Australian Journal of Education, Vol. 34, No.

1, 1990, 41-51

Determinants of Teacher Stress

Pauline R. O'Connor Valerie A. Clarke

University of Tasmania Deakin University

Questionnaire data collected from a sample of 238 Australian teachers drawn from
primary and secondary, government and non-government schools, were used to iden-
tify the factors associated with stress arising from four aspects of the teaching role:
time/work-load pressures, student factors, school administration/staff tensions, and
employment/community factors. About a third of the teachers reponed a considerably
high level of job stress. The greatest sources of stress were time and work-load pres-
sures, which were related to being female, permanently employed, committed to
teaching, and seeing oneself as conscientious, shy and unhappy. Stress arising from
student factors was related to being female, highly committed to teaching, degree-
trained rather than certificate-trained, lacking masculinity and lacking self-sufficiency.
System and community-related stress was associated with teaching higher grade levels,
a perceived lack of promotional opportunities, being employed in the government
rather than the non-government system, being unwilling to take risks and being under-
standing. Stress associated with the school administration did not relate to any identi-
fiable variables. All four areas of stress were positively associated with the use of
emotion-focused appraisals, but did not relate systematically to the use of problem-
focused appraisals despite the relatively high incidence of these appraisals. Implica-
tions of the findings are discussed.
That teaching is one of the most potentially stressful occupations is now a major
international concern (Kyriacou, 1987). Claims are being made that school
teachers in Australia are quite seriously stressed (Otto, 1986) and that this has
economic, educational and personal implications. Teacher stress has economic
implications because of the need to allow teachers to retire early or to take sick
leave to recover from stress. There are also educational implications, in that many
students are being taught by teachers whose competence is reduced because of
high levels of stress, while other students are subjected to changes of teachers
during an academic year through teacher stress. At a personal level, stress affects
the general health and well-being of the individuals concerned.
Otto (1986) provides a model which defines stress as a lack of fit between (a) the
external demands of the situation (e.g. role expectations), (b) the external
resources and constraints (e.g, material resources, time, information, social sup-
port, control over the situation), (c) the internal demands of the individual (e.g.
expectations, ideals arising from needs and values), and (d) the internal resources
and constraints perceived by the individual (e.g. skill, coping resources). Stress, or
rather distress, occurs when the demands exceed the resources or when there is a
discrepancy between the teacher's capacities, needs and expectations on the one
hand, and the occupational demands and opportunities on the other. Thus the
experience of stress occurs when 'aspects of one's work or life situation are per-
ceived as frustrating, worrying, excessively or insufficiently demanding, or
41
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42 Australian Journal of Education

threatening to one's security, confidence or desired self-image' (Otto, 1986,

p. 36). Such frustrations or demands may arise in one or more of four relatively
distinct parts of the teacher's occupational role. The areas are (a) the overall time
and work-load pressures which arise from the sheer amount of work to be com-
pleted within a given period of time, (b) the daily interaction-with students,
including student-behaviour problems which might occur while the teacher is
completing routine educational and administrative tasks, as well as coping with
the individual demands of students' more personal problems, (c) the interactions
with fellow professionals within the school, including tensions arising from re-
lationships with both the school administration and with other members of staff,
and (d) the interactions extending outside the school, including relations with the
education system and perceptions of negative community attitudes towards
teachers individually or the teaching profession generally. Whether or not stress
will result in ill-health depends on the duration and intensity of the perceived
stress and the available coping resources. This model allows for infinite indi-
vidual variability, as these demands and resources are likely to be markedly
different for every individual teacher. At the same time, the model is compatible
with research which suggests that there may be specific situational or personality
variables which relate to perceived levels of stress among teachers.

