MATHEMATICS inthe Modern World Ethel Cecille Baltazar Carmelita Ragaso Justina Evangelista ‘2018Copyright © 2018 by C © Publching ne Ethel alan, Carma Ragaes, ALLRIGHTS RESERVED Nopurtof hie publeation ‘tay be repost, stced ina retrieval system, Gr ranamited in any form or by any mean Sectronie, mechanea, photecopying, recoding, Sretherwieathout the por witen permission tthe publisher. ‘Cataloguing ln Pabllation Data ar e Mathes a he modern wot Bg data, Comet fugue aca Sts, fos nu Gonem COS C8 Eaton ‘ook Design: Pal Andrew I. Pogue Cover Desig: Rath Anne D.Blarin Contents ipter 1: The Nature of Mathematics 11 Mathematies in our World 1.2 Fibonacci Numbers. 1.8 The Gotlen Ratio Chapter 2: Mathematical Language ‘and symbols 2. The Language of Mathematics 2.2 Expressions ve. Sentences 2.3 Unary and Binary Operations 2.4 Some Fundamentais of Logie Chapter 3: Problem Solving and. Receeina 8.1 Inductive Reasoning 8.2 Deductive Reasoning... 8.3 Problem Solving with Patierns 8.4 Polya's Problem-Solving Stratepy Chapter 4: The Statistical Tools 41 Correlation . 42 Testing of Hypotheses, 4.3 RegressionChapter 5: The Mathematics of Graphs 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory. 2 Buler Pathe and Circuits 5,4 Graph Coloring Chapter 6: Apportionment and Voting 6.1 Introduction to Apportionment 6.2 Introduction to Voting Chapter 7: The Mathematics of Patterns and Symmetries 7 Transformation and Isometres 12 Symmetey 7a Teaselations Chapter 8: The Beauty of Codes 8.1 Coding 8.2 Cryptography. Chapter 9: Linear Programming, 9.1 Basic Concept of Linear Programming 9.2 Solution of LP Problems by the Graphical Method, Chapter 10: Mathematical System 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Mathematical System in Geometry 10.3 Algebraic Mathematical System 10.4 Abstract Mathematical System References Index. The Authors 93 m1 ns 126 at ma 2185 156 159 170 184 18s 200 209 217 235 236 238 261 267 for? What (st about? How te done? Who uses i? The firt four chapters discuss the required lessons identified fn the course eyllabua while the remaining chapters are the elecuve ones. Ite important to note thatthe fist four ‘chapters, namely The Natre of Mathematics, Mathematical Language and Symbols, Problem Solving and Reasoning, ‘and The Statietical Tools are the non-negotiable topes, al together with one or two from the elective ones, depending fon the need ofthe students, make up the whole courve. ‘Our entire years of teaching mathematics in the tertiary level helped us to come up with thie book writen Jn a simple tone which we hope to appeal to any college student taking this general edieation course, The elective topice may requlre some level of mathematiosl maturity, bout the style in which they are waitten could help in the lunderstanding of the topies presented. To help both the students and the teachers, we have carefully prepared f wide array of exercises with diferent aificuity levels, Specifically designed to reinforce the earlier lesson and, sometimes to introduce the next tope ‘This book will not be realized without the help of the Instructors of the first generation tenining at the ADMU With Dr. Mlordeliza F. Francisco and Dr. Angela Fatima H. ‘Guzon who unsefsly shared ther expertiae inthe diferent ore areas, We alo acknowledge the help of Me. Rodman F. Manalang (PAD Mathematics candidate at DLSU) who tookthe fret generation tenining and gave second generation training a the University of the East, Manila. ‘We hope you appreciate and enjoy mathematics with the sid of thi boo, Bc. Baltazar, MAT .¥, Ragan, PRD J.-M. Evangelista, BaD ‘THE AUTHORS CHAPTER The Nature of Mathematics 1.1 Mathematics in ‘our World 1.2. Pbonacei Numbers 13 The Golden Ratio LEARNING ‘OBJECTIVES At the end of the expected to: 1. entity patterns segulaities in the word explain the Importance of sathematice in one's ie; ane ‘express ‘appreciation for tathematice as a human endesvor ® Kevworos Where? who? How? why? Fibonscet Numbers Golden Ratio— Nanematesintne Moc Wort 1.1 Mathematics in our World Have you ever wondered how well jeepney divers give you your change when you hand them your fare? How bout when you buy street food? Most food vendors do not make @ mistake in giving you your change after buying a ailed hotdog on a stick for example, without even using ‘calculators. Routine transactions Uce these, knowingly fr unknowingly, are mathematics at work because they involve computing numbers most of the time, How much time do you alot for traveling to avoid getting late for class? Before that, do you track every second you spend taking the shower, eating breakfast, changing into chou clothe, for preparing your things for school? Most importantly, do ‘you check ifyou stil have enough money for fae, food, ad other expenses for school? Just like budgeting allowance, time is also mathematics at work. Are you watching your ‘weight and your food caloric intake? Do you read the nutrition information ffom the packages of chocolates, cookies, candies, and drinks 90% buy? Consciously or ‘unconsciously, all of these activities engage some fort of ‘mathematics, ‘The heart of mathematics is more than just numbers, ‘numbers which many suppose to be meaningless and Tuninteesting Have you gone for Beach tnps. or Wid ‘mountain climbing perhaps and. noticed” in awe the beautifal world around you? The diferent shapes you see around you, the changing hues of the si from sunrise fo sunset, the clouds transforming from atratus to cumulus, the contour ofthe rainbow in the boron are all beaut decane of harmony. The degree of changing hues of color thas t be of exact measurement to appear pleasing and hharmonious to the ftaman eye. “And ie is mathematics that reweals the simplices of nature, and permits us to seneralize from simple examples to the complexities of the real world. It took many people fms many different areas of human activity to tum mathematical insight into useful product” (Stewart, 1995, pp. 71-72}, IF you count the number of petals of most flowers, notice that they are either of one petal, two petals, three petals, fe, oF eight. Thi sequence of numbers form the fet (L, 1,2, 8,5, 8,13, .