Data communication with Industrial Ethernet

E-Learning @ SITRAIN Course (WT-IEOSI)

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MENU
Information about the tutorials ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Ethernet ................................................................................................................... 6

Information about the tutorial ......................................................................................................................... 7

Learning recommendation ............................................................................................................................... 7

Industrial Ethernet Analog ............................................................................................................................... 8

What is Industrial Ethernet? ................................................................................................................ 9

Development of the Ethernet standard ............................................................................................. 11

Test your understanding: Applications with Industrial Ethernet ...................................................... 12

Industrial Ethernet in all automation levels of industry ................................................................... 13

ISO/ OSI analogy ............................................................................................................................................ 14

ISO/ OSI reference model .................................................................................................................. 15

Question to test your understanding: Application with Industrial Ethenet .................................................. 16

Question to test your understanding: OSI/ISO reference model ................................................................... 16

Chapter 2: Application-oriented layers .............................................................................................................................. 18

Application-oriented layers, based on the example of parcel shipment .......................................... 19

Relationship between services and ports.......................................................................................... 20

Application-oriented layers in the ISO/OSI model ............................................................................ 22

Question to test your understanding: Range of standardized ports ................................................ 23

Question to test your understanding: Service and ports .................................................................. 23

Question to test your understanding: Application-oriented layers................................................... 24

What you have learned ...................................................................................................................... 24

Chapter 3: Addressing and transport of date packets .................................................................................................... 25

Transport layer, based on the example of parcel shipment ......................................................................... 26

Connection-oriented and connection-free network protocols.......................................................... 27

Ensures loss-free transmission using the 3 –way handshake ........................................................... 29

Question to test you understanding: Connection-oriented and connection-free network protocols

........................................................................................................................................................... 30
Question to test you understanding: 3-way handshake ................................................................... 30

Network layer, based on the example of parcel shipment............................................................................ 31

IP addresses- Address in the network ............................................................................................... 32

Subdivision of networks .................................................................................................................... 33

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 Router ................................................................................................................................................ 34

Data lin layer, based on the example of parcel shipment ............................................................................. 35

MAC addresses- Unique address of a network node ......................................................................... 36

Switch- Direct forwarding of packets ................................................................................................ 37

Network topologies ........................................................................................................................... 38

Question to test your understanding: IP addresses .......................................................................... 39

Question: Coupling applications ....................................................................................................... 40

What you have learned ...................................................................................................................... 40

Chapter 4: Transmission media and procedures ............................................................................................................. 41

Physical layer, based on the example of parcel shipment ............................................................................ 42

Transmission media........................................................................................................................... 43

Cabling ............................................................................................................................................... 44

CSMA/CD – Access procedure......................................................................................................................... 46

Question to test your understanding: Physical layer ........................................................................ 48

What you have learned ...................................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 5: Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 50

Industrial Ethernet in industrial in industry................................................................................................... 51

Industrial Ethernet and the ISO/ OSI reference model .................................................................................. 53

What you have learned. ...................................................................................................................... 55

Answer Keys ........................................................................................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 1: ....................................................................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 2: ....................................................................................................................................................... 58

Chapter 3: ....................................................................................................................................................... 59

Chapter 4: ....................................................................................................................................................... 61

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Information about the tutorials
Short Description

 The tutorial program consists in five content-relevant chapters and one non-mandatory final test. It
describes the functional principle of data communication with Industrial Ethernet in relation with the
ISO/OSI data communication model using the analogy to parcel shipment.

Objectives

 This webbased training is part of the "Siemens Initial Training for Indutrial Networks" and gives a first
overview on Industrial Ethernet. After processing the tutorial program, the learners will know and
understand the meaning of Industrial Ethernet as well as its principle and function in connection with
the ISO/OSI data communication model.

Target Group

 Decision makers, sales personnel

 Commissioning engineers, Service personnel
 Operators, users
 Maintenance personnel

Content

 Introduction to Industrial Ethernet

o The Ethernet standard
o What is Industrial Ethernet?
o Ethernet in the automation levels
o ISO/OSI data communication model
 Application-oriented layers
o Application-oriented layers, based on the example of parcel shipment
o Assignment of services through ports
o Application-oriented layers in the ISO/OSI model
 Addressing and transport of data packets
o Layer 4: Transport layer
o Layer 3: Network layer
o Layer 2: Data link layer
 Transmission media and procedures
o Transmission media
o Cabling systems
o Transmission technologies
o CSMA/CD - Access procedure

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Ethernet

Slide

Script

The first chapter serves as an introduction to the Ethernet standard and the ISO/ OSI model. You use Ethernet
technology in everday life when you connect to the Internet. In the industrial environment, however, further
requirements on data security and quality apply. Industrial Ethernet provides solution for netwworks in harsh
industrial environments.

