Hydrology Note 1

HYDROLOGY
K D W Nandalal
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Social Importance and Engineering Relevance 1

1.2 Definition 1
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle 2
2 PRECIPITATION 4
2.1 Precipitation Types 4

2.1.1 Convective Precipitation 5
2.1.2 Orographic Precipitation 5
2.1.3 Cyclonic Precipitation 6
2.2 Precipitation Variability 6
2.3 Distribution of Precipitation Input 8
2.4 Point Precipitation 9
2.4.1 Estimation of point rainfall at a given location
from recorded values at surrounding sites 9
2.5 Areal Precipitation 10
2.5.1 Arithmetic Mean Method 10
2.5.2 Thiessen Method 11
2.5.3 Isohytal Method 11
2.6 Estimating Missing Data 12
2.7 Double Mass Analysis 12
2.8 Interpretation and Quantification of Precipitation 13
2.8.1 Intensity 14
2.8.2 Cumulative rainfall diagram 15
2.8.3 Duration of Precipitation 16
2.9 Extrapolation of Point Measures to Watersheds 16
2.9.1 Depth and watershed volume 16
2.9.2 Intensity and Watershed Discharge 16
2.10 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Relationship 17
2.11 Design of Rain Gauge Networks 18
2.11.1 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges 18
3 HYDROLOGIC ABSTRACTIONS 20
3.1 Evaporation 20
3.1.1 Determination of Evaporation 21
3.1.2 Selection of a Method for Determining Evaporation 24
3.1.3 The Nature of Evaporating Surface 25
3.1.4 Evaporation Reduction 25
3.2 Transpiration 25
3.2.1 Estimation of Transpiration 26
3.2.2 Transpiration Reduction 26
3.3 Evapotranspiration 27
3.3.1 Estimation of Evapotranspiration 27
3.4 Initial Loss 31
3.4.1 Interception 31
3.4.2 Depression Storage 32
3.5 Infiltration 33
3.5.1 Measuring Infiltration 33
3.5.2 Calculation of Infiltration 34
3.5.3 Temporal and Spatial Variability of Infiltration Capacity 35
3.5.4 Phi (φ) Index 35
4 STREAMFLOW 37
4.1 Streamflow Measurements 37

4.2 Measurement of Stage 38
4.2.1 Staff gauge 38
4.2.2 Manually operated weight or electric sensors 38
4.2.3 Automatic recording gauges 39
4.2.4 Stage data 39
4.3 Stream Discharge 39
4.3.1 Velocity area Method 39
4.3.2 Weirs and Flumes 43
4.3.3 Dilution Method 43
4.4 Stage - Discharge Relations 44
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Hydrological Cycle 2

Figure 2.1 Convective precipitation 5
Figure 2.2 Orographic precipitation 5
Figure 2.3 Cyclonic precipitation 6
Figure 2.4 Mean annual rainfall in Sri Lanka 7
Figure 2.5 Precipitation variability in space and time 8
Figure 2.6 Intensity-duration-frequency curve 9
Figure 2.7 Estimation of rainfall at A 9
Figure 2.8 Thiessen method 11
Figure 2.9 Isohytal method 11
Figure 2.10 Station check by double mass curve 13
Figure 2.11 Rainfall hyetograph 14
Figure 2.12 Cumulative rainfall diagram 15
Figure 2.13 DAD curve for 1 day rainfall 17
Figure 2.14 Typical DAD curves 18
Figure 3.1 Average disposition of precipitation in the Walawe Ganga
catchment in Sri Lanka 20
Figure 3.2 Energy balance in a water body 22
Figure 3.3 A standard evaporation pan 24
Figure 3.4 Transpiration process 25
Figure 3.5 Typical interception loss curve 31
Figure 3.6 Flooding infiltrometer 34
Figure 3.7 The variation of infiltration capacity 35
Figure 3.8 Infiltration loss by f Index 36
Figure 4.1 Staff gauges 38
Figure 4.2 Weight or electric sensors 38
Figure 4.3 Floating gauge installation 39
Figure 4.4 Stage hydrograph 39
Figure 4.5 Cross section of a river - current meter measurements 41
Figure 4.6 Price current meter 41
Figure 4.7 Propeller current meter 42
Figure 4.8 Floats 43
Figure 4.9 Weirs and Flumes 43
Figure 4.10 Dilution method 44
Figure 4.11 Stage-discharge relationship 44
Figure 4.12 Rating curve 45
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Estimated world water quantities 3

Table 1.2 Global annual water balance 3
Table 2.1 Estimation of missing rainfall at station A 10
Table 2.2 Double mass analysis 13
Table 2.3 Computation of rainfall depth and intensity at a point 14
Table 3.1 Saturation vapour pressure of water 29
Table 3.2 Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere, Ha in mm
of evaporable water/day 29
Table 3.3 Mean monthly values of possible sunshine hours, N 29
Table 3.4 Typical infiltration rates at 1 hr 35
Table 4.1 Classification of flow measuring methods 37
Table 4.2 calculation of mean velocities 40
CE 205 Engineering Hydrology K D W Nandalal, 2010
1 INTRODUCTION
Water is the most abundant substance on earth, the principle constituent of all living things, and a
major force constantly shaping the surface of the earth. Hydrology, which treats all phases of the
earth's water, is a subject of great importance for people and their environment. The study and
practice of hydrology aids in explaining and quantifying the occurrence of water on, under and
over the earth's surface. Hydrology is both a scientific and engineering field of study. The subject
area is derived from many basic sciences such as mathematics, physics, meteorology and
geology.
1.1 Social Importance and Engineering Relevance

Many aspects of social life are dependent on the economic availability and acceptable quality of
water. The availability of water determines the basic existence of a society. Without sufficient water,
there would be no life, as it is known today. Thus, people educated and trained in a variety of water
related jobs are necessary. The modern society appears to be very dependent on water projects.
The use of concepts, ideas and methods of hydrology are found in both the public sector of the
governments and the private sector of an economy. Individuals with hydrologic background can
perform design calculations, collect hydrologic data, inspect construction, and conduct operations
and maintenance activities. There are many Hydrologic related work, including flood mitigation,
roadway drainage, irrigation systems, drainage work, navigation, water supply, pollution control,
recreation, hydropower development and ecological protection.
Certainly there is a tendency towards specialization, because details in design and operation are
necessary. But also, there are needs for the individual with general knowledge about the many
interactions of water projects. Water quantity control can be understood by knowing hydrologic
principles.
1.2 Definition
The science that treats the waters of the earth, their occurrence, circulation and distribution, their
chemical and physical properties and their reaction with the environment including their relation
to living things.
Emphasis in Engineering Hydrology: quantitative (How much water ? How often ?)
Quantative prediction are the basis for further engineering design.
Concern for maxima and frequency of maxima: Floods, droughts.
Department of Civil Engineering University of Peradeniya

1
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a simplified accounting of the complex interactions of meteorological,
biological, chemical and geological phenomena. It is the movement of water from surface water,
ground water and vegetation to the atmosphere and back to the earth in the form of precipitation as
shown in Figure 1.
The cycle has no beginning or end, and its many processes occur continuously. Water evaporates
from the oceans and the land surface to become part of the atmosphere; water vapour is
transported and lifted in the atmosphere until it condenses and precipitates on the land or oceans;
precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground
surface, infiltrate into the ground, flow through the soil as subsurface flow, and discharge into
streams as surface runoff. Much of the intercepted water and surface runoff returns to the
atmosphere through evaporation. The infiltrated water may percolate deeper to recharge
groundwater, later emerging in springs or seeping into streams to form surface runoff, and finally
flowing out to the sea or evaporating into the atmosphere as the hydrologic cycle continues.
Figure 1.1 Hydrological Cycle
Table 1.1 and 1.2 show the estimated quantities of water in various forms on the earth and global
annual water balance respectively.