} whose pattern was discovered by Fibonacci a great European mathematician of the Middle ‘Ages. His full name in Ialian is Leonardo Pisano, which ‘means Leonardo of Pisa, Because he was born in Fis, aly found 1175. Fibonacd fe the shortened wort fer the Lain term Sus Bonacel," which stands for *son of Bonaccio is father's name wns Guglielmo Bonaccto ‘The German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (enown for hie laws of planetary motion) observed ‘that dividing Fibonacel number by the “nomber Immediatey before st in the ordeved sequence yields a quotient approximately equal to L618, This amazing ratio Js denoted by the symbol @ called the Golden Ratio. Kepler fence claimed that "igleometry has two great treasures; one 4s the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The fret we may compare o/s mearure of gold, the second we may name a precious Jewer” (Stakhow and Olsen, 2008) ‘The Golden Ratio is 20 fascinating that proportions Of the human body such as the face follows the #0 called Divine Proportion. The clooer the proportion of the body Darts to the Golden Ratio, the more aesthetically pleasing, And beaut the body’ ie. Many printers, including ‘the famous Leonardo da Vine! were no fascinated with ‘the Golden Ratio that they used it in their works of ‘The world and the whole universe is imbued with ‘mathematics. “The Pythagorean believed that the nature of the tniverse was directy related to mathematics and that the whole numbers and the ratios formed by whole numbers ould be used to dseribe and represent all nataral events” (Aufinann, 2014). Can the course of natural events stich fs winning in a contest or in n fame of chance be actually Explained? What ie your chance of winning the lottery?— amematcs nie Medem Wet — Have you ever heard of probabilities? Johann Cart Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) was a remarkable mathematician ‘who made many contributions to the mathematics of probabilities An important aapect of studying probabilities Tine to called ‘combinstories, = mathematical eld pioneered. by. Blaise Pascal, the mathematician whove Famous Pasealstrangle finds useful applications in algebra fan statins. Nature has its laws These laws, ouch as the law of reky ‘ating bodies, were laid down by Isaac Newton. Newton and Goititied Leitmis developed modern calculus in the 17th Conta. This development would not have been possible Gwithout the Cartesian coordinate eystem—the fusion of rometry and algebra by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), [Abert Einstein (1879-1955), who made a name for his fast and energy equation, B= me?, would not have gone farther in his theory of relativity without mathematics, Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) a Polish chemist end Iathematician received the 1911 Nobel Prize in chemistry for developing techniques of icolating radionctive isotopes find discovering tO radioactive elements. Biological Scientists have also recently used mathematics extensively to theoretically investigate treatment procedures by modeling end simulating iological processes. Without mathematics, all these inventions and discoveries are not possible. ‘The 20th century saw many breakthroughs inthe elds of sciences and engineering which creatively and critically raployed mathematics, From the fst personal computer Samed. Programma 101 that was released in 1965, to the frat landing of man on the moon on suly 20, 1969, fund to the Brat Global Positioning System (GPS) satelite {fuinched in 1989 for military ise, all of these show that Mathematics plays a vital Tole in the affers of humanity, ‘Today, there are 24 GPS satelites In orbit helping people Tovate' ther travel destinations via applications such as Googie Maps oe Waze on personal computers, tables, oF cel phones. Despite all these scientifc achievements, many ‘millennlale® are hesitant in taking ecience courses partly Iceni they fel anxious of anything intimately connected with mathematics, The Interests of millenials in gadgets, ames, and technologies that appeal to their venses have fino interfered with the afudy’ of mathematics and the Sciences. Unienowingly however, these technologies employ mathematics; ftom the transactions of purchasing. new feadgets, tothe instructions one paces on the newly Bought device which operate based on mathematical logic. Finally, tan Stewart (1995) explains in his book Nature's unbers that mathematice is.» systematic wey of diasing ‘out the rules and structures that le behind some observed pattern or regularity, and using these rules and structures fovexplain whet is going on. Now, think of one of the most loved animation characters Dora the Explorer. When Dora fel lost in the jungle, what docs she need? A map. Thank foRene Descartes, who made the Cartesian map for without it, Dora wll ever nd her way. Mathematlce is everywhere because it Gnde many acti applications in daily Hie. Ged, the Mathematician Architect, designs everything inthis universe to follow rales fr formulas. Whether following regular or iregular patterns, Hs creation benefits bumaniking, fis greatest masterpiece. ‘As Johannes Kepler wrote, “Those laws [of nature) are Ivihin the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us (0 Tecognice them by ereating ue after his own image eo that We could share in his own thoughts” Stewart, 2010), 1.2 Fibonacci Numbers Fibonacct observed numbers in mature. His most popular contribution perhaps is the number that is een in the petals of fowers. A calla lly flower has only 1 peta, trilium has 3, hublecus has 5, cosmos flower has @, corm marigold has 13, some asters have 21, and ‘Adaisy can have 94, 59 or 89 petals. Surprisingly, these etal counts represent the fist eleven numbers of the& Cala rhe U1 a Fibonacci sequence. Not all petal numbers of flowers, however, follow this pattem diseowered by Fibonacci. Some amples include the Brassicaceae family having four elas, Astoundingly, many of the flowers abide by the pattern observed by Fibonacc. ‘The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is as “Lat, be the mls integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n-11}th term x, i= determined by adding hth and the (n=1)0 integers. - Consider the frst few terms below: Let x, = be the fret term, and x)=1 be the second term, the third term % le found by 2 x,0 014 ‘The fourth term x, is 2+1=3, the sum of the thi an the second term. Ta find the new nth Fibonacci mumber, simply add the two numbers immediately preceding this nih umber nadimjelere2 n=7im=548-13 neste avace n=9:%=13+21=38 n=6:gn0+5-8 Tre Notre ot Mathematics ‘These mumbers arranged in increasing order can be written as the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 13, 21, 34, 55, esas Crow na Romclasuonce feces tenes eee “goanly — clamedunaope sop 123.58:19219455% Similarly, when you count the clockwise and counterclockwise spirals in the sunlower seed head, i ie Ineresting to note that the numbers $4 and 55 gceur— Which are consecutive Fibonace) numbers. Pineapple so fave spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs. The hubs on many pineapples form eight spirals that rotate ‘iagonally upward to the let and 13 that rotate diagonally lipward to the right, again these