Situetionel end Commitment Fectors

The relationship between stress and each of a number of separate situational
factors has been documented: age (Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982); gender (Rottier,
Kelly, & Tomhave, 1983; Zappert & Weinstein, 1985); marital status (Herman &
Gyllstrom, 1977); school system (government, independent) (Laughlin, 1984);
type of school (primary, secondary) (Tupes, 1986);school location (metropolitan,
provincial, rural) (McGuire, 1979); school size (Reese, 1986); year level taught,
employment status (full-time/part-time, permanent/temporary); work allocation
(teaching/administration), perceived promotional prospects, and commitment to
teaching (Otto, 1986).
Despite the relatively high level of agreement as to the factors which may relate
to stress, the nature ofthese relationships is often unclear. Age, for example, has
been shown to relate significantly to stress, but some researchers have reported
that younger teachers (20 to 29 years) suffer higher stress (Schwab & Iwanicki,
1982), while other researchers have shown that older teachers (41 to 50 years) are
more likely to be stressed (Rottier et al., 1983). Gender can also relate positivelyor
negatively to teacher stress. Although one study found that twice as many men
(62%) as women (31%) reported that 'their lack of job satisfaction was such that
they would consider leaving teaching for another profession' (Rottier et al., 1983,
p. 74), another study found that women gained higher mean scores (M=2.241)
than men (M = 2.059) on a 0 to 4 measure of job-related stress (Laughlin, 1984).
Similarly it is argued that marital status relates to stress in that married teachers
should be less stressed because of the social support provided by the marriage
partner, or that married women should be more stressed because of their dual

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 Determinants of Teacher Stress 43

roles as both teacher and home maker. Part-time workers should be less stressed,
as they have fewer time and work-load pressures, but they should be more stressed
as they have less job security, being the first to lose their positions in times of staff
retrenchments. Commitment may be either positively related to stress, as teach-
ers who are committed to teaching may remain in the profession despite high
levels of stress, or it may be negatively related to stress in that those who are
committed to teaching gain higher levels of job satisfaction which ameliorate the
potential effects of stress.
Apart from these inconsistencies, a high proportion of studies assess the rela-
tionship between stress and a subset of these factors without evaluating the
separate and collective contributions of a broad spectrum of possible situational
factors to perceived work-related stress and/or the role of personality factors or
non-work stressors. Further, most research reports significant differences
between groups in the frequencies of responses to individual items or in the global
mean scores, but fails to demonstrate the real meaning of these differences. Small
significant differences may in fact contribute very little to the overall prediction
of general levels of job stress. The inclusion of some indication of the proponion
of variance explained would be useful.

Personality Factors
Stress has been related to a number of personality characteristics or types. For
example, it is argued that Type A individuals who are characterised by a low
ability to relax, a strong sense of time pressure and a continual need for achieve-
ment are more stress prone than the more relaxed, easy-going Type B individuals
(McMichael, 1978). Similarly stress has been related to having an external rather
than a more internal locus of control (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1979), which may
influence both the primary and secondary appraisal of a potential stressor. For
example, teachers might report similar time and work-load pressures, but some
teachers may feel in control of the situation and perceive these pressures as a
challenge to become more efficient or to develop new skills, while other teachers
may feel more controlled by the system and may perceive these pressures as
threatening and hence a source of distress. Alternatively it is argued that some
personality characteristics are compatible with the demands of teaching, while
other characteristics are less compatible (Otto, 1986). Where characteristics are
less compatible, this incompatibility is a funher source of stress.

General Level of Stress

The appraisal of the perceived stressor within the work place may be influenced
by the current level of life stress. This may reflect a general tendency to respond
negatively to potential stressors, or the cumulative effect of both work and non-
work stressors. In either case, work stress needs to be considered within the con-
text of stress arising from other sources, such as study stress and private life
stress.

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44 Australian Journal of Education

Appraisal of Potential Stressora

Potential stressors are appraised differently by different individuals. What is seen
as a threat by one individual may be seen as a challenge by another individual.
Folkman and Lazarus (1980) have identified two distinctly different types of
appraisals of potential stressors: problem-oriented appraisals and emotion-
oriented appraisals. Problem-oriented appraisals are those where the individual
perceives the potential stressor as something which can be actively overcome,
changed or prevented. These include both actions aimed at directly changing
external conditions through either individual action (e.g. suggesting changes) or
group action (e.g, through a trade union), or increasing personal efforts to master
a situation through increasing problem-solving skills and coping resources (e.g,
further study). Emotion-oriented appraisals occur when the individual evaluates
the potential stressor as something with which one must cope, so attention is
directed to finding strategies which control the emotional experience of stress.
These include psychological processes which aim at changing the meaning or
experience of a situation (e.g. defence mechanisms, 'self-talk'), and physiological
processes (e.g, relaxation, diet, exercise, drugs) (Cox, 1978; Folkman & Lazarus,
1980). The individual's overall stress level may be partly dependent on the extent
to which either or both of these appraisals occur in response to different work-
related stressors, being lower where the appraisals are problem-oriented and clear
courses of action are apparent than in those cases where the individual perceives
that little can be done to remove or modify the stressors and directs attention to
reducing their psychological effects.