2
Table 1.1 Estimated world water quantities
Percent of total Percent of fresh

Item Area (106 km2) Volume (km3)
water water
Ocean 361.3 1338000000 96.5
Groundwater
Fresh 134.8 10530000 0.76 30.1
Saline 134.8 12870000 0.93
Soil Moisture 82.0 16500 0.0012 0.05
Polar ice 16.0 24023500 1.7 68.6
Other ice and snow 0.3 340600 0.025 1.0
Lakes
Fresh 1.2 91000 0.007 0.26
Saline 0.8 85400 0.006
Marshes 2.7 11470 0.0008 0.03
Rivers 148.8 2120 0.0002 0.006
Biological water 510.0 1120 0.0001 0.003
Atmospheric water 510.0 12900 0.001 0.04
Total water 510.0 1385984610 100
Fresh water 148.8 35029210 2.5 100
Table 1.2 Global annual water balance
Ocean Land
2
Area (km ) 361300000 148800000
3
Precipitation (km /yr) 458000 119000
(mm/yr) 1270 800
Evaporation (km3/yr) 505000 72000

(mm/yr) 1400 484
Runoff to ocean
Rivers (km3/yr) - 44700
Groundwater (km3/yr) - 2200
Total runoff (km3/yr) - 47000
(mm/yr) - 316

3
2 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation includes all water, which falls from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface.
Eg. rainfall, snow, hail, sleet
Precipitation is derived from atmospheric water, its form and quantity thus being influenced by
the action of other climatic factors such as wind, temperature and atmospheric pressure.
The formation of precipitation requires the lifting of an air mass in the atmosphere so that it cools
and some of its moisture condenses. As air rises and cools, water condenses from the vapour to
the liquid state. If the temperature is below the freezing point, then ice crystals are formed
instead.
Condensation requires a seed called a condensation nucleus around which the water molecules
can attach. Particals of dust floating in air can act as condensation nuclei; particles containing
ions are effective nuclei because the ions electrostatically attract the polar-bonded water
molecules. Ions in the atmosphere include particles of salt derived from evaporated sea spray and
sulphur and nitrogen compounds resulting from combustion. The diameters of these particles
range from 10-3 to 10 μm and the particles are known as aerosols.
The tiny droplets grow by condensation and impact with their neighbours as they are carried by
turbulent air motion, until they become large enough so that he force of gravity overcomes that of
friction and they begin to fall, further increasing in size as they hit other droplets in the fall path.
However, as the drop falls, water evaporates from its surface and the drop size diminishes, so the
drop may be reduced to the size of an aerosol again and be carried upwards in the cloud through
turbulent action.
Up to about 1 mm in diameter, the droplets remain spherical in shape, but beyond this size they
begin to flatten out on the bottom until they are no longer stable falling through air and break up
into small raindrops. Normal raindrops falling through the cloud base are 0.1 to 3 mm in
diameter.
Cloud seeding is a process of artificially nucleating clouds to induce precipitation. Silver Iodide
is a common nucleating agent and is spread from aircraft in which a silver iodide solution is
evaporated with a propane flame to produce particles.
2.1 Precipitation Types

Precipitation could be classified according to the conditions that generate vertical air motion. In
this respect, the three major categories of precipitation types are convective, orographic and
cyclonic.

4
2.1.1 Convective Precipitation

This is the precipitation resulting from the upward movement of air due to heating. As the surface
of the earth gets heated the air nearer to it gets heated and as a result there would be differential
heating of the air. The hot air (which is less dense) as a result tends move upwards as shown in
Figure 2.1. If the air mass has a moisture content equal to condensation level, moisture will be
condensed from the rising, rapidly cooling air and cause precipitation. Convective precipitation
may be in the form of light showers or storms of extremely high intensity and short duration
(thunderstorms). This form of lifting is quite common in the tropics and specially come in the
evenings of a hot day.
Figure 2.1 Convective precipitation
2.1.2 Orographic Precipitation

Orographic precipitation results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents over
natural barriers such as mountain ranges as shown in Figure 2.2. Rainfall due to this phenomena
is generally steady continuous in nature and found in windward side of mountains.
Figure 2.2 Orographic precipitation

5
2.1.3 Cyclonic Precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation is associated with the movement of air masses from high pressure regions
to low pressure regions. The unequal heating of the earth’s surface creates these pressure
differences.
Cyclonic precipitation may be classified as frontal and nonfrontal. Lowering of atmospheric

pressure over an area can produce nonfrontal precipitation as air is lifted through horizontal
convergence of the inflow into a low pressure area. Frontal precipitation results from the lifting
of warm air over cold air at the contact zone between air masses having different characteristics
as shown in Figure 2.3. If the air masses are moving so that warm air replaces colder air, the front
is known as a warm front; if on the other hand, cold air displaces warm air, the front is said to be
cold. In both cases warm air is made to rise. Warm fronts have slopes 1:100 - 1:200, where as
cold fronts have slopes around 1:50. The intensity of precipitation associated with a cold front is
usually heavy and covers a relatively small area. Warm fronts bring less intense precipitation but
cover a much larger area. There are also signs of arrival of a warm front such as cloud thickening.
Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and thus warm air is lifted at a faster rate causing high
intensity of precipitation. Arrival of cold fronts has no warnings.
Figure 2.3 Cyclonic precipitation
2.2 Precipitation Variability

Precipitation varies geographically, temporally and seasonally. Figure 2.4 shows mean annual
rainfall for Sri Lanka while Figure 2.5 gives an example of temporal or seasonal differences.
Both regional and temporal variations in precipitation are important in water resources planning
and hydrologic studies.
Eg. It may be very important to know that the cycle of minimum precipitation coincides with the
peak growing season in a particular area, or that the period of heaviest rainfall should be avoided
in scheduling certain construction activities.
Precipitation amounts sometimes vary considerably within short distances.

6
Because precipitation varies spatially, it is usually necessary to use data from several gauges to
estimate the average precipitation for an area and to evaluate its reliability.
Time variation in rainfall intensity are extremely important in the rainfall-runoff process,
particularly in urban areas. The areal distribution is also significant and highly correlated with the
time history of outflow.
Figure 2.4 Mean annual rainfall in Sri Lanka

7
Figure 2.5 Precipitation variability in space and time
2.3 Distribution of Precipitation Input

Total precipitation is distributed in numerous ways. That intercepted by vegetation and trees may
be equivalent to the total precipitation input for relatively small storms. Once interception storage
is filled, raindrops begin falling from leaves and grass, where water stored on these surfaces
eventually becomes depleted through evaporation. Precipitation that reaches the ground may take
several paths. Some water will fill depressions and eventually evaporate; some will infiltrate the
soil. Part of the infiltrated water may strike relatively impervious strata near the soil surface and
flow approximately parallel to it as interflow until an outlet is reached. Other portions may
replenish soil moisture in the upper soil zone, and some infiltrated water may reach the
groundwater reservoir, which sustains dry weather streamflow. The component of the
precipitation input that exceeds the local infiltration rate will develop a film of water on the
surface (surface detention) until overland flow commences. Detention depth varying from 1/8 to
11/2 in for various conditions of slope and surface type have been reported. Overland flow
ultimately reaches defined channels and becomes streamflow.
The rate and areal distribution of runoff from a drainage basin are determined by a combination
of climatic and physiographic factors. Important climatic factors include the form of precipitation

8
(rain, snow, hail), the type of precipitation (convective, orographic, cyclonic), the quantity and
time distribution of the precipitation, the character of the regional vegetative cover, prevailing
evapotranspiration characteristics and the status of soil moisture reservoir.
Physiographic factors of significance include geometric properties of the drainage basin, land-use
characteristics, soil type, geologic structure and characteristics of drainage channels (geometry,
slope, roughness and storage capacity).
2.4 Point Precipitation

Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific locations. The resulting data permit
determination of the frequency and character of precipitation events in the vicinity of the site.
Point precipitation data are used collectively to estimate areal variability of rain and are also used
individually for developing design storm characteristics for small urban or other watersheds.
Point rainfall data are used to derive intensity-duration-frequency curves. Such a curve is shown
in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Intensity-duration-frequency curve
2.4.1 Estimation of point rainfall at a given location from recorded values at surrounding sites
This can be used to complete missing records or to determine a representative precipitation to be

used at the point of interest.
7
C
6
4
Y E
3
F D B
2
1
A
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
Figure 2.7 Estimation of rainfall at A

9
Consider that rainfall is to be calculated for point A in Figure 2.7. Establish a set of axes running
through A and determine the absolute coordinates of the nearest surrounding points B, C, D, E
and F. These are recorded in Table 2.1. The estimated precipitation at A is determined as a
weighted average of the other five points. The weights are reciprocals of the sum of the squares
of Δx and Δy; that is D2 = Δx2 + Δy2 and W = 1/ D2. The estimated rainfall at the point of interest
is given by ∑(PxW)/ ∑W.
Table 2.1 Estimation of missing rainfall at station A