are consecutive Fbonacet hhumbore(Auftaann, 2015). The same is also observed inthe Cloclewise and counterclockwise spirals of «pine coneMottematcrin the Mocem Woks Another interesting petters in nature is the honeycomb. According tothe Merriam Webeter dictionary, ‘a honeyeamb isa mas of hexagonal wax cxlls built by honeybees in thei ‘pest to contain ther brood and stores of honey.” But why ‘uild hexagonal ces? Why not squares? Jin Akiyeme, ‘Japanese mathematician, explain it well n an experiment nade on his regular TV show vinjn Math In the experiment, 2 student 1p asked to step on one mass made up of hexagonal cells and another mass made up of square cells find the result & unbelievable! The mass with hexagonal fells related the weight ofthe student while the mass with ‘square ora was completely destroyed. Ils amazing to know that the mass made up of hexagonal cells is stronger than. the one made up of equare ells. Moreover, these patterns ‘exist naturally inthe world Ire Note ot atnematies —— ‘Another interesting observation s the rabbit population beginning from a baby pair of the rst generation. ince it tales the fist generation to mature belore giving birth to a. fffpring, there is an adult pair for the vecond generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two Tabbit pars, the parents and baby pairs, of the third generation. Next. the adult pair begets a baby pair but the previous [baby pair simply matures, 20.8 family of three rabbit paira for the fourth generation exists, and so on. The number of ‘pl rabbit pars at each generation constitutes a Fibonacci sequence, Denoting by F, the Fibonscct sequence of 7 (reertions ia the aet of Fibooace! numbers {that i t#)~f4,9.5,8,19,21,94,55,89,144,..). Tn particular, denote Aj=1 for the 1 generation, Beal for the 29 generation, F=2 for the 3" generation, F,-3 for the 4 generation, and 0 on. Iti interesting to ‘int out that the Flbonace! numbers F, obey the following {lationship [R=R=1 Vn Fathandd “That is, F, is given by the sum of the two previous [Mbonacci numbers, F,, and Py, n23. Forexample: F =F, +F, Mh is also seen that Fig =F +h =34+ 21-55,Te Nate ot Mathematics 1s ing i tht in fo an ieee Be inocu ses ene ‘myetery. What does the golden rato have t do with a rabbit, population model? 1.3 The Golden Ratio ‘The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers fe n becomes large, approsehes the golden ratio; that 0180599887. This can de verifed by wing some parts of the human body: the length of farm, height, the distance of the fingertips tothe elbow. to Markowsky (1992), “the ratio of a. person's to the height of his or her navel is roughly the golden - We are not told why this is significant; the navel is & "Sear of no great importance in an adult human being” You Tay verily this for yourse, Did you get a value close to 1,6180339887..2 “The ratio between the forearm and the hand also yields @ Let us investignte the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as m becomes large. ‘The following table gives values of the ratio ann approaches va sioner I a fps el ng Ta Bees bes ae Cee tare BE im ataret pa tas eeaies tiem SN eat pups of Svs fea ter nd ie ago ene of oe + outer edges of ips: upper ridges of lips— Mathematics in he Maciem Woy + width of center tooth width of second tooth + width of eye : width of rs ‘The golden ratio denoted here by » is gometimes call the golden mean or golden section: 15 16180320887. ‘This cam come about in two ways. One is by an algebeaie relation. Suppose that a line segment in cut into two pieces of length: @ and b. Below it is shown that ais longer than b ‘Cleary, the length ofthe orginal line segment isa ee 8 ang 248 Now, two ratios are formed: © and 2*8. the test i formed: 2 ana the ratio ofthe longer piece a to the shorter plece b, and the second ratio ia the whole lenth to the longer piece eI 18 ‘now ideal to asl wen are the fo ratios equal? This is an algebraic question that can be solved by equating the two F : } — The Nate ot athaes — ‘Simplifying the right side of equation (1), we get ab B12 Beta Denoting the ratio © by y, we end up with ° aed @) ‘On the other hand, dividing in both the numerator and ‘enominator ofthe right side of equation (1) by b. we et ° which by writing = becomes = 22-1 In @). tow, by multpiying both sides of equation (2) by g We get a quadratic equation, 0-120 “ Using the quadratic root formula, we find two rots of Aston (4); the frst root ia p= 1,6180539867 "and tae Becond root is =-0.6180339087... The frst root lo the Fao ¢=1.618 that we are looking for, and we Ignore the Second root because it is x negative number, Hence, the value we are ooking fori lev 2 180399887. The golden ratio »=1.6180299687... is a strange lumber. It is the only ‘umber that if you subtract soe from it, © -1~0.6180329887... you end up mth ita own meciprocal + ~0.6180339887,Molhematcr te Meson Wed — Golden Rectangle ‘What is a golden rectangle? A recangle can be drawn of ‘sacha shape that i iis cat into a equare and a rectangle, The smaller rectangle willbe similar in shape to the larger rectal se Ee : k i sen enn een Se ere eae ge erases Construction of simple continued fraction. Since the <0 ‘otangles are sinilary their sides are in the same ratio as 0 2 8 Tre Noro etnamates Continuing the process, we will arrive at the following ceqation ater cight Heratons: Floofley=16 a eee si dal ai ees a iy 1 rma Tex 2 by repeated Herations the mulitlayer fraction is ‘up as shown above, Iteration means repeating « 35 over anid over again. In mathematics, it means the ted aplication ofan operation om = piven fanction over ‘ver agi. ‘The golden ratio is also given by the ratio of the two ‘of the golden rectangle. The principle of the golden ile is simple. ARer the largest square is cut off Jeftover piece i sin « golden rectangle. The largest is cut off again from the letover rectangle, and 2: In this way, the orginal golden rectangle is eut up into ing squares. ‘Since the squares get smaller by ator, they are sel similer golden squares1, What is mathematics for you? 2, Where do you apply the prineiple af matlbematics? 2, Do you need mathematics every day? Why? 44. What ave you learned from achool on mathematics 80 far? 5. Do you appreciate mathematics? Why or why not? 6. Did you ever perform well in mathematics? Why or why ot? 7, Who is Fibonacel and what di he do? ‘8, Why did Finonacci became fous? 9 Around what year Waa the ‘Mbonacci sequence invented? 