The Present Study

The study assessed the relationship between four aspects of work stress and
(a) measures of demographic and commitment factors, (b) personality variables,
(c) non-work stress, and (d) types of appraisals.

METHOD
Subjects
Data were collected by means of mailed questionnaires which were forwarded to
385 teachers enrolled in off-campus postgraduate education courses from Deakin
University. Of the questionnaires which were returned, 238 were usable, giving a
response rate of 62%. This sample could be described as atypical in that subjects
were engaged in further study and hence may be more committed to their careers
than teachers not engaged in further study, or that they might be more stressed
than other teachers because of the demands of their study commitments. On the
other hand, it includes teachers from a wider range of geographical areas and
greater number of schools than is usually possible in a sample of this size. Re-
spondents did not differ from non-respondents on any of the measures on which
they were compared: gender, number of units completed, or average grade
obtained on units completed.

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 Determinants of Teacher Stress 45

Questionnaire
Demographic and commitment variables The first part of the questionnaire
assessedsituational factors. Promotional prospects were rated as poor, fair, good
or excellent. Commitment to teaching wasassessedby asking respondents, 'If you
had your life over again, would you become a teacher?'. The responses were yes,
unsure and no.

Personality variables These were assessed by asking teachers to indicate the

extent to which each of 60 adjectives or phrases described their own
characteristics. They used a 7-point scale ranging from never or almost never true
(1), through occasionally true (4) to always or almost always true (7). Items
included warm, aggressive, efficient, adaptable, ambitious, reliable, dominant,
sincere, willing to take risks, and sensitive to the needs of others.

Global stress measures Three global measures of stress were included by ask-
ing, 'Taking all things together, how stressful have you found your job (study at
Deakin University, private life) over the last few months?'. Five responses were
provided ranging from 'not at all stressful' to 'extremely stressful'.

Work-related stress Frequency and intensity of work stressors were measured

by presenting, in random order, the 22 sources of teacher stress identified by Otto,
reflecting the four areas: (a) time and work-load pressures (5 items), (b) student
behaviour and student difficulties (5 items), (c) problems with school adminis-
tration and staff (6 items), and (d) relations with the organisation and negative
community attitudes (6 items). Respondents rated the frequency of occurrence of
each stressor using a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to very often (4). They
also rated the intensity of each stressor, using a 5-point scale ranging from not at
all stressful (0) to extremely stressful (4). A composite score for each of the four
areas was derived by computing the product of the frequency and intensity for
each item, then taking a mean of the items included in each scale. The inter-
correlations ofthe four scales varied from.45 to .52. Cronbach alpha coefficients
for the four scales were .85, .85, .78 and.77.

Appraisal of potential stressors The teachers appraised the work stressors in

terms of coping modes. Two modes of appraisal were used: problem-focused and
emotion-focused coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). A problem-focused
appraisal was indicated by endorsing the statement, 'In general, this situation is
one that I could change or do something about' or 'In general, I would need to
know more about this situation before acting'. An emotion-focused appraisal was
indicated by endorsing the statement, 'In general, this situation must be accepted
or adapted to' or 'In general, in this situation I would hold myself back from doing
what I wanted to'. Total scores were derived by counting the number of items for
which each mode was used.

