UNIT 2: SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

In this unit, we will learn how to describe the motion of moving objects. If an object
moves, we are interested in how fast it moves, that is, its speed. If the speed of an
object changes with time, we are also interested in how much it changes with time,
that is, the acceleration. Before we can fully understand why an object moves, we
must be able to describe its motion precisely.

2.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance is the total length covered by a moving object irrespective of the direction of
motion, that is, only the magnitude of importance.

Displacement is distance measured in a straight line (i.e. linear distance) and

in a specified direction so both magnitude and direction are important.

Worked Example 2.1

A car travels at 5 km due east and makes a U-turn back to travel a further distance
of 3 km.
Find (a) the distance covered,
(b) its displacement.

Solution :

(a) Distance covered = 5 + 3

= 8 km

(b) Displacement = 5 – 3
= 2 k due east of starting point O.

2.2 Speed and Velocity

Speed

Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance. In other words, speed is the
distance moved per unit time. It tells us how fast or slow an object is moving.

distance moved
Speed =
time taken

d
In symbols, v = where v = speed,
t

d = distance moved and

t = time taken.

Most objects or bodies do not move at constant speed. For example, the MRT train
starts from rest at a station, moves faster and faster until it reaches a constant (or
cruising) speed and then slows down to a stop at the next station. It is therefore
more useful to define average speed <v> rather than the actual speed v.
 Figure 2.2 MRT train Figure 2.3 Speedometer indicates
instantaneous (or actual) speed

Figure 2.4 Fast moving car Figure 2.5 Crawling snail

total distance moved

Thus, Average speed =
total time taken

d
In symbols, <v> =
t

The common units for speed are metre per second (m s−1 ) and kilometre per hour
(km h−1) the SI unit for speed is m s−1 .

1 km = 1000 m and 1 hour = (60 x 60)s = 3600 s.

1000 m 5
Therefore, 1 kmh−1 = = m s−1 = 0.28 m s−1
3600 s 18

Worked Example 2.2

An athlete ran a distance of 100 metres in 9.83 seconds.
What was his average speed?

Solution:

Given: total distance covered, d = 100 m

Total time taken, t = 9.38 s
 d
Average speed, <v> =
t

100
=
9.83

= 10.2 m s−1

Table 2.1 Speeds of some objects

Moving object Speed/m s−1 Speed/ kmh−1
Earth rotating round the Sun 30 000 108 000
Boeing 747B 300 1080
Car 16.7 60
MRT 12.5 45
Sprinter 10 36
Walking 2.5 9
Crawling snail 0.0005 0.0018

The speed of sound in air at room temperature is about 330 m s−1 or about 1200 km
h−1 but the fastest speed is that of light in vacuo which is 3 x 108 m s−1 .

Velocity

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. It is speed in a specified

direction. When you are asked for the velocity of an object, you have to state the
speed of the object and the direction it is travelling.

displacement (linear distance)

Velocity =
time taken

Similarly, as in the case of average speed, we have

total displacement
Average velocity =
total timetaken

A body moving at a constant velocity moves at a constant speed in a straight line

(that is, both speed and direction are constant).
The units of velocity are the same as the units of speed.
Worked Example 2.3
Calculate (a) the average speed and (b) the average velocity of the car in Worked
Example 2.1. if the time taken for the car to move from O to E is 0.2 hour.

Solution:

average distance covered

(a) Average speed =
total time taken

8
=
0.2

= 40 km h−1

2
(b) Average velocity =
0.2

total displacement
=
total timetaken

= 10 km h−1 due east of starting point O.

Self-Assessment Questions

(a) What is the difference between speed and velocity?

(b) For an object that is moving at a constant velocity, is it necessary for it to be
moving at a straight line?

2.3 The Displacement-Time Graph

Useful information about the motion of an object can be deduced by plotting the
displacement-time graph. Consider a car travelling along a straight line and with its
displacement from the starting point O is represented by s. What deductions can be
made about the car’s motion if its displacement-time relation is represented by (i)
Figure 2.6 and (ii) Figure 2.7 below?

From Figure 2.6, the following deductions can be made:

(a) The displacement s carries only positive values. This means that the car
moves only in one direction.

(b) The displacement s increases uniformly with time t since a straight line is
obtained. The average velocity can be found from the gradient of the graph.