10. The following rules ve @ simple model for the population growth of rabbits (a) The rabbits are always in pairs for reproduction. (0) A rabbit pair must grow one generation to maturity ‘and then begels ope baby pair at every generation ‘hereatter. (6 No rabbit pire die of Under these rules, Let F, be the baby pair ofthe 1 generation, F, Since it takes one generation to maturity, there fn an adult pai forthe 2% generation, which ie ‘ready for reproduction, FF, So, these are two rabbit pairs, the parent and baby pairs, of the 3 generation Next the adult pair begets a baby pair but the baby pair elmply matures, so 2 family of three ‘bit pars forthe generation, and so on. Ie Note et Maheratce ‘In particu, =I forthe 1* generation, =I forthe 2 generation, B92 for the 3% generation, 9 for the 4” generation, and s0 on, Find a formula forthe number of rabbits (inching ‘offering in the (m+n) generation, Use the figure on ‘page 10. For any positive integers m and n, use the results in no AO to find formula fOr Fr, Bee ee [Pn he pen op vp ci dps by ras Frat, we reine 2, The postal zip code of Marian is 2019. 3. The name of the shop is "680." Moreover mathematical objets may be represented In many sways mich ao sets and functions, 2.3 Unary and Binary Operations "Not all operations in mathematic involve two operands for numbers such as in the expression 2+3=5. The plus ttign between 2 and 3 sigalfies the operation of addition, ‘The plus symbol here involves @ binary operation. AS you ‘ay guess, 8 unary operation accepts only one walle or operand. ‘The plus and minus signs may not mean addition or subtraction when they are attached belore a single number. Instead, they are read ae positive and negative signs. Matematica Language ar sybet 9 written this way they are called unary operations. ‘accept only one value when they do arithmetic. ‘The positive sign ie very much lke the addition ion but has a aiffeent mesning when attached to ‘one number. For example, consider this expression: 4 ‘2 positive four). It docs not really mean “add four’ value of four represented by the mumber 4 is considered ‘single operand by the unary operator, end that tion produces a value of positive four. Obviously, ‘4 ‘a each represent the same value. 80, one can sey that “Unoiaible positive sign exits before any mumiber ‘The negative, or opposite), ign is = nary operator. ‘this expression’ ~4. Technically here, the negative ‘operator accepts a value of four as ite operand and 8 a value of negative four, Obviously, "4" and 4" Jn summary, unary operstions involve only one ‘There are many unary operations on the set of real rs. For example, negation is a unary operation. The fare the trigonometric functions, the slugle-variable ffl, Use factorial denoted nl, the transpose of ‘AS, the square root of 100 among, others. Additonal ‘runary operations ae gven below sine g ‘On the other hand, when “+” and “" can act on two | operands, then it is called a Binary operation. Aone Mhe binary operators, the ‘and ‘require more attention than all other binary operations. To understand this bet fecal the concept of ‘double negative’ you lernied In high School. The double negative x taught to be equivalent to the statement tuo negatives make a positive’ Consider | thiisexpression: 3~(-2). In tls expression, two operations z =\otnematis athe Woe Were are pretent using the symbol “However, the two “should hot be Interpreted to represent tw identical operations. The fest symbol (eft mes) i the binary subtraction operation. ‘The other [right below the integer 2) is the nary negative ‘ign oporator. ‘So what do you do to this expression? The negative sign operator has precedence over the eubiraction operator, £0 accepts operands fret. In the number line you go three ‘unite fo the rghit of sero fo locale 3. To subtract to fom ‘eee means you go two unite to the left of three but to subtract m negative two mesns you count the opposite of regative two ffom three whichis counting two units to the Fight of three. The result of this is fve, represented by the ‘umber line 5 units from zero. We write: 5$=3-(-2). This expression also equals 5-942. Since both expressions are equal to five, then Fight-hand sides must equal one another. Hence, 942-3-(-2} ‘The binary operation ia! differentiated with the unary ‘operator in the flowing igre . Unary negative sign operator at Binary subtraction aperstor Binary operations take two values, and include the ‘operations of addition, subtraction, mitipiation, division, land exponentiation, There are many binary operations on, eal mumbers, An operation ie binary if tekeo two real ‘numbers as arguments to produce another real number. Hf we let multiplication, denoted by the symbol x be a binary operation, then 46 yields the real number 24 or 446-28 IMotnematicl tanguage ord Symbo ‘Aaivonal examples are given below: 4. Addition eg, 465=9) 2. Subtraction eg, 10-8=2) ‘The properties of two binary operntions, addition and plication, over the set of real numbers are fellows: Closure of Binary Operations “The product and the sum of any two real numbers is ‘also a real numiver. ln symbol, we write Veyettc+yem and yeh Vey eRxry=yrx Yayeteyay-e {adation) (emtipiction). +1 fadition) ana 2 (multiplication). ‘of Binary Operations Given any three real numbers you may take any ‘and perform addition or multiplication as the case ‘and you will end with the same answer, For “dition in symbo we write, VepineR erpirsexelyes As an example, consider (142)+2=14(2¢3) On the other and, for multiplication we wste, vane, bouh-2=x-y-3} ‘This is illustrated by the example (2:3)-4=2-(3-4) {in which both sides of the equation are equal to 24, 2Motpemats nthe Mel Wes Matnemicel enguage and Symbos — 4, Distributivity of Binary Operations Bie ik, Se audit we hare Distributivty applies when multiplication ie pevformed on ‘a group of two numbers added of ‘Subtracted together. Given three real numbers yy and 2 this property is stated in eymbolic notation which case the inverse of i under multiplication ix Yay. 2 09 a2 ym ed ay, +0. fem in fern oh deer ee Rete eee a edaion a aeemaias ‘multiplication, Some Fundamentals of Logic Sen mee are ee day ee my elit es ce ee a ey An element of the set of real numbers is an identity “they do not see eye to eye.” This expression means cua ar eae ihe pope vowed in an Mpument Sor gt tage am i a ay cae, eg ‘This means that the identity is the number that ee, erst corinne the ote yes ead © tay Netecter ca i ou See ene Samer num The ony umbe tatsltes ts sete cay i the aaty of material pete fee ey 2 a te rome bib borer ‘the importance of precision and conciseness in cedegee-= ating mathematica ‘Theretore, the Heatly clement ein the above deaniton emo or €=0. ions What then Ie the Hlentty clement under Many times, proposiions remade. in peoples aulpietion? Obviously, the Ment for multiplication ms. A propetion ia & statement which i etter Bl eee later eer ake ee thor fale The snl cizene ray cai thatthe eeeaeu ta ten Tove they ever saw in Sond of Mesa, a movie that. |. Inverses of Binary Operations ge 0 F at cannot bot: Rach of the following statements is « proposition, Sone fre true and some are false. Can you tell which are true, find which are false? I fae, state why. ves x4(-) . 