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Information about the tutorial

Learning recommendation

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Industrial Ethernet Analog

What do you associate with Ethernet? You will get the right idea if you think about your PC, smart phone or
tablet which are all about to communicate across one or more networks. Also a LAN, the so-called Local Area
Network or WAN, the Wide Area Network is associated with Ethernet. Ethernet, therfore, has something to do
with digital networking and communication. But what is Ethernet exactly, especially in the industrial enviroment,
and what actually happens there? We will start with an example from every day life.

You will certainly have sent a parcel to someone once or received parcels
yourself, for example following a purchase online. To do this, you will
have used a parcel service that arranged to accept your parcel and
deliver it to the required address. This is a simple process, as long as it
only concern the transport of one item.

It gets more complicated when serverl persons or companies want to send

parcels to many recipients. You can easily understand that the stages in
the process need to be well-structrured and clearly defined.

The process involved in sending a percel with a parcel delivery company

can be easily compared to those involved in sending data over industrial
Ethernet. When devices interact in Ethernet networks, data packages
are sent. In the industrial environment it is important that these are
transported safely and quickly from the sender to the recipient.

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What is Industrial Ethernet?

Ethernet is the standard used in the commercial field, and is part in our everday life. Every day, worldwide, mor
and more computers are connected together and a huge amount of information is exchanged. Think about
emails, for example. Serveral billion emails are sent every day worldwide. In this case, the information packages
contain text, photos, videos, or music files.

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 Due to the wide acceptance and distribution of Ethernet, it is being used increasingly in the industrial
environment. Special requirements exist here.

The connection systems must be industrially compatible, i.e. they must be well-shielded and mechanicall
rugged.

In some cases, network components must withstand wide variations in temperature and electromagnetic
interference. Harsh environmental conditions also require highter degrees of protection.

High plant availabililty demands special topologies and redudant network structrures. Production process
require fast data transfer and shrot response times

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Development of the Ethernet standard

To ensure that communication function correctly between equipment from different manufactures, Ethernet
was standardized.

The Xerox company published the first Ethernet network specification in 1975.

In 1980, Ethenet was standardized in 802.3 by the institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, abbreviated
to the IEEE. Since then, numerous extensions to the standard have been published. Fast Ethernet was
standardized as 802.3u and was introduced in office networks in 1995 . The WLAN standard 802.11 followed
two years later. Higher data transmission rates have been possible since 1998 with Gigabit Ethernet 802.3z,
which can also be used in industrial environments.

You wil find further information in the glossary on the highlighted terms shown in the graphic.

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Test your understanding: Applications with Industrial Ethernet

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Industrial Ethernet in all automation levels of industry

Industrial Ethenet provides both horizontal and vertical integration in industrial plants. Vertical
communication takes place between the supervisor level, control level and field level, control level and field
level. Horizontal communication takes place, for example, between different subsystems within a level.

At the field level, the input signals are received from the sensors and the output signals are transferred to
actuators.

At the control level, open-loop and closed-loop control of process is performed. The signals from the field
level are collected and contrally processed.

At the supervisory level, the

procedures are visualized for
the user and process data is
archieved.

Why is vertical
communication across all
levels necessary with
Industrial Ethernet? An
integrated network across all
levels of automation enables
process and procedures to be
optimized and supports a
flexible response to changes.

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ISO/ OSI analogy

In general, every tranfer, whether of goods or data, can be mapped onto the ISO/OSI reference model.
The model provies a framwork which gives the individual steps executed during communication a
logical structure.

Let us consider the example of sending a parcel. You are planning to send a present to a relative. The
intention to send the present corresponds to the application layer in the ISO/OSI model.

The present is packed into a parcel for transport; the package has a more standardized shape which will
make transport easier. In the ISO/OSI model this represents the presentation layer.

You will normally have access to specific control instruments for safeguarding parcel delivery. You are
given a receipt, you can insure the parcel separtely, track the shipment, and ask the recipient whether
they received the present or not. In the ISO/OSI model, the transport layer ensure the security of the
data packets.

In the next step, the post office checks the address. The country and town are then unambiguously
defined for delivery. In the ISO/OSI model, this corresponds to the network layer in which the IP
address of the network node is specified.