Point Rainfall Δx Δy D2 Wx103 PxWx103
(in)
A ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
B 1.60 4 2 20 50 80.0
C 1.80 1 6 37 27 48.6
D 1.50 3 2 13 76.9 115.4
E 2.00 3 3 18 55.6 111.2
F 1.70 2 2 8 125.0 212.5
----------- ----------
Sums 334.5 567.7
Estimated precipitation at A = 567.7/334.5 = 1.70 in
2.5 Areal Precipitation

Precipitation levels are variable over large geographical areas. Air mass movements, topography,
and water/land locations are a few more important reasons for differences. Gauge recordings give
point rainfall since rainfall depth is measured at a point. Rainfall over an area has to be estimated
from these point measurements. Several such measurements are made over a catchment area or
drainage basin and total quantity of water falling on the catchment is evaluated. Usually, this is
expressed as average depth in mm over the catchment area and referred to as average areal
precipitation (or rainfall).
2.5.1 Arithmetic Mean Method

This is the simplest method of determining areal average rainfall. It involves averaging the
rainfall depths recorded at a number of gauges within the catchment area. This method is
satisfactory if the gauges are uniformly distributed over the area and the individual gauge
measurements do not vary greatly about the mean.
n
P = ∑P /n
i =1
i (2.1)
Where,
P = average precipitation depth,
P = precipitation depth at gauge i, and
n = total number of gauging stations.

10
2.5.2 Thiessen Method
Figure 2.8 Thiessen method
This method assumes that at any point in the watershed, the rainfall is the same as that at the
nearest gauge to the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a distance halfway to the
next station in any direction. The relative weights for each gauge are determined from the
corresponding areas of application in a Thiessen Polygon network, the boundaries of the polygon
being formed by the perpendicular bisectors of the lines joining adjacent gauges.
If there are J gauges and the area within the watershed assigned to each is Aj and Pj is the rainfall
recorded at the jth gauge, the areal average precipitation for the watershed is
J
1
P$ =
A
∑J=1
Aj Pj (2.2)
J
Where, the watershed area, A = ∑A
j=1
j
The Thiessen method is generally more accurate than the arithmetic mean method. Thiessen
method does not directly account for orographic influences on rainfall.
2.5.3 Isohytal Method
Figure 2.9 Isohytal method

11
This is considered as the most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area. In this
method Isohytals (lines of equal rainfall depth) are constructed using observed depths at rain
gauges and interpolation between adjacent gauges. Once the isohytal map is constructed, the area
Aj between each pair of isohytes, within the watershed, is measured and multiplied by the
average Pj of the rainfall depths of the two boundary isohytes to compute the areal average Pj of
the rainfall depths of the two boundary isohytes to compute the areal average precipitation.
2.6 Estimating Missing Data

Precipitation measuring stations sometimes fail in providing a continuous record of precipitation.
For example instruments do malfunction, for non-automatic recording gauge an individual may
fail to record the data or miss a visit to the site. Thus, there are generally missing data, the values
of which must be estimated. There are two commonly used procedures for estimating daily
precipitation depths, however, non are in common use for estimating hourly data. The two
procedures for estimating daily totals rely on the data from three adjacent stations. The locations
of the adjacent stations are such that they are close to and approximately evenly spaced around
the site with the missing data. Both procedures use the average annual precipitation at the three
sites.
If the average annual precipitation at each of the three adjacent stations differs from the average
at the missing data station by less than 10%, the following formula is used to estimate the missing
daily data (A simple arithmetic averaging is used) :
( PA + P B + PC)
P$ x = (2.3)
3
Where,
Px = estimated daily precipitation volume at the missing data site X
PA, PB, PC = estimated daily precipitation volume at the adjacent stations, A, B and C.
If the difference between the average annual precipitation at any of the adjacent stations and the
missing data station is greater than 10%, a normal ratio method is used. Normal is used as it
refers to the arithmetic average. The method consists of weighting each adjacent station daily
value by a ratio of the normal annual precipitation value and then average the numbers, or
1 NX N N
P$ X = [( ) PA + ( X ) P B + ( X ) PC] (2.4)
3 NA NB NC
Where,
NX = average annual precipitation at the missing data site X,
Ni = average annual precipitation at the adjacent sites ( i = A, B, & C).
2.7 Double Mass Analysis

Double-mass analysis is a test for consistency (conforming to a regular pattern or style) of data.
Changes in gauge location, exposure, instrumentation or observational procedure may cause
relative change in the precipitation catch. Double-mass tests the consistency of the record at a
station by comparing its accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent
accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of surrounding stations.

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Table 2.2 Double mass analysis

Year Rainfall of Mean rainfall of Cumulative of Cumulative of
station X index stations rainfall at X rainfall at index
stations
1980 x1 y1 x1 y1
1979 x2 y2 x1+x2 y1+y2
.. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
1951 x30 y30 xi yi
cumulative total annual rainfall at station x
(year 1965)
abrupt change indicates

change of circumstances
in gauge or observer
cumulative mean total annual rainfall at a number of nearby stations
Figure 2.10 Station check by double mass curve
A change in slope in 1965 indicates a change in the precipitation regime at the station X. To
make the record prior to 1965 comparable with that for the more recent record, it should be
adjusted by the ratio of the slopes of the two segments (m1/m2).
The consistency of the record for each of the base stations should be tested and those showing
inconsistent records should be dropped before other stations are tested or adjusted.
2.8 Interpretation and Quantification of Precipitation

To size water transport and storage systems, quantitative data for rainfall events must be
provided. The data can be defined in terms of,
(a) intensity (rate of rainfall)
(b) duration of storm
(c) time distribution of rainfall

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(d) return period and associated depth of rain.
All of these measures are required to adequately define a rainfall storm event.
2.8.1 Intensity
35
Average depth (mm/15 minutes)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
15 minutes periods
Figure 2.11 Rainfall hyetograph
Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during a
given period to the duration of the period. It is expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as
mm per hour (mm/h) (or in/hr). Gauges that provide continuous records of rainfall can be used to
obtain intensity data. (Both in tabular form and graphical form).
Table 2.3 shows the rainfall record used to draw the hyetograph shown in Figure 2.8. The rainfall
has been recorded at successive 15 minutes time increments. The maximum rainfall depth or
intensity recorded in a given time interval in a storm is found by computing series of running
totals of rainfall depth for that time interval starting at various points in storm, then selecting the
maximum value of this series. For example, for a 30-minute time interval, Table 2.3 shows
running totals beginning with 5.33 mm recorded in the first 30 minutes, 5.84 mm from 15 min to
45 min, 6.86 mm from 30 min to 1 hr and so on. The maximum 30 minute recorded depth is
56.39 mm recorded between 2 h to 2 h 30 min, corresponding to an average intensity of 56.39
mm/0.5 h = 112.78 mm/h over this interval. Table 2.3 shows similarly computed maximum
depths and intensities for one and two-hour intervals.
Table 2.3 Computation of rainfall depth and intensity at a point

Running totals
Time Rainfall Cumulative 30 min 1 h 2h

14
(mm) rainfall
15 min 2.54 2.54
30 min 2.79 5.33 5.33
45 min 3.05 8.38 5.84
1h 3.81 12.19 6.86 12.19
1 h 15 min 4.06 16.26 7.87 13.72
1 h 30 min 4.32 20.57 8.38 15.24
1 h 45 min 6.86 27.43 11.18 19.05
2h 7.62 35.05 14.48 22.86 35.05
2 h 15 min 27.43 62.48 35.05 46.23 59.94
2 h 30 min 28.96 91.44 56.39 70.87 86.11
2 h 45 min 7.62 99.06 36.58 71.63 90.68
3h 7.62 106.68 15.24 71.63 94.49
3 h 15 min 6.10 112.78 13.72 50.29 96.52
3 h 30 min 6.10 118.87 12.19 27.43 98.30
3 h 45 min 4.57 123.44 10.67 24.38 96.01
4h 3.81 127.25 8.38 20.57 92.20
4 h 15 min 3.81 131.06 7.62 18.29 68.58
4 h 30 min 3.05 134.11 6.86 15.24 42.67
4 h 45 min 3.05 137.16 6.10 13.72 38.10
5h 3.05 140.21 6.10 12.95 33.53
5 h 15 min 3.05 143.26 6.10 12.19 30.48
5 h 30 min 3.05 146.30 6.10 12.19 27.43
5 h 45 min 3.05 149.35 6.10 12.19 25.91
6h 3.05 152.40 6.10 12.19 25.15
Max.depth 28.96 56.39 71.63 98.30
Max.intensity
(mm/h) 115.82 112.78 71.63 49.15
It can be seen that as the time period increases, the average intensity sustained by the storm
decreases, just as the average intensity over an area decreases as the area increases.
2.8.2 Cumulative rainfall diagram