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46 Australian Itnmtal of Education

RESULTS

Description of the sample

The sample contained more women (70%) than men (30%); 36% were single,
64% married. The majority taught in government schools (65%) rather than non-
government schools (35%), with more being in primary (73%) than secondary
(27%) schools. They were fairly evenly spread across schools located in capital
cities (38%), provincial cities (26%), and rural areas (36%). The majority were
classroom teachers (50%), although the sample also contained principals (6%),
deputy principals (4%), area co-ordinators (8%), and specialist subject teachers
(19%). Most were employed full-time (84%) rather than pan-time (16%),
although there were relatively high proportions of temporary (29%) and casual
teachers (10%) who lacked the benefits of permanent status (61%). The teachers'
levels of qualifications varied from a teaching certificate (29%), an undergrad-
uate diploma (13%), bachelors degree (34%), masters degree (24%) to a doctorate
(1%). Very few teachers perceived their promotional prospects to be excellent
(4%), with some seeing them as good (25%) and many as fair (38%) or poor (34%).
The majority of the teachers were committed to teaching. If they had their life
over again, 54% reported they would become teachers, although 31% were
unsure and 15% reponed that they would not become teachers.

Perceived Stress
On the global measure of teacher stress, 6% of the sample reponed that they
found their teaching job 'extremely stressful', 27% 'quite stressful', 33% 'of about
average stress', 24% 'somewhat stressful' and 10% 'not at all stressful'. This sug-
gests that stress may be a cause for concern for about a third of teachers, while the
remaining two-thirds feel that they do not experience more than average stress in
their job.
The mean score on the global measure of job stress (M = 2.96, SD = 1.07) was
identical to the mean score for study stress (M = 2.96, SD= 1.05). However their
assessment of both job stress and study stress was significantly higher than the
assessment of their private life stress (M=2.49, SD= 1.07) (t(l37)=5.06,p <.001;
and t(234) = 4.98, p<.OOI, respectively).
Within the teaching job, the highest level of stress occurred for time and work-
load pressures (M=6.34, SD=3.77), followed by student factors (M=4.63,
SD= 3.61), relations with the organisation and negative community attitudes
(M = 3.81, SD= 2.97), and problems with school administration and staff tensions
(M = 3.56, SD= 2.83). Although the means might appear to represent a moderate
level of stress, the comparatively high standard deviations suggest that only some
teachers are experiencing a relatively high level of stress in one or more of these
areas.
The relative importance of each of these potential stressors as contributors to
overall stress was assessed using a multiple regression with overall general stress
as the dependent variable and the individual stress measures as the independent

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 Determinants of Teacher Stress 47

variables. The greatest single contributor to overall stress was time and work-load
pressures (R2=.23, F(l,236) = 70.15, p<.OOI), with markedly smaller contribu-
tions being made by private life stress (R2 change = .05, F(2,235) = 44.98, p< .001),
school administration and staff tensions (R2 change = .04, F(3,234) = 37.28,
p<.OOI) and study stress (R2 change=.03, F(4,233) = 31.86, p<.OOI). Time and
work-load pressures accounted for more than four times the amount of variance
that was accounted for by any other source of stress.

Situational and Commitment Factors

The relationship of each of the demographic and commitment variables to stress
was assessed for each of the four job stress areas: time/work-load pressures,
student factors, school administration/staff tensions, and community attitudes.
T -tests were used for variables with two levels, analyses of variance for variables
with more than two levels, and correlations for continuous variables. Seven var-
iables were not significantly related to any of the stress measures: age, marital
status, annual salary, location of the school, position in the school, allocation of
duties between administration and teaching, or full- or part-time employment.
The relative contributions of the demographic factors and commitment variables
to each of the four teacher stress scales were assessed using three forward multiple
regression analyses. The dependent variables were the three stress measures: time
and work-load pressures, student factors, and system/community attitudes. As
none of the variables was significantly related to school administration and staff
tensions, a regression was not completed for this variable. For each dependent
variable, the independent variables were the ones which were identified as relat-
ing significantly to that variable.
For time and work-load pressures, 13% of the variance was accounted for by
three variables: gender (R2= .05, F(l,236) = 11.02, p<.OOl), tenure (R2
change=.04, F(2,235) = 13.67, p<.OOI) and commitment (R2 change=.04,
F(3,234) = 11.97,p<.001). Thus time and work-load stress related to being female,
employed in a permanent position and being committed to teaching.
Stress from student factors was significantly related to three variables: com-
mitment (R2=.07, F(l,236) = 17.65, p<.OOI), gender (R2 change=.02,
F(2,235) = 11.46, p<.OOI) and qualifications (R2 change=.02, F(2,234)=9.14,
p<.OOl). These variables accounted for 11% of the variance. Essentially stress
arising from student factors related to being committed to teaching, being female
and holding a degree rather than a teaching diploma or certificate.
Stress arising from relations to the employer system and negative community
attitudes was significantly related to three variables, accounting for 12% of the
variance: year level most frequently taught (R2=.06, F(l,236)=14.1S,p<.001),
promotional opportunities (R2 change=.04, F(2,235)=13.22, p<.OOI) and
employer (R2 change=.02, F(3,234) = 10.61, p<.OOl). Stress in this broader con-
text was greater for those teaching higher year levels, who perceived that they had
few prospects for promotion and were teaching in government schools rather
than non-government schools.