In the final step, the parcel is sent over the transport route available. In the ISO/ OSI model, we refer to
the physical layer which defines the medimum for the transmission. Of course, this example only
provides a rough explanation of how the model functions. The process performed in reality are more
complex. It should , however, be clear how they interact.

After you have brought the parcel to the post office, it is prepared for transport. It is weighed and
measured. If you present has to be split into separte parcels, these will be assigned to an over
shipment. In the ISO/OSI model, we are now in the session layer.

The name of the recipient is then checked. In the ISO/OSI model, we refer to the data link layer and the
associated MAC address.

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ISO/ OSI reference model

Layer 1 to 4 are network-based and define all the processes the are required for transporting the parcel
from the sender to the recipient. In the example for parcel shipment, the safety mechanisms for tracking the
parcel, address name of recipient and transport routes that the parcel should take are defined here. Layers 5
to 7 are application-oriented and are responsible for data interpretation. In the case of parcel shipment, this
concerns the weight, size and intended use.

In the data transmission process, the individual layers are executed twice. Starting from the application
layer, through to the physical layer, all the data from the sender is prepared for transmission. When this has
been completed, transmission to the recipient is perfromed, the data is received by the recipient and
processed from Layer 1 to Layer 7.

The familiar presentation format of the ISO/OSI reference model indicates subdivision into 7 layers. These
form the basic of communication via multi-vendor system, protocols and networks. The model is subdivided
into two blocks.

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Question to test your understanding: Application with Industrial Ethenet

Question to test your understanding: OSI/ISO reference model

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What you have learned

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Chapter 2: Application-oriented layers
Slide

Script

This chapter explains in detail the so-called application layers of the ISO/ OSI model, which task it is to prepare
data for transmission. You specify which protocol is used, that is, how the data should be interpreted; they are
therefore also known as interpretation layers.

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Application-oriented layers, based on the example of parcel shipment

Consider the following situation: A man would like to surprise the one he loves and send her some small
gifts. Expressed plainly, the man assumes that the girl will be extremenly pleased with the present itself,
and will also interpret the intention that lay behind it correctly.

Mapped onto the ISO/OSI model we are referring to the application layer here, which contains basic
services and protocols such as FTP file transfer or email services.

In the next step, the present is packed into an easily transportable format by the man. This is important
for shipping, because the transport route and transport time can be estimated better when the
characteristic values such as number, size, weight and form are known quantities. A uniform format is
essential for efficient transport. In the ISO/ OSI model, this corresponds to the presentation layer. The
focus here is on independence from the format of the data to be sent. The data is converted into a
uniform intermediate format for sending. This enables a correct interpretaiton by the computers
participating at the connectoin. On receipt, the intermediate format is converted back to the computer-
specific format.

After the man has informed his girlfriend parcel is on its way to her and ensured that she will accept the
parcel, he takes it to the post office. Here, it is then prepared for transport. The parcel is weighed to
detemined the price category, for example.

These processes are defined in the ISO/OSI model in the session layer. It organizes dialog bewteen the
communicating partners, ensures setup, maintenance and termination of the connection, as well as
synchronization of the data stream between application processes. The first three process steps in
sending packets, corresponding to the layers of the ISO/OSI model, are application oriented. The packets
to be sent are assigned to the correct protocol and packed in a uniform format ready for transport. This
ensures thatt they are correctly interpreted by the communication partner.

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Relationship between services and ports

When sending present through the mail, we have a number of options with regard to format.

Percels, of course, which can vary in size. This is important to you in terms of the shipping cost. And the cost
can also be affected by the weight of the parcel.

You can also select the smaller formats, such as large letters, standard letters or postcards.

You can also select smaller formats, such as large lettes, standard letters or postcards.

You use the format apporporate to the item that you want to send. A present will not fil on as postcard, and a
holiday greeting would not be sent in a percel.

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 In the ISO/ OSI model, services life behind the formats. These services match the data packets to the
applications. The application specifies the service it has used in the data packet. This is how the receving end
knows which service was used, enabling the packet to then be correctly interpreted. The service is identified
in the packet by means of so-called ports which are part of the network address.

Without ports, emails for example would never arrive at the correct destination or be assigned to the correct
program; they would be interpreted wrongly or displayed incorrectely. As if the present was not delivered to
the girlfriend, but to her best friend instead.

A distinction is made between standardized and registered ports. Standardized ports are permanently
defined and assigned to specific services. Registered ports are preselected, but can be reserved by users with
any service. The diagram shows a selection of ports and their assignment to the corresponding services. In
the third gorup, there are the dynamic ports to which no special services are assigned.