15
180
160
Cumulative volume (mm)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
15 minutes periods
Figure 2.12 Cumulative rainfall diagram
A cumulative rainfall diagram that is a plot of cumulative rainfall versus time is useful in runoff
studies.
At any given time during a storm, the intensity is the slope of the cumulative rainfall curve at that
point in time. This can be used to determine the cumulative rainfall at any point during the
duration of the storm event.
2.8.3 Duration of Precipitation

The duration of a storm is the time from the beginning of a rainfall to the point where the mass
curve becomes horizontal indicating no further accumulation of precipitation (within a certain
time after the rain stops).
The choice of storm duration and thus intensities depends on the use of the rainfall data. The peak
flow rates from an area requires estimates of intensities associated with short time intervals, while
volume storage estimates for a water shed requires long duration storms.
2.9 Extrapolation of Point Measures to Watersheds

The point measure of rainfall depth and intensity from a gauge is of value for estimating volume
and runoff for large areas. For this, (a) the depth and intensity measured at a point must be
considered as constant over an area, or (b) two or more point measures must be averaged.
Equations to convert point measures to area measures are presented below.
2.9.1 Depth and watershed volume

The depth of rainfall recorded on a gauge can be related to a watershed area of one can assume
that the point estimate is reasonable and constant for the watershed area. (therefore usually for
small areas).
To convert depth to volume one simply follow;

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V = PA (3630)(2.3) (2.5)
V = volume of rainfall (cuft)

P = rainfall (in)
A = watershed area (acres)
3630 = conversion factor (43560 ft2/acre divided by 12 in/ft)
2.9.2 Intensity and Watershed Discharge

The intensity measure at a gauge is useful for scaling upto a watershed.
Basic mass balance (of inputs and outputs/unit time).
Rate of precipitation onto a watershed would equal the runoff from the watershed. Critical
assumption is steady state is achieved.
(Total contributing area to drain) the rainfall excess.
Runoff (outflow) = Precipitation Intensity
To balance units intensity must be multiplied by area.
Q = iCA (2.6)
Where,
Q = runoff
i = precipitation intensity
C = A factor
A = Area
2.10 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Relationship

The areal characteristics of a storm of a given duration are reflected in its depth-area relationship
as shown in Figure 2.13.
22
Mean Rainfall (mm)
20
18 24h (1 day) duration storm
16
14
12
10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Area (sqkm)
Figure 2.13 DAD curve for 1 day rainfall

17
A depth-area-duration curve expresses graphically the relation between progressively decreasing

average depth of rainfall over a progressively increasing area from the center of the storm
outward to its edges for a given duration of rainfall.
Purpose of DAD analysis of a particular storm is to determine the largest average depth of
rainfall that fell over various sizes of area during the standard passage of time.
Eg. The largest average depth over 500km2 due to a 12h duration rainfall.
DAD curve can be constructed from any isohyetal map of rainfall of the given duration, by
measuring the areas associated with each isohyet of rainfall depth, and then plotting the
progressively decreasing average depth on y-axis and the corresponding area on x-axis. Different
such curves can be plotted for different duration storms, to obtain composite DAD chart, for a
common areal base as shown in Figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14 Typical DAD curves
2.11 Design of Rain Gauge Networks

Rainfall records constitute the most important and fundamental data required for hydrological
investigations. For such investigations, a well distributed network of rain gauge stations within
the catchment is essential. To obtain reliable results, the various rain gauges should be evenly and
uniformly distributed within a given catchment. Moreover, the total number of rain gauges
installed within a given catchment area should neither be too many as to be costly nor should be
too less as to give unreliable results. However, this areal density of rain gauges may vary
considerably from region to region in any country. The density of gauges may also depend upon
the basic purpose behind their installation.
The minimum rain gauge density required for different types of catchments as per the guidelines
of World Meteorological Organization are given below:

18
(1) For flat regions of temperate Mediterranean and Tropical zones – one station per 600 –
900 km2. For countries with limited funds, population or other factors such as lack of
communication, the density may be reduced to one station per 600 – 3000 km2.
(2) For Mountainous regions of temperate Mediterranean and Tropical zones - one station per
100 – 250 km2. For countries with problems mentioned above, the density may be
reduced to one station per 250 – 1000 km2.
(3) For arid and polar zones – the minimum density may be one station per 1500 – 10000
km2. depending upon the feasibility.
2.11.1 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges

Statistics has been used in determining the optimum number of rain gauges required to be
installed in a given catchment. The basis behind such calculations is that a certain number of rain
gauge stations are necessary to give average rainfall with a certain percentage of error. If the
allowable percentage error is more, lesser number of gauges would be required. Based upon this
statistical principle, the optimum number of rain gauges (N) can be obtained by the following
equation.
2
⎡C ⎤
N = ⎢ v⎥ (2.6)
⎣E⎦
Where,
Cv = Coefficient of variation of rainfall based on existing rain gauge stations, and
E = Allowable percentage error in the estimate of basic mean rainfall.

19
3 HYDROLOGIC ABSTRACTIONS
Hydrologic abstractions are the losses of precipitation, which prevent precipitation from
becoming surface runoff.
Eg. Out of the 4300x106 m3 of rainfall receiving on the Walawe Ganga catchment, only 945x106
m3 is discharged to the sea. 85x106 m3 of water is used for drinking and industrial purposes and
the balance of 3270x106 m3 is returned back to the atmosphere.
Consumptive use
(2%)
Surface water Evapotranspiration and

outflow (22%) infiltration (76%)
Figure 3.1 Average disposition of precipitation in the Walawe Ganga catchment in Sri Lanka
3.1 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water is transferred from land and water masses of the earth
to the atmosphere. Because there is continuous exchange of water molecules between an
evaporating surface and its overlying atmosphere, it is common in hydrologic practice to define
evaporation as the net rate of vapour transfer. It is a function of (i) solar radiation, (ii) difference
in vapour pressure between water surface and the overlying air, (iii) temperature, (iv) wind, (v)
atmospheric pressure, (vi) the quality of evaporating water, and (vii) size of the water body.
The rate of evaporation is highest from open water. Over the ground surface the rate of
evaporation depends on the type of soil and the extent to which the ground is saturated with
water. During storm periods, vapour pressure gradients are reduced and evaporation is usually not
significant. Evaporation from sea water is about 2-3 % less than that from fresh water.
Evaporation can occur only when the appropriate amount of energy is added to convert the water
from its liquid state to its gaseous phase [energy must be available for the vaporization process
and are chiefly solar and advective. Advective winds carry heat into a watershed from other
heated surfaces]. The rate of evaporation increases with temperature. The process also depends
on the humidity (how close to saturation with water vapour the air is) and the wind speed. The
greater the humidity, the less the evaporation. Vapour pressure at the surface and the overlaying
air must be different to allow for evaporation. If overlaying air is saturated, evaporation rates will
be reduced near to zero. Wind carries water saturated air away from the surface, so wind
decreases the local humidity and allows more water to evaporate. Deep water bodies have more
heat storage than shallow ones (A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer and
release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer and more in winter compared to a shallow

20
lake exposed to a similar situation. However, effect of heat storage is essentially to change the
seasonal evaporation rates and the annual evaporation rate is seldom affected).
Evaporation varies from day to day. Daily evaporation in Sri Lanka varies from 1 to 10 mm/day
but on average it is taken as 4 mm/day.
The determination of evaporation is generally based on the water budget, energy budget,
empirical formulae or pan-evaporation data.
3.1.1 Determination of Evaporation
Water Budget Method
This estimate depends on an accurate water budget in which evaporation is the only unknown
variable. Usually used for estimating the evaporation over a long period of time (e.g., annual
evaporation).
Eg., Assume a lake that has accurate measures on inflow and outflow.
Change in storage = inputs - outputs
ΔS = P + R + BI - BO - T - E - O (3.1)
Where,
ΔS = change in reservoir storage
P = precipitation
R = inflow (surface)
BI = inflow (ground water)
BO = outflow (ground water)
I = transpiration
E = evaporation
O = surface water release
Assuming a reservoir with little vegetation and lined to protect ground water addition or
depletion, evaporation can be measured as accurately as precipitation and surface water discharge
measurements using
E = P + R - O ± ΔS (3.2)