(c) The average velocity <v> is the same, or constant for different time intervals.
For example,

∆ s 1 20
¿ v >¿ 1 ¿ = = = 20 m s−1 and
∆ t1 1

∆ s 2 60
¿ v >¿ 2 ¿ = = = 20 m s−1
∆ t2 3

Showing that ¿ v >¿ 1 ¿ = ¿ v >¿ 2 ¿

(Note: (i) ∆ s1 means change in displacement
e.g. ∆ s1 = 40 – 20 = 20 m
and ∆ s2 = 120 – 60 = 60 m
(ii) ∆ t means time interval
 e.g. ∆ t 1 = 2 – 1 = 1 s and
∆ t 2 = 6 – 3 = 3 s)

(d) Hence, the constant gradient of the straight line graph shows that the car is
moving with constant velocity i.e. exhibiting uniform motion.
(Note: If we consider only the magnitude of the rate if change of displacement
∆s
i.e. | |, we obtain the average speed.)
∆t

From Figure 2.7, the following deductions can be made:

(a) Since the displacement s remains positive throughout the motion, the car’s
position remains to the right of the starting point O. The displacement to the
right of O is taken to be positive.

(b) At points A and C, the car is standing still, since the displacement s is not
changing for short interval of time around A and C.

(c) Around B, the displacement s of the car increases uniformly with time, so the
car must be travelling away from the starting point O with uniform velocity.

(d) After point C, the displacement s of the car is decreasing. The means that the
car is travelling in the opposite direction i.e. towards the starting point O. the
corresponding velocities will be negative.

(e) For the same time interval ∆ t , the magnitude of the displacement change ∆ s1
at D is greater than ∆ s2 at E. therefore, the magnitude of the average velocity
at D is greater than E. In other words, the car is moving faster at D and slows
down at E.
 (f) Around E, the displacement s decreases with time t at a decreasing rate (i.e.
the gradient of the curve becomes more gentle) up to F. this shows that the
car slows down to a halt at F.

From the deductions obtained from Figures 2.6 and 2.7, the following points can
be noted.

1. In a displacement-time graph, the average velocity <v> is found by the ratio

∆s
where ∆ s = change in displacement and ∆ t = time interval.
∆t
2. A positive gradient of the displacement-time graph indicates that the car is
moving in the same direction as the displacement.
3. A negative gradient of the displacement-time graph indicates that the car is
moving in the opposite direction to the displacement.
4. A zero gradient of the displacement-time curve shows that the car is
stationary.

Instantaneous speed and velocity

Figure 2.8 shows another typical displacement-time graph for an object from a
starting or reference point O.
The average velocity of the object after travelling for 6 s is given by

total displacement 6
<v> = = = 1 m s−1 away from point O.
total timetaken 6

The instantaneous velocity (or actual velocity) of the object at time t = 6 s is given
by the gradient of the tangent to that point in time (i.e. at t = 6 s). For this case, the
instantaneous velocity of the object at
 ∆s 4
t = 6 s is v = = m s−1 away from point O.
∆t 3

(Note: the difference between the time intervals ∆ t used to find average velocity and
instantaneous velocity is that ∆ t for average velocity is much larger than ∆ t for
instantaneous velocity. In fact, ∆ t for instantaneous velocity should be close to zero
since we are taking the tangent to the point of the curve for that instant.)

The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity gives the instantaneous speed.

4
For this case, the instantaneous speed is m s−1 .
3

Self-Assessment Questions

(a) Can you tell from a displacement-time graph whether an object is stationary?
(b) How can you obtain the average velocity and instantaneous velocity from a
displacement-time graph?

2.4 Acceleration

An object whose velocity (not speed) is changing is said to be accelerating. In other

words, if the direction and/or the speed of a moving object change(s), the object is
accelerating. Thus, if an object is moving at a constant speed but changes its
direction as it moves(such as whirling a stone attached to a string in Figure 2.9) or if
an object is moving in a straight line, but changes its speed as it moves (such as in a
100 m sprint), both objects are accelerating.

Figure 2.9 Whirling a stone

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

change∈ velocity
Acceleration =
time taken
 ∆ v v−u
In symbols, a = =
∆t t

Where a = acceleration
∆ v = change in velocity,
v = final velocity,
u = initial velocity, and
∆ t = t = time interval or time taken.

Worked Example 2.4

A bus starts from rest and achieves a velocity of 20 m s−1 (72 km h−1) in 10 s while
moving westwards from a starting point O. calculate its average acceleration.