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Application-oriented layers in the ISO/OSI model

The services and ports can be found in the application-oriented layers of the ISO/OSI model.

The top layer is responsible for access to all network resources. It contains services, for example for FTP or
email. The data is transferred to the presentation layer below by means of the appropriate ports.

In the presentation layer, the data must be converted to a generalized format, because computer systems use
different coding.

The session layer organizes the dialog between the communication partners. It ensures setup and
maintaining of the link during data transmission as well as connection termination. It also synchronizes the
data steam between applicaion processes.

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Question to test your understanding: Range of standardized ports

Question to test your understanding: Service and ports

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Question to test your understanding: Application-oriented layers

What you have learned

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Chapter 3: Addressing and transport of date packets
Slide

Script

In Chapter 3 you will find out more about the network-oriented layers. After working through the chapter you
will understand in detail how network nodes are addressed in the ISO/OSI model and how data packets are
subsequently transported.

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Transport layer, based on the example of parcel shipment

If you want to send or receive a percel, you need to be sure that it will arrive.

You could transport the parcel yourself which would be the safest method. This is normally not practical, so
you can task a logistics company with shipping.

In this case, you have a choice of control mechanisms which ensure that the parcel will also arrive at the
recipient. One possible would be to take out additional insurance.

Logistics companies normally implment tracking systems that you can use to establish the section of the
route in which the parcel is located at a given time.

In the case of loss, you or the recipient can request investigation. As the sender of the parcel, you therefore
have vairous measures at your disposal to ensure sucessful transport.

Mapped onto the ISO/OSI model, the arrival of data packets can be confirmed in the transport layer by
acknowledgements. Certain automatic mechanisms are implemented which, for example, repeat data
transmission in the event of loss of data. The principle therefore has a lot of similarities to secure parcel
delivery.

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Connection-oriented and connection-free network protocols

In the industrial environment, machines and controller are network nodes that send data packets and which
therefore depend on loss-free data transmission. Let us assume that the sender is a controller and a conveyor
belt and a positioner are the recipients.

With reference to the ISO/OSI model, we are now in the transport layer. This has nothing to do with
transporting products on a conveyor belt, but concerns only data transmission and communication of network
nodes.

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 There are two important protocols in the transport layer. Both protocols are defined by fixed function
sequences which spcify data packet transmission to be either connection-oriented or connection-free.

Transmission Control Protocol, abbreviated to TCP, is defined as follows. Every TCP data connection has a
sender and a receiver.

Before data transmission, a connection is established between the network partners through which the
nodes can communicate with each other. The connection is set up by menas of a 3-way handshake. If
necessary, TCP can split the data into serveral smaller data packets for transmission. Each data packet is
marked for later indentification. When the data is received, it can be sorted and recombined into a data
stream. Lost packets are automacilly detected by TCP and requested again. This protocol is used when
important information is exchanged, for example, when loading new firmware.

Apart from te ability to send data connection-orientaed over TCP, there is also a connection-free variant
via UDP. Data is also sent in this case from a sender to a receiver. In contract to TCP, receipt of data is not
ackowledged. The data packets are not marked, so UDP is not able to sort the data stream.

The user is responsible or assembling the data stream. UDP is used in time-cirtical applications in which
the loss of individual packets does not play a major role. In an Internet telephone service, for example,
individual data packages can be discounted. Crackles on the line or slight distortions will not be noticed,
but time delays caused by acknowledgement of packets would, however, cause annoyance.

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Ensures loss-free transmission using the 3 –way handshake

Before two communication partners exchange data over TCP, a connection must be set up. The 3-way
handshake which specifies the connection partners is used for this pupose.

As the name suggests, the 3-way handshake involves a three-stage process.

In the first step, the sender sends a suggestion for setting up a connection with certain paramenters to the
recipiennt, the so-called “synchronization request” (SYN). The controller specifies a specifie packet size,
transmission speed or packet repeat rate, in order to enable a connetion to the conveyor belt to be set up.

The conveyor belt now has to decide whether it wants to allow the connection to be set up. If it agrees, it
returns an acknowledge for the synchronization request (SYN, ACK) and either confirms the sepecified
paramenters or makes an alternative suggestion, or example a lower transmission speed.

In the final step, the controller confirms to the conveyor belt with an acknowledgement (ACK) that the
connection has been set up.

Connection setup has now been completed and data transmission can begin. Data can be exchanged
between the sender and receiver by means of the negotiatead method until the connection is cleared
down.