21
Energy Budget Method
This method, like the water budget approach involves an equation that lists all the sources and
sinks of thermal energy and leaves evaporation as the only unknown (incoming and out going
energy balanced by the amount of energy stored in the system).
Back radiation Ha Heat loss to air

Solar radiation Hc Hb rHc Reflected
ρLEL Evaporation
(1-r)Hc
Heat stored Hs
Heat flux into ground Hg Advection Hi
Figure 3.2 Energy balance in a water body
Considering the water body as in Figure the energy balance to the evaporating surface in a period
of one day is given by;
Hn = Ha + He + H g + H s + Hi (3.3)
Where,
Hn = net heat energy received by the water surface = Hc(1 – r) - Hb
Hc(1-r) = incoming solar radiation into a surface of reflection coefficient (albedo) r
Hb = back radiation (long wave) from water body
Ha = sensible heat transfer from water surface to air
He = heat energy used up in evaporation
= ρLEL where ρ = density of water, L = latent heat of evaporation and EL = evaporation
Hg = heat flux into the ground
Hs = heat stored in water body
Hi = net heat conducted out of the system by water flow (advected energy)
All the energy terms are in calories per square mm per day. (If the time periods are short, the
terms Hs and Hi can be neglected as negligibly small). All the terms except Ha can either be
measures or evaluated indirectly. The sensible heat term Ha that cannot be readily measured is
estimated using Bowen’s ratio β given by the expression.
Ha T −T
β= = 6.1 × 10− 4 × pa w a (3.4)
ρLEL ew − ea

22
Where,
pa = atmospheric pressure in mm of Hg
ew = saturated vapour pressure in mm of Hg
ea = actual vapour pressure of air in mm of Hg
Tw = temperature of water surface in ºC
Ta = temperature of air in ºC
From Eq.3.3 and 3.4, EL can be evaluated as;
Hn − H g − H s − Hi
EL = (3.5)
ρ L (1 + β )
Estimation of evaporation in a lake by the energy balance method has been found to give
satisfactory results, with error of the order of 5% when applied to periods less than a week.
Empirical Formulae/Mass Transfer techniques
Empirical formula developed to relate either pan or actual lake evaporation to atmospheric
measures.
eg., E = f (Δe, u) (3.6)
Where,
Δe = change in vapour pressure from the water to the air
u = wind speed
(1) Kohler formula,
Ep = (eo - ea)n (m + bU) (3.7)
Where,
Ep = daily pan evaporation
eo = saturation vapour pressure at water surface temperature
ea = saturation vapour pressure at air temperature
U = wind movement
n, m, b = constants
(2) Meyer’s formula
⎡ V ⎤
E = K m (es − ea ) ⎢1+ 9 ⎥ (3.8)
⎣ 16 ⎦
Where,
E = evaporation from the water body in mm
es = saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature in mm of Hg

23
ea = actual vapour pressure of overlying air in mm of Hg at specified height (9 m)

V9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9 m above the ground
Km = a coefficient, having value of 0.36 for large deep waters and 0.5 for small and shallow
waters.
Evaporation Pans
The most widely used method of finding (reservoir) evaporation is by means of evaporation pans.
The standard weather bureau Class A pan is an unpainted, galvanized iron 4-ft diameter
(122 cm), 10 in (25.4 cm) deep, circular container and is mounted 12 in above the ground on a
wooden frame. It is usually filled to a depth of 20 cm and refilled when the depth has fallen to
less than 18 cm. The water surface is measured daily with a hook gauge.
Φ 4’ Pan
10”
20 cm
Wooden Frame 12”
Figure 3.3 A standard evaporation pan
Pan evaporation is used to estimate lake evaporation. The lake evaporation (El) is usually
calculated by multiplying the pan evaporation by a factor called pan coefficient (pa).
El = pc Ep (3.9)
Pan coefficient on an annual basis has been reported to vary between 0.65 and 0.82.
Evaporation rates vary with the time of the year. The greatest being during the periods of intense
sunlight and least during cold cloud-covered days.
3.1.2 Selection of a Method for Determining Evaporation

Instrumentation for energy budget method and using empirical formulae is quite expensive and
the cost to maintain observations is substantial. For these reasons, the water budget method and
use of evaporation pans are more common. The pan method is the least expensive and will
frequently provide good estimates of annual evaporation.

24
3.1.3 The Nature of Evaporating Surface

Evaporation from a particular surface is directly related to the opportunity for evaporation
(availability of water) provided by that surface. For open water bodies of water, evaporation
opportunity is 100% while for soils it varies from a high of 100% when the soil is highly
saturated to essentially zero at stages of very low moisture content. Other types of surfaces
provide diverse degree of evaporation opportunity and except in rare cases, these will almost
always vary widely with time.
3.1.4 Evaporation Reduction

Evaporation losses can be greatly significant at any location. Consequently, the concept of
evaporation reduction is receiving widespread attention. Evaporation losses from soils can be
controlled by employing various types of mulches or by chemical alteration. They may be
reduced from open waters by (1) storing water in covered reservoirs, (2) making increased use of
underground storage, (3) controlling aquatic growths, (4) building storage reservoirs with
minimal surface area, and (5) through the use of chemicals.
3.2 Transpiration
This is the process by which water is drawn from the soil by plant roots and transferred to the
leaves, from which it evaporates. Transpiration is controlled by (i) solar radiation, (ii)
temperature, (iii) wind velocity, (iv) vapour pressure gradient, (v) characteristics of plants, and
(vi) plant density. Soil moisture content is also important and perhaps one of the more important
limiting factors.
Evaporation
Soil Moisture
Figure 3.4 Transpiration process
Soil moisture content when reduced to the wilting point (stage at which plants will wilt and do
not recover in a humid atmosphere) also affects transpiration. However, it appears that as long as
soil moisture lies between the limits of the wilting point and field capacity (the amount of water
retained in a soil against gravity after percolation ceases) transpiration is not materially affected.
Diffusion of water vapour from plant leaves to the atmosphere is proportional to the vapour
pressure gradient at the leaf-atmosphere interface. Upon absorbing solar radiation, leaves tend to
become warmer than the surrounding air. The amount of water vapour held by the air at the leaf-

25
air interface thus increases, more rapid water losses are favoured and transpiration follows a
diurnal cycle, which is approximately that of light intensity.
Different species and types of plants often display considerably different demands on soil
moisture even if the same environmental conditions prevail. The area covered by root systems
could be different. Various species indicate different patterns in seasonal demands for water.
Agricultural products obviously have their periods of greatest transpiration at the peak of the
growing season.
A considerable amount of water can be transferred to the atmosphere by transpiration: for

example, a cabbage transpires about 25 litres of water during its growth to full size, and a large
oak tree transpires about 400 litres of water a day when in leaf.
3.2.1 Estimation of Transpiration

Transpiration for small plant areas can be determined by a closed container in which humidity
changes are measured. The soil can be sealed to prevent evaporation from soil. These
experiments are performed on site or by use of a phytometer, which is a container with a
particular plant rooted in it. Soil surface is sealed so that the only escape of moisture is by
transpiration. Transpiration can be determined by weighting the planted container at desired
intervals of time.
Precise determination of transpiration are difficult. Extrapolations to other areas can be

misleading.
Water budgets are valuable but again requires estimates of other variables and thus the
transpiration estimate are frequently only as accurate as the measurement of the other variables.
If total monthly consumptive use (evapotranspiration) can be measured for a vegetative area and
the monthly evaporation is known, the transpiration rate per time period can be estimated by
using,
T = ET - E (3.10)
Where,
T = transpiration rate (mm/t)
ET = evapotranspiration rate (mm/t)
E = evaporation rate (mm/t)
3.2.2 Transpiration Reduction

Some of the methods of control include the use of chemicals to inhibit water consumption
(chemicals are applied in the root zone) harvesting of plants, improved irrigation practices and
actual removal or destruction of certain vegetative types.