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48 Australian Journal of Education

Personality Variables
The relevant personality variables were identified using correlations. For each of
the stress measures, the personality characteristics which were correlated signif-
icantly at the .001 level with these measures were used as the independent
variables in regression analyses. For time and work-load pressures, three variables
were significant, accounting for 6% of the variance: conscientious (R2=.03,
F(l,236)=5.39, p<.Ol), shy (R2 change=.02%, F(2,235)=5.62, p<.Ol) and
unhappy (R2 change=.Ol, F(3,234)=5.20, p<.Ol). Two variables related to
student problems, accounting for 11% of the variance: lacking self-sufficiency
(R2=.08, F(1,236)=7.15, p<.OOl) and being masculine (R2 change=.03,
F(2,235) = 7.17, p< .001). None of the personality variables related significantly to
school factors as a source of stress. For system/community stressors, two factors
were significant, accounting for 7% of the variance: unwillingness to take risks
(R2=.04, F(l,236) = 10.57, p<.OOl) and being understanding (R2 change=.03,
F(2,235) = 8.19, p<.OOl)

Appralsa' of Potential Stressors

Emotion-focused appraisals were used marginally, but not significantly, more
frequently than problem-focused appraisals: emotion-focused appraisals:
M=8.50, SD=4.45; problem-focused appraisals, M=7.77, SD=4.13 (t(234)=
1.58, n.s.), However the appraisals were used in different areas. Problem-focused
appraisals were used more frequently in relation to stress arising from student
factors: problem-focused appraisals, M = 2.40, emotion-focused appraisals,
M = 1.4 (t(237) = 5.59, p<.OOl). On the other hand, emotion-focused appraisals
were used more frequently in relation to stress arising from time and work-load
pressures: emotion-focused appraisals, M = 2.46, problem-focused appraisals,
M= 1.75, (t(237)=3.98,p <.001); and stress arising from the employment system
and community attitudes: emotion-focused appraisals, M=2.57, problem-
focused appraisals, M= 1.45, (t(237) = 7.00, p<.OOl). Both appraisals were used
equally frequently in relation to stress arising from the school administration and
staff tensions: problem-focused appraisals, M = 2.16, emotion-focused appraisals,
M=(2.04, t(237)=0.71, n.s.).
Emotion-focused appraisals correlated positively and significantly with each of
the four teacher stress scales: time/work-load pressures, r= .50,p <.001; student
factors, r=.48, p <.001; school/administration, r=.44, p <.001; and system/
community, r= .49, p <.001. By contrast, problem-focused appraisals were un-
related to the stress scores, r= - .09, 0.05, .04 and -.06 respectively for time/
work-load pressures, student factors, school/administration and system/
community.

DISCUSSION
The overall level of job stress reported suggests that there may be a problem
within the teaching profession in Australia. About a third of the teachers in the

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 Determinants of Teacher Stress 49