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Question to test you understanding: Connection-oriented and connection-free network protocols

Question to test you understanding: 3-way handshake

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Network layer, based on the example of parcel shipment

Let us return to the example of shipping a parcel. After you, the sender, have delivered the parcel to the post
office, the address of the recipient that you have provided is checked. The country must be recognizable and,
of course, the exaxt address. Both are important for checking the route from the post office to the recipient.

In the context of the ISO/OSI model, the network layer controls transmission of data packets between the
sender and reciver. This involves addressing the nodes as well as route selection for the data packets.

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IP addresses- Address in the network

A device must have an address that is unique within the nework if it is to be accessed as node on Industrial
Ethernet. This is the IP address. It is comparable to the address of the recipient in the example of parcel
shipment. When the controller wants to communicate with the conveyor belt, it sends the packets to its IP
address. The two devices are not directly connected to the same network, so a router is used as an
intermediary.

IP stands for the Internet Protocol and is available in the variants IPv4 and Ipv6. An Ipv4 address compises 4
decimal numbers in the value range 0- to 255 which are separted by dots, eg. 172.16.1.12. In our example,
the conveyor belt with IP address 192.168.1.10 and the positionver with IP adresses 192.168.1.11 are in a
network. If the controller in the higher-level network wants to communicate with the conveyor belt, it
must communicate with the intermediary, i.e. router.

In general, all IP addresses for connecting to the Internet worldwide are assigned by IANA. In Germany,
they are assigned by DENIC. You therefore have no influence over the IP address that you are assigned at
home for conneting to the Internet.

Three private address ranges have been reserved, however, which are not used for the Internet and can be
used for local networks. These address ranges are aslo used for closed industrial networks,

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Subdivision of networks

In industrial plants, serveral hundred or even thousands of nodes communicate with each other. To
restrict the secondary effects of errors, it it essential to subdivide and group these nodes into
separated smaller networks.

As the number of machiines in the same network increases, the network load increases considerably,
so it is recommended that the plant is subdivided into different production areas. Each system is then
placed in a separate IP subnet. The size of the networks and assignment of stations to these networks is
specified with the subnet mask.

The subnet mask subdivides the IP address into a network address and device address. The graphic
shows the IP address and the subnet mask for a node in a network.

All bits of the IP –address at which the subnet mask seen binary consists of a 1 form the network
address.

The bits of the IP-address at which the subnet mask seen binary term consists of a 0 form the device
address of the participant.

If two nodes in a network want to communicate with each other without using a router, the network
address must be identical for each node. In this example, the first three bytes of the IP address are
identical and the condition is therefore satisfied.

The maximum number of nodes for this network is 254. Theoretically the 4th byte allows values from 0
to 255 to be used. Addresses o and 255 are, however, not possible as device addresses. The address of
the network itself is 0 and the broadcast address is 255, whereby all nodes of this network can be
addressed at the same time.

We see that subnet mask is always assigned to an IP address and it is this subnet mask which
determines the size of the network and the number of nodes. It is not simply a case of assigning a
unique address in the relevant network to the nodes, it is also specified which nodes are situated in the
local network and which have to communicate with each other via an intermediary router.

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Router

What are routers exactly? Routers can be compared with large post office logistics centres. In the example of
parcel shipment, the parcels are sent to the destination town from here. In IP networks, routher perform the
task of forwarding data packets to the subnet in which the device is located. In contract to other devices, a
routher has several IP address via which it can access the subnets.

The controller and positioner are located in different subnets. Communication can, therefore, only take place
via a routher.

A route tries to forward every data packet that arrives to the correct subnet. The router refers to a locally
available routing table that sepcifies which router interface can access which subnet.

The data package is then forwarded correctly in accordance with its destination address. The task of routers,
therefore, is to connect the IP subnets.

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Data lin layer, based on the example of parcel shipment

Back to the example of parcel shipment: To ensure that the parcel reaches the recipient it is checked whether
the data of the person, such as the name, is associated with the specified destination address.

A check is also made to ensure the the shipment contains all the associated parcels.

With reference to the ISO/OSI mode, this represents the data link layer. It represents the checking stage of the
past office and ensures that data packets are transmitted to the correct recipient error-free. An important
detail in this layer is the MAC address.

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MAC addresses- Unique address of a network node

The Media Access Control address (MAC address), is a globally unique device identifier that is assigned in the
factory by the manufacturer. It is 6 bytes long and can be compared to personal data, such as the name of
the recipient, used for parcel shipment.