26
3.3 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the sum total of water returned to the atmosphere from surface and ground
(soil) water and vegetation. Water is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.
It is difficult to separate the effect of evaporation and transpiration over land areas. Therefore, the
two are usually combined into one parameter, called evapotranspiration.
In most cases, only total evaporation from an area (combined evaporation plus transpiration
(consumptive use)) is of practical interest to a hydrologist.
It is relatively easy to calculate a maximum value of evapotranspiration for a saturated surface,

such as open water, using local meteorological parameters such as humidity, temperature and
wind speed. This is the potential evapotranspiration for a particular area. Because most land
surface are neither open water nor saturated, and are partly or wholly covered in vegetation,
values of actual evapotranspiration are always less than potential evapotranspiration.
In wet zone of Sri Lanka, annual evapotranspiration is about 1500 mm with an upper limit of
1700 mm. In (central Sri Lanka) high mountainous areas with greater cloudiness and low solar
energy, it declines to about 1000 mm. In dry zone evapotranspiration attains similar rates to the
wet zone during the Maha season (October – January) and lower rates during the dry Yala season
(May – September). But the rates may vary more than in the wet zone, the annual value being
1000-1400 mm. Evaporation from dry zone tanks can reach 2100 mm/yr.
3.3.1 Estimation of Evapotranspiration
Lysimeters
Estimation of evapotranspiration can be made by measuring losses of water using soil sampling
tubes and lysimeters. Field measures are costly or difficult. A lysimeter is a container (diameter
5m or more is preferred) of soil in which vegetation (grass or crop) is planted that resembles the
surrounding ground cover. Evapotranspiration is measured by means of a water balance of all
moisture inputs and outputs. The precipitation on the lysimeter, the drainage through its bottom,
and changes in soil moisture within lysimeter are measured. The amount of evapotranspiration is
the amount necessary to complete the water balance.

27
Penman’s Equation
This equation has been obtained by combining the energy balance and mass transfer approaches.
Penman’s equation, incorporating some of the modifications suggested by other investigators is,
AH n + Eaγ
PET = (3.11)
A+γ
Where,
PET = daily potential evapotranspiration in mm per day
A = slope of the saturation vapour pressure vs temperature curve at the mean air
temperature in mm of Hg per ºC
Hn = net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day
Ea = parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit
γ = psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of Hg per ºC
The net radiation is estimated by the following equation.
⎡ n⎤ ⎡ n⎤
H n = H a (1 − r ) ⎢a + b ⎥ − σTa4 (0.56 − 0.092 ea ) ⎢0.10 + 0.90 ⎥ (3.12)
⎣ N⎦ ⎣ N⎦
Where,
Ha = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal surface, expressed in mm
of evaporable water per day (it is a function of the latitude and period of the year)
a = a constant depending upon the latitude φ and is given by a=0.29 cos φ
b = a constant with an average value of 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine hours
N = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (is a function of latitude)
r = reflection coefficient (albedo). Usual ranges of values of r are given below
Surface Range of r values

Close ground crops 0.15 – 0.25
Bare land 0.05 – 0.45
Water surface 0.05
Snow 0.45 – 0.95
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01x10-9 mm/day

Ta = mean air temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + ºC
ea = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of Hg.
The parameter Ea is estimated as
⎡ u ⎤
Ea = 0.35⎢1 + 2 ⎥ (ew − ea ) (3.13)
⎣ 160 ⎦
Where,
u2 = mean wind speed at 2 m above ground level in km/day

28
ew = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of Hg

ea = actual vapour pressure
Table 3.1 Saturation vapour pressure of water

Temperature (ºC) Saturation vapour A (mm/ºC)
pressure (ew) Mm of Hg
0 4.58 .03
5 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15 12.79 0.80
17.5 15 0.95
20 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35 42.81 2.35
37.5 48.36 2.62
40 55.32 2.95
45 71.2 3.66
⎡ 17.27t ⎤
ew = 4.584 exp ⎢ ⎥ mm of Hg, where t = temperature in ºC
⎣ 237.3 + t ⎦
Table 3.2 Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere, Ha in mm of evaporable water/day
North Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
latitude
0º 14.5 15.0 15.2 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.5 14.2 14.9 15.0 14.6 14.3
10º 12.8 13.9 14.8 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.8 15.0 14.9 14.1 13.1 12.4
20º 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.2 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.3 14.4 12.9 11.2 10.3
30º 8.5 10.5 12.7 14.8 16.0 16.5 16.2 15.3 13.5 11.3 9.1 7.9
40º 6.0 8.3 11.0 13.9 15.9 16.7 16.3 14.8 12.2 9.3 6.7 5.4
50º 3.6 5.9 9.1 12.7 15.4 16.7 16.1 13.9 10.5 7.1 4.3 3.0
Table 3.3 Mean monthly values of possible sunshine hours, N
North Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
latitude
0º 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
10º 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
20º 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
30º 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
40º 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
50º 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
Empirical formulae

29
Empirical equations have been developed, using generally available climatological data. A few
examples are,
(1) Blaney and Criddle
ET = kpt / 100 (3.14)
where,
k = consumptive use coefficient
p = percent of daytime hours per year in the study month
t = mean monthly temperature (°F)
ET = monthly evapotranspiration (in)
(2) Thornthwaite's equation
a
⎛ 10t ⎞
ET = 1.6 ⎜ ⎟ (3.15)
⎝ TE ⎠
where,
a = 0.49239 + 0.01792 TE
ET = monthly evapotranspiration (cm)
t = mean monthly temperature (°C)
1.514
⎛t ⎞
Thornthwaite's temperature efficiency index = ∑t =1 ⎜ i ⎟
12
TE =
⎝5⎠
The above equations estimate potential evapotranspiration. It is the quantity of water vapour that
is not constrained by adequate moisture supply.
When soil moisture is a constraint, potential evapotranspiration is never attained.
The water budget method is one way of estimating evapotranspiration rather than potential
evapotranspiration. The water budget method is more appropriate for monthly, seasonal or yearly
time intervals.
Evapotranspiration data are applicable to a specific place with certain climatic and vegetative
condition.

30
3.4 Initial Loss

In the precipitation reaching the surface of a catchment the major abstraction is from the
infiltration process. However, two other processes, though small in magnitude, operate to reduce
the water volume available for runoff and thus act as abstractions. These are (i) the interception
process and (ii) the depression storage, and together they are called initial loss. This abstraction
represents the quantity of storage that must be satisfied before overland runoff begins.
3.4.1 Interception
Most of the precipitation reaches the ground, but not all of it, as some is intercepted by vegetation
and other forms of cover on the drainage area above the ground, by a process known as
precipitation. Interception can be defined as that segment of the gross precipitation input, which
wets and adheres to above ground objects until it is returned to the atmosphere through
evaporation.
Interception is part of a subcycle of the hydrological cycle, which involves precipitation,

interception and evaporation back to the atmosphere, bypassing that part of the main cycle where
water reaches the surface of the ground.
Precipitation striking vegetation may be retained on leaves or grass, flow down the stems of
plants and become stemflow, or fall off the leaves to become part of the throughfall.
The amount of water intercepted is a function of,

(a) the storm character,
(b) the species (type), age and density of prevailing plants and trees,
(c) the season of the year.
Usually about 10 to 20% of the precipitation that falls during the growing season is intercepted
and returned to the hydrological cycle by evaporation.
For light showers (gross precipitation < 0.01 in) 100% interception might occur. For showers
where P > 0.04 in, losses in range of 10 - 40% are reliable.
Interception loss
Time
Figure 3.5 Typical interception loss curve

31
Most interception loss develops during the initial storm period and the rate of interception rapidly
approach zero thereafter.
Water that reaches the ground without being intercepted may become part of the surface runoff,
or it may soak into the soil after which it may become groundwater or evaporate.
The amount of interception captured by vegetation and trees is determined by computing the
precipitation in gauges beneath the vegetation with that recorded nearby under the open sky. The
precipitation detained by interception is dissipated as streamflow down the trunk of the trees and
evaporation from the leaf surface. Stem flow may be measured by catch devices around tree
trunk.
3.4.2 Depression Storage

Precipitation that reaches the ground may infiltrate, flow over the surface or become trapped in
numerous small depressions from which the only escape is evaporation or infiltration.
The nature of depression as well as their size is largely a function of the original land form and
local land use practices. Because of extreme variability in the nature of depressions and the
paucity of sufficient measurements, no generalized relationship with enough specified parameters
for all cases is feasible.
All depression must be full before overland flow supply begins.