46. 9194 prime number po se3-8 0 x answer is the negative ofthat number, ~©. In symbols,Matnematicnthe Hose vere) 6 24y20 4. 10<-3 Anamers ‘4. False, Prime numbers have no other factors than Land itself 9 ean be expressed as 33. . True Tre 4, Fale, A negative number is always less than a positive smumber The Tuth Table ‘A truth table is @ table that shows the truth value of ‘8 compound statement for all possible truth values of its ‘Smple statements Negation [A statement is a negation of another ifthe word is not introduced in the negative statement Let Phe a proposition. ‘The negation of Pis “aot P* ar “P. “The following is its trath table: Example ‘What isthe negation ofthe following statements? 1. P: Bis @ rational number. ', R lean odd number. Solution: 4. VB is not rational aumber or V3 is irrational. in Symbols. =P 1.6 i not an odd number or 6 is an even number. In ‘symbols, R. 32 Motnematicaltangeage ane Sybo ———— ‘al Connectives Pand Q be propositions, A logical connective is the ical equivalent of a conjunction in englch. The ‘common conjunctions in mathematics are “and” and ‘ich are denoted by and v, respectively. two statements are joined like P and 0, denoted by ‘then PO is a statement that i true if and only Pand Q are true. Another logieal connective isthe or". The statement Pv is true if and only if Pis (Qs true, whichis taken fo include the case when Tanguage statements Tike prella” je an implication.“ rains! is P or theMatnemotesin the Mode We =|=]3|~ =|=|-|4 ‘A. more complicated form of implication is the ‘bi Implication or the bleondltional denoted by the symbol <>. The statement PQ is trae ifand only if both P and Q are either both true of both false. The sentence P20 is equivalent 0 the statment P2Q=(P20)A(05?) Construct the truth table for the logical operator <> ‘and chek that indeed it is equivalent to (P= 0) (=). ‘Abiconditional is often siated as, Pitand only Pie necessary apd sulficient for Q ‘Example 3: Write the following in symbolic form using ?, ‘and for statements and the symbole —.\4=, => where 'F Pres, Duterte is a good president. @ Government oficials are corrupt. 1: People ae happy. a. If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officals are not corrupt ‘bs I poverdiment ocala are ot coup, then the! people are happy. If Pres. Duterws ls a good president and people are ‘happy, then government officials are not corrupt. Ifnot Pthen not @ Ir Qthen P. Irnot @ then not P determine whether the conditional statement ie true ‘we come up with the following truth table. Referring truth table of the implication statement P= Q below, reate the truth table for the inverse, converse, andmatomatesin the Mac Wart Mathematica Longzage ond Symi freee pic P: A function has an inverse. Fee See] a Sc Be eciead nt oP = (QAR) The statement can also be written [P20R)s|(0AR)=P] ‘Example 4: Glve the converse, inveree, and contrapsitive ‘of tie following implications: If this movie ie intresting, then 1am watching i . pie. prime number, then it is odd. Anrwers: 1. The untvereal quantifier is usually written in the 4 English language as forall" or “Tor every” It is 4 ovr: la mai ot resting. then am HE ee 2. The existential quantifier is expressed in words ‘Converse: If 1 am watching this movie, then it is " ome tan a Ce ee, noted by 3. CContrapositve: Iam not watching this movi, then it ‘snot interesting 1 Inverse: fp is nota prime number, then # i not odd. Converse: I pis an odd mamber, then It spre CContrapositive: I pia not odd, then itis not & pie mbar tiflers are used ta deseribe the variable in a (Quan = Ten one quantity is imohed in statement, it ft nannies more than ome. Guanine ee Statement. Special care must be taken in the order me exe quant sr. Order does not ee rage Seer Eee BET Ge cae quent: (nas, Bacacane, the statement below and‘label them #, Q, and R. Then express : ‘symbolically the statement using. the logical operators ‘avy. Pty) fs the same as ¥y.We.Flcuh NN OF iy, for the quantifed sentence 3 3y,P(e,y) in Statement function Fhas an inverse if and only if fis nt to 3y.3x,Plxu) For mixed quantifers, order is foneo-one and onto. important. The statement ¥3,39,P(6y) never equivalent tothe sentence 3y,¥x, PCsMoremates nthe Maem Woes ‘Example 6: Write as an English sentence and determine ifit fs tue or fale. 2 Ween ay eR xey=10 b, Wrezayemy? =x Anrwers: 1 For every real number x, there existe a real number y ‘such thatthe sum of cand y is equal 010. TRUE ». For every postive integer x there exists real number y ‘such that the square of ye equal to TRUE 2. 2,3) &f fie a finction 8. xe or xc3 is equivalent to 4 [341 |-2s| soa: | 62s | 1095 3] 6 [aa}es | a6 [02s | 095 st falas | om [aa [mas robes fas [ts] sar | aes | oes oa ates] sar [aaas | -s0s To) 9 fa] as | isan | vas | 308 ape ae/as| en | 62s | ras wo [2 [st |-25] asor | za | _aar9s -; 2 | [ae| as | ner [2035 | 20s, Seow ace See feo] fae Seat [Saw Ee eo-m ot |" oa [a0 e nasa habs oot a i718 eG) VeroITES ~o80 ‘conforms with the scatter graph om page 70. The either increasing nor decreasing and therefore the of data are not correlate. find the correlation coefcent of data above in Excel, follow the steps below. 1 ter all data fecal in two columns oF rows, Sep 2: Clee “Formulas” then “Statsis" and choose ‘The absolute value of the correlation coefficient simost 1 hence, it has @ strong negative correlation. This isthe reason why the seatter gph in Example 2 of this seeton is dereasing ror lett right 3 Ater function argument table appeass, place the cursor in array 1, then highlieht the first 7”— matneratesin the Woe va cg fit n—c Step 4: Place the cursor in array 2 of the function ‘argument table, then highlight the second ‘column of your data. compute for the Spearman's rank correlation the following forma is used ‘Step 5: The correlation coeficient ie -0.008090860 5 ea shown below, pai rin where d = diferences of paired ranks rn =no. of paired data, a: the scores in Mathematics and English below, sores, and use the Spearman's tho to compute far jon coeficient. Since the value is almost zero, then it fis Utle or ¥er0 linear coreation, ‘Aa mentioned carlir, the Pearson product-moment correlation ls only applicable when the two variables under huey ave interval pe of dala, However, when the Se ‘of data is not meamired on an interval scale, then. the Pearson product moment coreation will nét be appropriate Consider the case when your