The first three bytes of a MAC address identify the manufacturer of the network device, and are assigned
worldwide by the IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The subsequence three bytes are
assigned individually by each manufacturer for the interfaces of the device.

Before the controller can transfer data to the positioner, it first requries the MAC address of the positioner
so that it can uniquely identify the device in the network and communicate with it via the network adaptars
and network nodes, such as switches.

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Switch- Direct forwarding of packets

Switches can be compared to the person delivering parcels who is responsible for the correct distribution
of percels at a location.

A switch is an extermly fast packet forwarding system and is used to subdivide local networks into
segments.

Every port of a switch form a separated network segment with its own collision domain. A switch not only
increases the performance capability of the overall network, but also that of each individual segment.

In contract to a hub, packets are not sent out to every port, but only to the port where the destination is
located.

A switch contains a forwading table for this purpose in whch each MAC address is assigned to a certain
port. So are incoming data packet is checked for its recipient MAC address and then forwarded directly to
the port behind which the device located according to the table.

A switch can establish muitiple connections simultaneously between pairs of ports, thus considerably
decreasing collision overhead.

Switches can forward the packets in accordance with various different procedures. You can find out more
about this in the glossary.

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Network topologies

As with parcel shipment, it is important to know the routes by which the packet will be sent so that the
optimum delivery route can be identified and overloading of specific branches can be prevented.
Normally, many parcels are sent on the same day. In Industrial Ethernet, the structure of the network
usually depends on the task that a plant has to perform. There are four typical network topologies: Star,
Line, Tree and Ring.

Star topology is characterized by the use of a central network component with individual connections to
all nodes of the network. Advantages include the flexible addidtion and removal of stations, as well as the
easy administration and diagnosis of networks. It is important to note, however, the high cost in terms of
the amount of cable laid, the wiring overhead and the reduced availability due to the central swith.

In line topology, network nodes are connected in a linear sequence. This is advantageous when costs have
to be saved in the cabling of widely distributed systems due to the shorter cable lengths and reduced
wiring overhead. Failure of a node in a line topology will not result in failue of the entire network, but
only a section of it.

Tree topology is an enchancement of star and line topology in which several stars and lines are
interconnected to form an overall network. The advantage here lies in the high transmission capacity of
the overall network, with local data traffic remaining within a star point, as well as in the high available of
the independent areas and reduced cabling cost as compared to the central star. The disadvantage is that
when a higher-level star point fails, communication between neighboring network segments is also
interrupted.

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 Switches can be compared to the person delivering parcels who is responsible for the correct distribution of
percels at a location.

Ring topologies are ideal for creating redundant networks to protect against expensive network downtimes.
They can be seen as an enhanced line topology in which the ends of a line cab be closed with an additional
connection. The ring topology is particularly beneficial in the event of a cable break in the ring. In this case,
the ring simply reconfigures itself such that the forwarding routes in the switches are adapted and all
network nodes remain accessible.

In partical networks, all four types of network topology are normally present in a hybrid structure. Once
networks have been configured, they are rarely adapted or expanded for reasons of cost. Networks are
usually then only modified, according to their topology, in the event of plant expansion.

Question to test your understanding: IP addresses

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Question: Coupling applications

What you have learned

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Chapter 4: Transmission media and procedures

Slide

Script

In Chapter 4 you will learn, about the lowest layer of the ISO/OSI model, the physical layer. This includes the
transmissions media, cabling systems and transmission technologies that are used for transmitting data bits
over Industrial Ethernet.

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Physical layer, based on the example of parcel shipment

You don’t normally know what exact route your parcel will take. And you don’t need to know it. It is only
important that the parcel is received quickly and within the expected time by the recipient.

You are aware, however, that different routes can be taken.

Once you have handed in your parcel at a post office, it may be transferred to a different post office or
depot is connected to further delivery times due to their different natures. Depending on the number of
depts and the distance between them, a parcel may arrive faster than expected, as expected, or even late.

If you have ever ordered something on the internet, you will know that you can influence the delivery time
by selecting a different mode of delivery, such as standard or express. This means that, in this case, the
parcel delivery company determines the best route for ensuring arrival within the agreed delivery tim. In
the case of express delivery, a faster route will be used than for standard delivery.

In the case of the ISO/OSI model, the parcel transport network is represented by the physical layer, i.e. the
first layer. This is responsible for the correct transmission of single bits over the physical channel. It has the
task of encoding the signals, specifying the transmission medium, and accessing the transmission media.