32
3.5 Infiltration
Precipitation that reaches the ground, first of all wets the vegetation or the bare soil. When the
surface cover is completely wet, subsequent rain (precipitation) must either penetrate the surface
layers if the surface is permeable, or run off the surface towards a stream channel if the surface is
impermeable. Infiltration is defined as the movement of water through the ground surface into the
soil and on downwards. Once infiltrating water has passed through the surface layers, it
percolates downwards under the influence of gravity until it reaches the zone of saturation at the
phreatic surface.
The rate and quantity of water that infiltrates into the ground is a function of soil type, soil
moisture, soil permeability, ground cover, drainage conditions, depth of water table and intensity
and volume of precipitation.
Soil type helps to identify the number and size of the capillaries through which water must flow.
soil moisture content helps to identify capillary potential and relative conductivity. Soil
permeability is a measure of the ease with which water can move through soil: the greater the
permeability the greater the infiltration.
The rate at which water is transmitted through the surface layer is highly dependent upon the
condition of the surface.
Eg., In wash of fine material may seal the surface so that infiltration rates are low even when the
underlying soils are highly permeable.
After water crosses the surface interface, its rate of downward movement will be controlled by
the transmission characteristics of the underlying soil profile.
Considerable research on infiltration has taken place, but considering the infinite combinations of
soil and other factors existing in nature, it is not hard to recognize that no adequate quantified
general relationship exists.
3.5.1 Measuring Infiltration

Commonly used methods for determining infiltration capacity are infiltrometer studies and
hydrograph analysis.
Infiltrometer studies
Infiltrometers are usually classified as rainfall simulators or flooding devices.
Rainfall simulators
Artificial rainfall is simulated over a small test plot of about 2m x 4m and the infiltration
calculated from observations of rainfall and runoff using the water budget equation.

33
Flooding infiltrometers
Flooding infiltrometer is a wide-diameter, short tube, or other impervious boundary surrounding

an area of soil. Usually two such rings are used concentrically. The rings are flooded to a depth of
5 mm over the ground surface and continually refilled to maintain this depth, the inflow to the
central tube being measured. The purpose of the outer tube is to eliminate to some extent the edge
effect of the surrounding drier soil.
inner ring
5 mm
depth
infiltrating
water
Figure 3.6 Flooding infiltrometer
Hydrograph analysis
Estimation of infiltration is based on a hydrograph analysis. This has the advantage over
infiltrometers of relating more directly to prevailing conditions of precipitation and field.
3.5.2 Calculation of Infiltration

Infiltration calculations vary in sophistication from the application of reported average rates for
specific soil types and vegetal covers to the use of conceptually sound differential equations
governing the flow of water in unsaturated porous media. For small urban areas that respond
rapidly to storm input, more precise methods are sometimes warranted. On large watersheds
subjected to peak flow production from prolonged storms, average or representative values may
be adequate.
The infiltration process was thoroughly studied by Horton (1930s) His work showed the
following relationship for determining infiltration capacity.
f = f c + (f o - f c) e- kt (3.16)
Where,
f = infiltration rate as a function of time, t (depth/time)
fc = final or ultimate (equilibrium) infiltration rate
fo = initial infiltration rate
k = a constant representing the rate of decrease in infiltration capacity.

34
Infiltration capacity (mm/hr)

fo
f
c
Time
Figure 3.7 The variation of infiltration capacity
It indicates that if the rainfall supply exceeds the infiltration capacity, infiltration tends to
decrease in an exponential manner. Area under the curve for any time interval represents the
depth of water infiltrated during that interval.
Typical infiltration rates at the end of 1 hr for a turf area are shown in the following table.
Table 3.4 Typical infiltration rates at 1 hr

Soil Group f (in/hr)
High (sandy soil) 0.50 - 1.00
Intermediate (loams, clay, silt) 0.10 – 0.50
Low (clays, clay loam) 0.01 – 0.10
3.5.3 Temporal and Spatial Variability of Infiltration Capacity

Rate of infiltration generally varies both in space and time, within a given drainage basin. Spatial
variations occur because of differences in soil type and vegetation. The usual procedure used to
accommodate this type of variation is to subdivide the total region into compartments having
approximately uniform soil and vegetal cover.
The infiltration capacity at a given location in a watershed varies with time as shown before. The
infiltration capacity is a function of antecedent conditions and can be estimated from the
knowledge of the area’s soil moisture. If precipitation occurs at a rate less than the f capacity rate,
the change in f capacity with time will not be that given by the f capacity curve; during periods of
no precipitation, the infiltration capacity will recover.
3.5.4 Phi (φ) Index

It may be time consuming and costly to obtain all parameters for the Horton's Equation. The
difficulty is primarily in the estimation of an initial rate (fo). However, the initial rate can be
ignored for infiltration over a longer period of time. A simple index for infiltration, namely φ
assumes that an infiltration rate over time is constant.

35
To calculate φ, the surface runoff volume is measured and compared to rainfall volume over
time. The difference between rainfall and runoff volume is distributed uniformly across the
duration of the storm and it is the φ index (mm/hr).
Use of the φ index for determining the amount of direct runoff from a given storm pattern is
essentially the reverse of this procedure. The φ index determined from a single storm is not
generally applicable to other storms, and unless it is correlated with basin parameters other than
runoff, it is of little value.
Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

30.0
net rain
quantity
20.0
of runoff
10.0
Index storm
loss
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Time (hrs)
Figure 3.8 Infiltration loss by φ Index

36
4 STREAMFLOW
The water in a river comes not only from surface runoff, precipitation and springs, but also from
the underground flow of water to the river. Underground water that reaches a river by moving
through the soil in the zone of aeration, above the water table, is called the throughflow, and
groundwater that discharges to a river is called base flow. The river discharge (streamflow) is the
volume of water in the river that flows past a point in a certain time. The measurement, or
gauging, of river discharge is important because river discharge values are necessary for the
calculation of surface water resources, and because these values give information about the
maximum and minimum volumes of water flowing in the river, which is required for water
supply schemes and for flood-control and hydroelectric projects.
4.1 Streamflow Measurements

Streamflow measurements provide needed data for estimating volumes, and flow rates from a
particular precipitation event. Streamflow measurement techniques can be broadly classified into
two categories as (i) direct determination and (ii) indirect determination. Under each category
there are a host of methods, the important ones are listed below.
1. Direct determination of stream discharge:

a. Area-velocity methods
b. Dilution techniques
2. Indirect determination of stream flow:

a. Hydraulic structures (eg., weirs, flumes)
Flow measuring methods can also be classified as shown in Table 1 too.
Table 4.1 Classification of flow measuring methods
Stage Discharge Discharge

(water surface elevation) (structural)
Visual observation Current meter Direct volume collection
Float Dilution Weirs
Pressure Sensor Float Flumes
Electrical Resistance Indirect via Manning's Orifices
Equation
Streamflow is the general term used to represent volumes or rates of flow.

Discharge is the rate of measurement and applied to waters that flow from a specific watershed or
pond area.
Actual sizing of reservoirs and stormwater ponds are dependent on discharge measurements.

37
Continuous measurement of stream discharge is very difficult. Direct measurement of discharge

is a very time-consuming and costly procedure. Hence, a two step procedure is followed. First,
the discharge in a stream is related to the elevation of the water surface (stage) through a series of
careful measurements. Next, the stage of the stream is observed routinely in a relatively
inexpensive manner and the discharge is estimated by using the previously determined stage-
discharge relationship. The observation of the stage is very inexpensive and if desired continuous
readings can also be obtained. This method of discharge determination is adopted universally.
4.2 Measurement of Stage
Stage is the water surface elevation recorded relative to some horizontal datum elevation,
frequently mean sea level.
Stage records are valuable for the definition of high and low water levels. Areal extent of
flooding, history of the rate of fluctuation and watershed hydrologic characteristics can be
documented. The record of stage is called the "stage hydrograph." It can be translated into flow
rate units.
A stage recorder can be as simple as a ruler along a bridge or other structure. It can be read
periodically.
4.2.1 Staff gauge
Figure 4.1 Staff gauges
4.2.2 Manually operated weight or electric sensors
Bridge
Weight
Figure 4.2 Weight or electric sensors

38
A weight or an electric sensor is lowered from a bridge or other overhead structure until it
reaches the water surface. By subtracting the length of the line paid out from the elevation of a
fixed reference point on the bridge the water surface elevation can be determined.
4.2.3 Automatic recording gauges
The motion of float is recorded on a chart. This is a continuous record.
Recording mechanism
Weight
Figure 4.3 Floating gauge installation
4.2.4 Stage data

The stage data is often presented in the form of a plot of stage against chronological time as
shown in Figure 4.4, which is known as stage hydrograph. In addition to its use in the
determination of stream discharge, stage data itself is of importance in flood warning and flood
protection works.
Stage (m)
Time (h)
Figure 4.4 Stage hydrograph
4.3 Stream Discharge