data are ranked variables fr ordinal variables, What formula wil you use? The Spearman's rank order correlation formula Ts designed to help in handling ordinal data ge- Definition | 4.14 The Spearman's rank-order correlation i. the ronparametie version of the Pearson. product= Using the Spearman's rank fone {moment coreaton. Spearman's corrlation oe eticlent, also depot 7) canes the oon Strength and direction of association between {ovo ranked variable, 1%Motnemaerin the Modan Wot vihere $92 and n=10 we have: ‘The correlation coefiient is 0:44 which is low postive comreaton For a palr of nominal dichotomous set of data, the phi coefficient is more appropriate to describe the data fet than the Pearson product-moment correlation or Spearman's rank correlation coelicient. Its formula is given wy adhe ier dhe Bxample 5: : Find phi fr the following contingency table Ta Stated Tt Substitute the values of a, by ¢; and d in the on a5 Terie aia raha 6-13-14-10 Sa "198,720 = 0000312 result shows that the opinion on capital punishment Ter or againat is almost zrzoin the negative side point bseral correlation coatficent is a coreation measures the strength of association between jaeevel variable [rato or interval data) and ‘variable. Binary variables are variables of nominal having only two possible values. They are also called 2 variables, Given two varlable sets, in whieh x continuous variable and y the dichotomous variable, ‘of paint biserial cortelation coeticient i pont a Vin 5 isthe mean x when y=1 or those labelled with 1 2, Se the mean x when y=2 oF those labelled with 2 rn, the number of samples labeled 1 in y ry the numberof samples labeled 2 in y fis total numberof samples {, standard deviation of all the x values-Motnemats inthe Madam Ws ‘me static ot — =1125 Se 2186 ‘The point Diserial correlation coefficient ig measures the relationship. between areal fichotomous and an interval sets of dat, na8 Ramin 445-9 Example out girls (I) and five boys (2) of Grade 12 took a ‘20tem Mathematics achievement test, The revults are igen below. Compute the correlation coefficient ofthe girls” Soores ac the boy! scores inthe set of data. Ete 1125-136 [HB] Pa ~“aaasais \ap-1)~ 1997 295913 Correlation coefficient of -0,1957 indicates tow ‘relation, Por this specific example, the negative ‘suguests that the higher the boys score im the the Lower are she gel acres. previously shown, diferent formulas can be used the correlation between two data sete, If data |y are oth interval data, the Pearson product moment will sulice. For two data acta that are both the Spearman's rank correlation coeficient will ite. The phi correlation cooicient is sulted ‘the correlated behavior of data that are both dichotomous. However, if one real nominal 70 a 10 ar m1 3 + 5 é 7 = 3 ‘solution: In this example, the polot-biserial torreation wil be ned beats the dain inves oni needa {the test results) and nominal dichotomous data IGentifis the test-takers female, labelled 1, or othervis, labelled 2). Let x represent the interval dats and y stand for the dichotomous data. The formula to be used is the ‘uation for determining the correlation coefficient. You may { your calculations in feel or use a calculator to arive at the following results, decisions in business, in education, and even in ircumttances are based on information that from the real world. For instance, you are deciding ‘up a business selling cars. Your first course before money on this business ie to know which car ells ‘these days. Before you open a business of selling Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Honda, Nissan, or Susu, yous 10 gather information which among these get the most— natnematsin tne ode Wests —— ‘number of sales. How many existing distributors of these ‘Caer are out there? Do you want t9 compete? To answer ‘eee questions, you need to gather data, What type of (data? And here wil you get them? You simply need to do Nturvey, This doce not need to cover the whole population See Phiippines but only a portion ofthat population. That ‘Bart ofthe population scaled the sample n. Definitions 42.1 Population is the total number of people, fnimals, other living. or non-living things Linder consideration. A population has to. De ‘welldefined so you know exactly what belongs lind what does not belong tothe population. 42.2 Sample the poron or pert ofthe population. “There are several types of data, the artifleial nominal, tne real wominal, the ordisal, the interval, ond the ratio fdata, There aze also several ways of gathering data. You Sal use survey either through interview or questionnaires Gihich may be done and gathered through mail, internet, Telephone, or other means. You can also gather data using ‘servations such as in a classroom setup. Now going back {ihe car business you want to put up'You want 10 find ut which eat fs saleable in Meto Manila by conducting Graney of a portion of Metzo Manila where you plan to put up your car sale shop. You will have to use random Zampling to gather data, You may visit shops that etl ‘Giferent brands of cars in Metro Manila to find out their ‘sales in the past three yeas oso. ‘Some of you might have experienced the blended tearning medium in one of your senior high school subjects, Im blended learning, about half of a group of students re taking classes that. combine online media andthe {aditonel classroom style of learning while the other half fre only attending lectures in the classroom. Consequently {he online group will receive quizzes online and those in @ lasoroom will have quizzs in the classrooms, Suppose Drofeesor wants to find out i blended learning is more jve than the traditional classroom setting The ister pretest and a posttest, and then will compare means of the two teste by using the ¢teet. How wil this ‘methodology work? The frst step in investigating «problem using an |2.3 Null hypothesie, often denoted by Hy is a Statement of what is being investigated. It is usually writen in the negative form sich as “Characteristic X has no significant effect” or “There ie no. signieant dierence between the two variables under stuy" or "Kha 3p signifeant relation wih ¥° The test of significance is designed to assess the stzength of the evidence against the nll hypothesi \24 Alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that ‘is contrary tthe null hypothesis. Iti the nll hypothesis without the word “no” find out if blended learning is more effective than 5 purely given in the classroom, the mull hypothesis ‘tnt a fellows: Mull Hypothesis, H,: There sno slgniicant difference in ‘mean scores ofthe achievement tosta in basic etatstioe thoae who were taught ‘sing blended lestning and Who were taught using purely traditional classroom— mainemate nthe Made Word ‘The alternative hypothesis is written as follows: Alternative Tearing and the scores of those who were not. ‘To test the hypothesie Hy, use the ttest. Consider for example the hypothetical data below for a 20-item fachievement test in statintice administered to the 10 ‘roups of students. “To teat if there ina signifcantdiference between the two acts of scores, we wil use the t-test forma for independent samples: Feta, — ey? a where & ls the mean ofthe x, values F ts the mean of they, values o Hie There is significant Aiferonce between the scares of those taught with blended TheStottcat Too rn, the muraber of s,yalues or number of samples ingroup x 1, isthe number of y, values oF numberof samples ingroup y 45, Is the standard deviation of x values 45, Is the standard deviation of y values. {he en problem the vain are ow: 3-128 pais. n.