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Transmission media

In the example for parcel shipment, air, water, vehicles, ships, roads, etc. can be compared to the
transmission media in the physical layer. These are the carriers of the information. Transmission media in
networks can vary in accordance with the field of application, requirements and the environment. We make
a distinction here between data transmission conducted by wire, light or radio.

Information is transmitted by light using fibre-optic cables. These are used to cover long distances, for
example. They are unaffected by electromagnetic interference.

Wireless radio transmission is used in mobile applications in particular. In the case of non- stationary
components, it is not usually possible for cables to be laid, or if trailing cables were implemented the wear
would be too severe and not cost-effective. So-called slip rings are also error-prone and demend a high
maintenance effort. Wire is the most widely used and economical transmission medium. When used in
industry, however, it has to withstand the harshest environment conditions, so special shielding is
necessary.

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Cabling

In industry, as in parcel shipment, stable connections and routes are required between the individual devices.
If a traffic network is unable to meet the requirements, parcels will only be delivered at random times,
incompletely or not at all.

The cabling and connection systems in industrial applications must satisfy considerably higher requirements
than in this office environment. The requirements here are based on cable routing indoors and outdoors, as
well as exposure to chemical substances, extreme temperature variations and pollution. Flexible
implementation in moving applications, such as robots and cranes, may also be a requirement.

The so-called twisted pair cables are a mainstay of industrial cabling technology. These are cable lines that
are twisted together in pairs. In contrast to Ethernet cables in office networks, Industrial Ethernet cables
have a special structure, which affords them better protection from magnetic and electrical interference.

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 If you cut open a twisted pair cable, you would see the following. The plastic-insulated copper conductors in
the center are known as cores. Their thickness will vary in accordance with type of use, rigid or flexible. The
thicker the cable, the more rigid it will be. Each pair or cores is twisted together and enclosed in insulation
and the cable jacket. The metallic sheathing also has an isolating function. It is known as the shield.

For direct connections between two network nodes, Ethernet cables can be up to 100 m long. If greater
distances have to be covered, additional measures have to be taken, such as installing additional network
nodes.

It is also important to make the correct choice of connector with regard to strain-relief and ruggedness.
Cable connectors and cables have to be secure and reliable, as well as able to withstand the harsh industrial
conditions. The types normally used in the office environment are inadequate here.

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CSMA/CD – Access procedure

In classical Ethernet, all the devices are connected to the same cable line. The Ethernet devices are totally
independent of each other. As higher-level network master, such as PROFIBUS-DP, does not exist. The
devices therefore compete for access to the bus, making access control measures necessary. Access control
itself is a task of the data link layer. It must be able to detect when two or more devices try to transmit
simultaneously. For this reason, Ethernet uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
method, abbreviated to CSMA/CD.

In CSMA/CD, all devices constantly check the transmission medium for data traffic. Since all devices have the
same priority level with regard to sending data, it is necessary to not only check the transmission medium
prior to sending, but also during sending itself, in order to detect collisions and implement countermeasures.
The CSMA/CD method is performed as follows.

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 In the first step, all devices listen to the transmission medium. The check whether the medium is free and
whether the medium is free and whether data can be sent. If the transmission medium is free, the second
step of sending is performed. If transmission is not possible, the network node continues to listen. In the
example, data is to be transferred from Device 1 to Device 3.

If the transmission medium is free, the device starts to send. Since other devices are also abel to send
simultaneously, the sender continues to listen to the transmission in order to detect any potential
collissions.

If transmission is completed without a collission, Device 3 recognizes from the recipient address withing
the data packet that the data is intended for it and therefore accepts it. All other devices ignore the
packet.

So how do collisions occur? All cable have a specific propagation time. Device 2 can, therefore,
mistakenly detect that the medium is free because the signal already being sent by Device 1 has not yet
arrived at Device 2.

If Device 2 now starts to send, a collision will occur. If a sending device detects a collission, it will stop
transmitting immediately and send a collision signal. On receiving the collision signal, all immediately and
all is quiet on the cable.

After a randomly generated waiting time, the devices that want to send start another attempt. If this fails
too, the waiting time is extended. After 16 collisions in succession, the access algorithm is terminated and
the higher-level application has to decide on further actions.

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Question to test your understanding: Physical layer

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What you have learned

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Chapter 5: Summary

Slide

Script

Chapter 5 serves as revision of the preceding chapters. You will find summay here of the importance of
Indusgtrial Ethernet and the ISO/OSI reference model for communication in industrial networks.