sample reported that they experienced a high level of job stress. This stress occurs
more frequently in response to the daily hassles of coping with the amount of
work to be completed than from student factors, issues within the organisation of
the school, or matters within the employing system or the broader community.
This major role of time and work-load pressures in determining the overall level
of job stress (23% of the variance) indicates that stress is due to the time and
work-load demands of the job rather than to non-work factors, although these
may further increase stress levels. The demands being put on many teachers are
greater than their capacity to meet those demands. Given the widespread nature
of the problem, and its focus in one area of the job, stress appears to be due to the
nature of the job rather than a reflection of the characteristics of those individuals
who are being recruited into teaching.
From using the Otto (1986) framework, it appears that stress arises from a
discrepancy between the external demands placed on teachers to complete the
essential tasks of teaching, class preparation and marking and the resources avail-
able to them in terms of the time available to complete these tasks. The impli-
cations are clear. One way to reduce teacher stress is to reduce the overall work
requirements, and/or extend the limited time frames available to meet the many
demands of the job.
A key factor to emerge in relation to all areas of stress was the moderately strong
relationship between stress scores in each of the four work-related areas and the
reporting of emotion-focused appraisals. This contrasts with the lack of relation-
ship between problem-focused appraisals and stress levels. Given that problem-
focused and emotion-focused appraisals were both reported with almost equal
frequency, the positive relationship between emotion-focused appraisals and
stress levels indicates that these appraisals underlie feelings of stress. Essentially
stress is occurring in those areas where teachers feel that there is little or nothing
they can do to remove or modify the stressor and that they must learn to live with
the particular source of stress. Hence greater attention needs to be paid to the
development of more effective coping strategies or to changing the employment
system so that teachers do not feel that these stressors are beyond their control.
The employers could usefully respond to the obvious needs of teachers by intro-
ducing training programs in the identification and management of stress. These
need to focus on the development of skills which will facilitate a shift from
appraising potential stressors as being factors that are beyond the individual
teacher's control to appraisals leading to a more problem-focused coping
style.
The absence of significant relationships between many of the demographic,
commitment or personality variables and the stress measures indicates the lack of
importance of many of these factors. None of the four types of job stress related to
age, marital status, annual salary, location of the school, position in the school,
allocation of duties between administration and teaching, or full- or part-time
employment. However the variables that were identified as relating to stress pro-
vide guidelines for the further development of strategies to reduce stress among

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50 AwtTalian Journal 01Education

teachers and identify the groups of teachers who could most benefit from the
implementation of such stress-reduction strategies.
Within the profession, it appears that some groups of people may be experi-
encing more job-related stress than are others. Time and work-load pressures are
greatest among teachers who are women, who are permanent teachers, who are
highly committed to their profession, and who are conscientious and possibly a
little shy and unhappy in their job.It is likely that the shyness and unhappiness are
the products rather than sources of stress. They are likely to result from the
feelings of stress associated with being highly conscientious in a demanding job,
and from being so committed to their job that they are seeking to develop their
overall job competence through further study. These combined effects of work
stress and the demands of study are also reflected in higher levels of private life
stress. However the impact of these factors, while clearly statistically significant,
accounts for only 13% of the overall variance.
Stressors arising from student factors are greater among some groups of teach-
ers than among others. Stress in this area is related to being female, being
committed to teaching, being degree trained rather than college trained, and
seeing oneself as lacking self-sufficiency and masculinity. Again the perception
of lacking self-sufficiency and masculinity may reflect responses to stress,
whereby women feel that they need the male strength and power to cope with the
demands of students. The relationship between stress arising from student behav-
iours and the type of training that teachers had received could be interpreted as
showing that, relative to the more academically oriented degree programs, the
more practically oriented teaching certificate and diploma courses are more
effective in developing the skills and strategies that teachers need in order to
interact effectively with students. Stress reduction among teachers with more
academic qualifications may require the implementation of courses in the devel-
opment of interpersonal skills. Again the differences between groups of teachers
are highly statistically significant, but only account for 11% of the variance in the
overall stress levels.
Stressors stemming from the wider organisational and community factors are
more common among those teaching higher year levels in government schools
and who perceive that they lack promotional opportunities, especially if they are
unwilling to take risks and if they are understanding of the needs of others. These
teachers are people who have worked hard in order to be teaching the senior
classes, feel committed to their job and their students and colleagues, but feel
trapped in a system which offers few incentives. Reduction of stress in this area
requires the provision of greater recognition of these teachers' efforts.

Keywords
employer-employee relationship personality traits teachers
interpersonal competence stress variables teaching conditions

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 Determinants 0/ Teacher Stress 51

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AUTHORS
Pauline O'Connor is a postgraduate student in the Psychology Department, University
of Tasmania, GPO Box 252C, Hobart, Tasmania 7001. Dr Valerie Clarke is a Lecturer
in the Psychology Department, School of Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Vic-
toria 3217.

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