-10 my =10 tw—2F 5.=\2—— -s70%6 Eo ee 0.1585, does ¢=0.11585 mean? following are the steps of doing inferential statistics: 1, Wirite the nal hypothesis, 2. Chooee the level of significance. Usually it is @=0.05 of «= 0.01 3. Choose your test statistics. In this case, the Ces is chosen. “4. Compute the t-statistic using the formula above or using Microsoft Excel 5. Compare with the erltoal value of ¢ using the able 8Matneralesinthe Mas Wed ‘do not reject the null hypothesis. ‘seares of those who were not. 6, If computed ¢ is grester than the enitieal value of ¢ ((sat fs the conesponding value of tabulated ¢ at fosen a) then reject the mull hypothesis, If the computed ts less than the critical value of then Using the table of ertical values below for the ‘eotaled «0.05 with degree of freedom equal to bythe erfical value is ¢= 2.101. This critical value ia higher than the computed value t~ 0.11555. From step 6 above, the mull hypothesis should be fecepted, Hence, it ie concluded that there is no ‘hnifeant diference between the scores of students hight using the blended learning program and the Te Slice ession arg: seca eee ae we ee ee ea eee es eee eee eed ate being the height and the y coordinate being the fae eee ee ee at se eee sree pa eee oes mt Be ore ater ee ees Ae ee ee ceres cae Bee eee Pe en SBBBE PRRRE KUSUD SERRE 22-Metnemotesin the Maem Wot ———— Tre StoisicalToo ‘Consider the example in the previous section a positive Pearson corrltion was eatnbiehed between scores in Mathematics and English for group of ten students, The data ie given as follow: 5-o.e4146(48) b= 0.756008 With these values, the regression equation (rounded off decimal place) lagen by, y=0.76+0.88%. tis how to find a linear regression equation by What is the use of this equation? With this linear one can predict the seore of a student in the test who got a score of 3 in the Mathemates quiz ubstitute 3 for x in y =076+0.88x to get o + ¢ 5 9=076.-0.8%9) from this tabulation of scores, the terms below are asters determined. Not thatthe sample sis =10. Bena e EXERCISES SET 4 ‘out if there is a coreation—postive, negative, oF ‘i classmates Le. from the wrist t0 the Up of your Pe? eigen enimeter tae Ten, een the sponding beights in cm. Make a table of the {0 Substitute these values to the formula (2) and () of Graph the data ab a scater plot im Exc. thi accion to obtain the constants m and B of the linear t docs the graph show? Calculate’ the Pearson ofthe data get. Is the value of cvolicient in agreement with your seater man? fut if there is a relationship between student ‘and grade in Mathematics. Gather data fom equation. wSau-Lake pemannes are cere eee Sx-(Es) ieee ce cen a ad =" Toy296)- 48) ste the Pearson correlation coeiclent 8netomat in tne Mod Wests ————— 4. Aak tn classmates about the eucaonalatinments thier: parents Leif their parents graduated from lan scot ealege or graduate achos. Now atk the rel weijned grace average of cach casemate in fin shoot Ts there e corelaion between educations! Ueismont of parca end the high schol grade Serge in your sample? Treat education) ataiment roma data whe the high echoo! grade ws = Samus intrvel data What formula wil you use {o"tmpute the eorelation coefcent? Determine the ‘Gerelaton coefcent and produce a scatter ot using Bent 4:8 goup of ten Grade 12 students were given @ Ssitem pretest before attending a review for the UB Calege Entrance Test. A 45-item posttest was also (Miministered two weeks after the review. Given the flowing hypothetical data, check i there is sinifcant (ference between the pretest and the postest reais, Use « = 005. 22. 2 2 30. ss 37 2 3r 26. a a 2 3 2 36, 30, 29, 33 io a3 35 5. The table below iets the scores of nine students in Chemistry and Physi tests. TPE Tse Find the colation coefcient of the variables an Compute for b and m in the linear regression Give the regression equation. 4. Predict the Physics score of a student when he or ‘he got a score of 10 in Chemistry “The following table indicates the total number of fenrolees of ZSehool and the corresponding profit {rom 2008 to 2016, The figure 250M below means 250 ‘milion in pesos: [Ess reestarctment [prone sor 16,000 2508 2009 15.000 200K 2010) 10,500 150K Zar 1,000 cco 2017 800 90H 301 2.400 200K zat 13.500 2208 Zan Ta. 000 20M ane. 18.200 Ta0Ht ‘8. Compute for band min the regression equstion. _. Give the regression equation Predict the school's profit in 2017 when the total ‘enrolment i 12,000, ‘The table below indicates the B-Cub membership in the past six years: 1a] oat) ean eae 2s | so | 2 [as | 50 | se stelstelol+[s|zl_ ‘8. Compute for band min the regression equation. . Give the regression equation *Predict the B-Club membership four years fom ow. Assume the equation olds beyond. the Indicated years 1. The table below indicates the monthly cost of electricity fagnnct air conditioning temperature na household: [AC Temperature (aegree s a 28 2 7 [Cost of Bisctricty (pesos) 3000] 3300 | 3500] 3800] 4000 1. Fit the data into linear equation and compute for band min the regression equation, ». Give the regression equation Predict the cost of electricity if the AC is act at & temperate of 16°Cin a month. 9. The Consumer Pree Index (CP) is « measure of the fverage chang: in prices of commodities overtime. In the following lable, the CPI foreach year is based on a ‘ost of P1000 in 1902. ear 1995 | 2000 | 200s | 2010 [2015 [err 7200 | 1800-| 1800-| 2100 _[ 2500 Ft the data into hear equation end compute for ‘band min the regression equation. be Give the regression equation Predict the CPL in 2020 using the regression fquation, ‘suming the equation holds beyond 2015. 