradation or by active
transport into the parent neuron or adjacent neuroglial cells.
 In a general context:

Neurons communicate with each other through the

transmission of nerve impulses and can be
summarized as follows:

Stimulus 🡪 received by dendrites 🡪 travels to the

soma 🡪 initiation of action potential (axon hillock )
🡪 Propagation along the axon 🡪 arrival at
presynaptic terminal 🡪 release of neurotransmitter
at the synaptic cleft 🡪 uptake of neurotransmitter
(post-synaptic membrane) 🡪 transmission of
impulses until receptor 🡪 action (sensory / motor)
END OF PART 3