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Industrial Ethernet in industrial in industry

The Ethernet standard is gaining ground in industry. As you have already learned, Industrial Ethernet
prevades all levels of automation in industry and links them together. Data communication operates both
horizontally, that is within the levels, and vertically from one level to the next. Industrial Ethernet is used to
achieve uniform networking of all the components involved in the production process from the supervision
level through the control level as far as the field level. With well-proved protocols and interfaces, time-
proven in the office environment, Ethernet also provides quality assurance and monitoring for all production
processes involved. This communication is essential for production process. Communication systems require
an appropirate topology in order to perform complex and varied tasks. This ensures that data is transmitted
efficiently and varies tasks. This ensures that data is transmitted efficiently and sources of error are identified
quickly. Industrial Ethernet networks are structured above all in accordance with task that a plant performs;
different topologies have established themselves, as explained in Chapter 3.

All four topologies are normally encountered in a network, because different tasks and conditions have to be
mastered within it. A network, as shown in the diagram, is normally installed once only. Subsequent
modification is minimal, and very rare for reasons of cost. The structure of a network is normally only modified
in the context of expansions. The requirements for industrial networks that exceed those for office networks
include industry-compatible connection systems, high temperature stability and resistance to electromagnetic
interference. The required increased availability with short response times is ensured by special topologies
and redundant network structures.

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Industrial Ethernet and the ISO/ OSI reference model

All forms of communication can be mapped onto the ISO/OSI reference model. This also includes animal and
human communication. The model is especially useful, however, in the area of industrial communication. The
high number of possible applications, with Industrial Ethernet in particular, introduces as multiplicity of
complex communication tasks and funcions. The ISO/OSI reference model is a useful tool for structuring and
mapping them. It also ensures that a wide range of different forms communication are supported between
products from different manufacturers. If we consider communication between two network nodes, the
seven layers of the model are tun through twice when information is exchanged, starting from the applicaion
layer through to the physical layer and back again. In simple terms, the data is prepared for transmission by
the sender. Transmission starts and finally the data is processed by the recipient.

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 Let’s have a look at the procecure from the ISO/OSI reference model. Considering the example of the
need to change a tag at the positioner, as prompted by the controller, the following steps are executed.
In the application layer, the data is changed in the user interface of the controller. This is the starting
point for communicaion. In the example of sending a parcel, this represents the initiative shipping. In the
form of data, the tags to be changed are then converted in the presentation layer into a system-
independent intermediate format to enable them to be correctely interpreted by the positionier the
intermediate format is converted back to the computer specific format. This layer is comparale to packing
and unpacking the contents of the parcel. The contorl level provides mechnisms which make
communication possible between the controller and positioner.

Communication between the devices with regard to setting up, maintaining and terminating a connection
are organized here. In the parcel shipment analogy, this corresponds to corrdination measures between
the sender and recipient with regard to percel shipment.

The transport layer ensures loss-free data transmission. Data streams are segmented, for example, and
data is sent repeatedly if it is lost. In comparison with sending a percel through the mail, this concerns all
the mesures that are taken to ensure that the parcel is actually sent and that it is received by the
recipient. The network layer ensures that the receiver is addressed correctly and that the correct route is
selected from the sender to the receiver. Networks can also be segmented in order to reduce the load on
the network. In the data link layer, measures are taken to control access to the transmission medium.
This corresponds to checking the parcel for a complete and correct address. The data is then transferred
over the transmission medium.

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 The physical layer ensures that transmission is performed correctly. It encodes the signals and addresses the
transmission medium. In the physical layer ensures that transmission is performed correctly. It encodes the
signals and addresses the transmission medium. In the example of parcel shipment, this involves transferring
the parcel to the medium, e.g. the postal service, which will then transfer the parcel to its destination by
means of mail van, road network and air traffic network. When all seven layers have been traversed starting
from the sender, all of them will be processed in reverse order at the recipient’s before the data containing
the changed tag values have arrived at the positioner and been proceed by it.

What you have learned.

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Answer Keys
Chapter 1:
Test your understanding: Applications with Industrial Ethernet

Question to test your understanding: Application with Industrial Ethenet

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Question to test your understanding: OSI/ISO reference model

Question to test your understanding: Range of standardized ports

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Chapter 2:
Question to test your understanding: Service and ports

Question to test your understanding: Application-oriented layers

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Chapter 3:
Question to test you understanding: Connection-oriented and connection-free network protocols

Question to test you understanding: 3-way handshake

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Question to test your understanding: IP addresses

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Question: Coupling applications

Chapter 4:
Question to test your understanding: Physical layer

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