10. The mumber of typhoons for the past five years is econ below. Wear Bora [201s | ore [2018 [2076 iMumberofyphoons| 19 | 1 | 21 | 20 | a2 ft the data inte a linear equation and compute for ‘band min the repression equation. Give the regression equation How many typhoons are we expecting this year? The Mathematics of Graphs | ee 1 fetreduction to Graph Theory Euler Paths and Circuits 5 Hamiltonian Paths and Circuits Graph Coloriog BS trees LEARNING ‘OBJECTIVES At the end of the 1, aiterentiate Blerian fom Hamitonian graphs; 2. apply Euler and Hmitonian paths to solve problems: 3. apply Buter and Homitonian circuit 1 eve problems; and @® kevworvs Grmph Hamiltonian outer Paths Circuits euler Weighted Circuits Graphs soWe probiems fon ‘sing graph Hamiltonian Piae's Pathe TheoremNoten he Maden Wott Te Mathematics of Graphs — “The postion of the vertices, the length of . the edges, and shape of the edges do not matter in a graph. Sometimes fegee aro gen orientations and are represented by ‘OF are given values (weights) Buti isthe number of ‘and which of them are joined by edges that matter 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory Graph theory is a branch of mathematics that_was developed afer Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), 0 Swiss Seicmmaticlan, solved a cighteenth century problem Toning the seven bridges of KOnigsberg in Old Prosi The ty of Konigsberg (cow Kaliningrad, Russa) has Teg Giuicts divided by the Pregel iver. Seven briders ‘OUT cera these dstrits as shown in the figare below. tn Euler's time, people were puzaied If there is a travel route that would only cross each of the seven bridges exactly ‘Gnce? Buler proved in 1736 that it i impossible to take & SR that would lead them acroes each bre and return to {he searing point without traversing the same bride twice igeonnections such as the seven bridges of GGraphis can be used to illustrate he lusrate huge connections fs social networks in Facebook, fight destinations of the simple community garbage collection rte, or the computer system connectivity in school, 2s Constructing a Graph He ftoving abe tin eee cea connected tine ight. The srbal Indicate th the hes ah “ele Problems involving Komigaberg isthe subject matter of ths chapter, co [roi J i [At present, graph theory finde many applications in the social seiences (eoelal networking sites), computer (networks of communication), chemistry ‘communication ais, (networks esearch [network (chemical structure, fof communication), and operatios analysis) ‘Graph 1h graph is « collection of points called wertiees ct nodes ann line segments or curves called edges that 2 graph that represents this information where wortex Tepresents a ely and an edge connects two ithe two cities havea diet Might,— nainematcs nine Mecem Woks ‘he Mesthomates of Grophs —————— ‘Use your graplt to determine which city has the most and east numberof direct Highs Soluton: ‘a Draw eleven vertices fn any configuration you wish) to represent the eleven els, ané connect the vertices ‘wth edges according tothe table. A path js an altemating sequence of vertices and ‘edges: It can be seen as a trp from one vertex t0 fanother sing the edges ofthe graph. ‘A graph is connected if thers ie a path connecting att ne vero fa path begins and ends with the same vertex, it is ‘2 closed path ora etreut or eyele, Sali? Vat oe ance i there ean ee fang If every pair of vertices ofa graph are adjacent, the graph is complete. A compete graph with m vers i Henoted by '. The Manila vertex has nine edges attached to is hence Manila has the most number of direct Mghts. On the ther hand, the Macau vertex {e connected to only ne node! hence Macau has the last number of direct fights I is important to note also that the vertex of ‘Brunel isnot connected tm any nodes hence Brunei does fot have a direct flight to any ofthe ten cities. with a Loop. Te lop connects vertex A 9 ae of loop is 2 am with Multiple Edges. Both graphs G, and O, are connected and have multiple edges connecting “A sod B, The degrees of vertices A and Bin G, ace to while that of Gare bath equal to 4 a7 w ‘Some Definitions [A loop is an edge connecting a vertex total it ewo vertices are connected by more than one ede, these edges are called muttiple edges. ‘A graph with no loope and no multiple edges is ‘called s almple graph. %— hoinersaesin the Madam Wo — Complete Graph. A complete graph is a connected ‘raph im which every possible edge is drawn between ‘ertces It should not contain multiple edges. Kone veree + aaa BIA Two Vertees Three Vertces: Four Vertices: Five Vario: Let e be the mumiber of edges in a complete graph. From the results above, we fd that for: Kj; €=0, degree ofthe vertex is 0 Kz e= 1, degree of each vertex is 1 degre ofeach vertex is 2 5, degree ofeach vertex is 3 10, degree of each vertex is 4 What about Xa complete graph with n vertices? How many cages could we possibly get and what i the degre of ach verte in the graph? The numberof edges is equal to: Jaina) for n23 while the degree of each vertex is obviously equal 8 — tre Monaro f rons Euler Paths and Circuits ‘Circuits ‘bot never ee the sane In the Kinigsberg_ bridges finding & path that each bridge exactly fac) returning to the Point ie the came ae Bulor proved that the graph does not have an Euler i boomsse for an Euler circuit to exist, the degree ch vertex in the graph must be even. Apparenly, all Yertces in the Kénigsberg bridges problem have odd ence not Eulerian. Consequently, he formed Toliowing tear ‘Bulerlan Graph Theorem ‘A connected graph is Bulerlan if end only if every verte ofthe graph i of even degree.The Methematcsef Graphs — motematesin the ose Wer le 3: Determine whether the following raph is ind an Buleran crout fit isnot, can you ‘an Baler path? ‘Note that the Eulerian Graph Theorem onty guarantees that if the degrees ofall the vertices in graph are oven, an Thar creult exists, but it doesnot tel us how to finde, Hxamplo 2 Determine whether the following graph $8 Bulerun, tis, ind an Baler circuit 1 3¢ is not, explain wh. Using the Bulerian Graph Theorem, this graph Is rian since vertices A and J both have odd degrees. he path A~B-C-D-B-P-G-H-t-J-D-G. Fes crey cle without duplication: hence the contains an Buler path, Furthermore, it can be noted path starts at but ends at J. the vertices having solution: The degree of each of the vertices i 4 (eve) Penne the graph fe Eulerian. The path A~ DB ~ © ee DC - BA sits at vertex A and ends st Gevtex i henee itis creat. Moreover, it uses all the edars ‘nly once; hence i isan Ruler ele Path Theorem connected raph contains an Baler path ard the grap has veri fo deers with il etree cages rarer feny Mae Bee sit ators of tae maton dd egren the other. eS ‘Euler Path. ‘ao Baler path io path that uses every sige in the graph exactly ance but it does not Star and end atthe same vertex