In a stream the discharge (time rate of volume) is measured by a number of methods.
4.3.1 Velocity-area Method

This Method is based on the continuity Equation.
Q = A V̂ (4.1)

39
Where,
Q = volume rate of discharge (m3/s)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
V = mean velocity in the cross section (m/s)
Discharge is determined by measuring cross sectional area and the velocity.
The cross-sectional area of a river channel at some point is determined from measurements of the
depth of the water taken at known intervals across the river. The width is subdivided into a
number of subsections depending upon the degree of variability of the depth across the stream
and the degree of precision required. The average depth of each subsection is sounded with either
a wading rod in a small stream or by a sounding weight and a cable in a larger stream being
gauged from a cable way, bridge or boat.
The velocity is measured by means of floats, by a pitot tube (restricted to pipes or to experimental
channels) or by using a current meter (propeller or cup wheel driven revolutions counter). Current
meter is mostly used. The velocity of a river is not constant from bank to bank or from the bed to
the surface, however, so a number of velocity measurements must be made at different depths at
intervals across the river. Depending on the depth more velocity measurements are made along
vertical.
The river cross-section is divided into small areas, and the discharge within each area is
calculated (area x velocity across that section). The total discharge is the sum of the individual
discharges.
Table 4.2 calculation of mean velocities

Type Depth in vertical Observation point Mean velocity
Single point 1 - 2 ft 0.6D from surface v = v0.6
Two point 2 - 10 ft 0.2D & 0.8D v=1/2[v0.2+v0.8)]
Three point 10 - 20 ft 0.2D, 0.6D & 0.8D v=1/4[v0.2+2v0.6+v0.8)

]
Five point Over 20 ft S, 0.2D, 0.6D, 0.8D v=1/10[vs+3v0.2+2v0.6
&B +3v0.8)+vB]
VS is measured 1 ft below surface, and

VB is measured 1 ft above bottom of the stream.

40
Figure 4.5 Cross section of a river - current meter measurements
Discharge in subsection,
Qsub = Asub x Vsub (4.2)
Price current meter
Figure 4.6 Price current meter
This consists of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis. Electrical device is used to count
the revolutions. Meter is suspended from a cable.

41
Propeller current meter
Figure 4.7 Propeller current meter
Rotating element is a propeller turning about a horizontal axis.
The relation between revolutions per second N of the meter cups and water velocity v in m/s is
given by an equation of the form,
v = a + bN
where, a is the starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical friction.
Floats
A floating object on the surface of a stream when timed can yield the surface velocity by the
relation
S
Vs = (4.3)
t
Where, S = distance traveled in time t
This method of measuring velocities while primitive still finds applications in special
circumstances, such as: (i) a small stream in flood, (ii) small stream with a rapidly changing
water surface and (iii) preliminary or exploratory surveys. While any floating object can be used,
normally specially made leakproof and easily identifiable floats are used. A simple float moving
on stream surface is called surface float. It is the easiest to use and the mean velocity is obtained
by multiplying the observed surface velocity by a reduction coefficient. However, surface floats
are affected by surface winds. To get the average velocity in the vertical directly, special floats in
which part of the body is under water (rod floats) are used. The method is restricted to straight
rivers having almost uniform cross section throughout. The method is not good if the depth of
water exceeds 1.5 m or more.

42
Figure 4.8 Floats
4.3.2 Weirs and Flumes

Weirs and flumes are employed where a high degree of precision or reliability of the discharge
measurements are required. Confined (or limited) to streams and fairly small rivers. For wide
rivers this is extremely expensive. Stream discharge is made to behave according to certain well
known hydraulics laws.
Eg., Discharge over a weir, V-notch
h α
h
L Q = C h5/2 tan α/2

Q = C L 2√g h3/2
Figure 4.9 Weirs and Flumes
4.3.3 Dilution Method

Dilution method may be used where the conventional velocity-area method can not be used (eg.
boulder - strewn stream). The discharge is determined over a length of the stream rather than at a
single point. A known quantity of some exotic substance (a tracer) is introduced into the stream.
Samples are withdrawn at a downstream point. If a tracer solution is injected into a stream at a
constant rate and samples are taken downstream at a point where (after complete mixing)
turbulence has achieved complete mixing, the steady flow rate Q in the stream is given by,

43
C -C
Q = Qt ( 1 2 ) (4.3)
C 2 - C0
Where,
Qt = Steady dozing rate
C0 = Concentration of the tracer in the undosed flow
C1 = Concentration of the tracer in the dose
C2 = Concentration of the tracer in the dosed flow
Q1
Q
C1
CO
Q+Q1
C2
Figure 4.10 Dilution method
The tracer may be a chemical tracer or a radioactive tracer.
4.4 Stage - Discharge Relations

A Stage-discharge relation or rating curve is constructed by plotting the measured discharge
against the stage (water surface elevation) at the time of measurement. Once the discharge at a
particular water level has been measured, the assumption is made that if the stage (that is, the
water level in the river) at that point is the same, the discharge will be the same. This means that
if the discharge in the river has been measured at different stages, so that the relationship between
stages and discharge is known, the river discharge can be estimated from measurement of stage
alone; this is read directly from a post in the river calibrated in terms of height.
8
Stage (m)
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Discharge (m3/s)
Figure 4.11 Stage-discharge relationship

44
The rating curve is constructed by plotting successive measurements of the discharge and gauge
heights on a graph. The rating curve is used to convert records of water level into flow rates.
When a flood wave passes a gauging station in the advancing portion of the wave the approach
velocities are larger than in the steady flow at corresponding stage. Thus for same stage, more
discharge than in a steady uniform flow occurs. In the retreating phase of the flood wave the
converse situation occurs with reduced approach velocities giving lower discharges than in a
equivalent steady flow vase. Thus the stage-discharge relationship for an unsteady flow will not
be a single-valued relationship as in steady flow but it will be a looped curve as in Figure 4.12.
Since the conditions for each flood may be different, different floods may give different loops.
Figure 4.12 Rating curve
The rating curve must be checked periodically to ensure that the relationship between the
discharge and gauge height has remained constant: scouring of the stream bed or deposition of
sediment in the stream can cause the rating curve to change so that the same recorded gauge
height produces a different discharge.

45

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HYDROLOGY

1.1 Social Importance and Engineering Relevance 1

2.1 Precipitation Types 4

4.1 Streamflow Measurements 37

Figure 1.1 Hydrological Cycle 2

Table 1.1 Estimated world water quantities 3

1.1 Social Importance and Engineering Relevance

Emphasis in Engineering Hydrology: quantitative (How much water ? How often ?)

Quantative prediction are the basis for further engineering design.

Concern for maxima and frequency of maxima: Floods, droughts.

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1.3 Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 1.1 Hydrological Cycle

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Table 1.1 Estimated world water quantities

Percent of total Percent of fresh

Table 1.2 Global annual water balance

Evaporation (km3/yr) 505000 72000

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Eg. rainfall, snow, hail, sleet

2.1 Precipitation Types

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2.1.1 Convective Precipitation

Figure 2.1 Convective precipitation

2.1.2 Orographic Precipitation

Figure 2.2 Orographic precipitation

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2.1.3 Cyclonic Precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation may be classified as frontal and nonfrontal. Lowering of atmospheric

Figure 2.3 Cyclonic precipitation

2.2 Precipitation Variability

Precipitation amounts sometimes vary considerably within short distances.

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Figure 2.4 Mean annual rainfall in Sri Lanka

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Figure 2.5 Precipitation variability in space and time

2.3 Distribution of Precipitation Input

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2.4 Point Precipitation

Figure 2.6 Intensity-duration-frequency curve

This can be used to complete missing records or to determine a representative precipitation to be

Figure 2.7 Estimation of rainfall at A

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Table 2.1 Estimation of missing rainfall at station A

Estimated precipitation at A = 567.7/334.5 = 1.70 in

2.5 Areal Precipitation

2.5.1 Arithmetic Mean Method

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2.5.2 Thiessen Method

Figure 2.8 Thiessen method

2.5.3 Isohytal Method

Figure 2.9 Isohytal method

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2.6 Estimating Missing Data

2.7 Double Mass Analysis

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Table 2.2 Double mass analysis

abrupt change indicates

cumulative mean total annual rainfall at a number of nearby stations

Figure 2.10 Station check by double mass curve

2.8 Interpretation and Quantification of Precipitation

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(d) return period and associated depth of rain.