Solution:
v−u
Average acceleration, a =
t
20−0
=
10
= 2 m s−1 due west of point O.

Worked Example 2.5

A car travelling eastwards at 30 m s−1 (108 km h−1) suddenly comes to a halt in 5 s.

Find its average acceleration.

Solution:
Given: initial velocity, u = 30 m s−1
 final velocity, v = 0 m s−1
time taken, t = 5 s

v−u
Average acceleration, a =
t
0−30
=
5
= - 6 m s−1 eastwards.
Note: the negative sign in this case means negative acceleration (i.e. velocity
decreases with time). It is also called retardation or deceleration.

Self-Assessment Questions

(a) Would you consider a car turning around a corner at a constant speed to be
accelerating?
(b) Does motion always takes place in the direction of acceleration?
(c) Can an object be moving if its acceleration is zero?

2.5 The Velocity-Time Graph

An object at rest (or a stationary object) has zero velocity. An object which covers
equal displacements in equal time intervals has constant (or uniform) velocity. In
both cases, the object has zero acceleration since the rate of change of velocity is
zero. The following velocity-time graphs give us useful information about the motion
of objects.

For graph (i),

(a) The velocity remains the same as time increases. This means the object has
a constant velocity of 20 m s−1 .
linear distance
(b) Since velocity =
time
 Therefore, linear distance = velocity x time = (20 m s−1 )(5 s) = 100 m
which can also be obtained by finding the shaded area from t = 0 s to t = 5 s.
Thus in general, the area under the velocity-time graph gives the linear
distance travelled by the object in the given time interval.

For graph (ii),

(a) The velocity has only positive values. This means that he object is moving in
only one particular direction.

(b) The velocity increases uniformly with time since it has a straight-line graph.

(c) Its average acceleration is constant for different time intervals; in other words,
it has a uniform or constant acceleration.

(d) The distance travelled by the object can also be found by finding the area
under the v-t graph for whatever time interval that is required. For example,
distance travelled from t = 0 s to t = 5 s
1
= (5)(50) (area of triangle)
2
= 125 m

For graph (iii),

(a) For equal time intervals ∆ t from A to B the change in velocity ∆ v 1 and ∆ v 2
increases since ∆ v 2 > ∆ v 1.

∆v ∆ v2
(b) Since acceleration a = , therefore instantaneous acceleration a 2 = is
∆t ∆t
∆ v1
greater than the instantaneous acceleration a 1 = .
∆t
 This means that the average acceleration of the object increases with time.

For graph (iv),

(a) For equal time intervals ∆ t from C to D, the change in velocity ∆ v 3 and ∆ v 4
decreases since ∆ v 3 > ∆ v 4.

∆v ∆v4
(b) Since acceleration a = , therefore instantaneous acceleration a 4 = is
∆t ∆t
∆ v3
smaller than the instantaneous acceleration a 3 = . This means that the
∆t
average acceleration of the object decreases with time.

(c) At point E, the velocity stops increasing and the object from then on moves
with constant velocity.

Note: for both graphs (iii) and (iv), the distance travelled by the object can be
obtained from the area under the v-t graph.

Table 2.2 Some common velocity-time graphs

From the graphs shown in Table 2.2, we can see that the gradient at a point on a
velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of the object. The steeper the gradient,
the greater the acceleration. A negative gradient indicates that the object is
retarding.

Worked Example 2.6

A bullet train starts from rest from a station and travels along a straight
horizontal track towards another station. The graph in Figure 2.13 shows how
the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey. Using the
graph, determine the total distance covered by the train.
 Solution:
Total distance travelled, d = area under v-t graph
1
= (10 + 16) 40 = 520 m
2

Worked Example 2.7

The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.14. Describe the motion of
the car.

Solution:
Time Motion
0 s to 5 s Velocity increases uniformly i.e. constant acceleration of a =
15−0
= 3 m s−2 .
5
5 s to 10 s Velocity increases from 15 m s−2 to 20 m s−2 , acceleration
decreases from 3 m s−2 to 0 m s−2 i.e. the rate of increase of
velocity, though positive, is decreasing.
10 s to 15 s
Constant velocity (maximum velocity reached).
Zero acceleration.
15 s to 20 s
Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m s−2 to 0 m s−2 i.e.
20−0
retardation of = 4 m s−2 .
20 s to 25 s 5

25 s to 30 s Velocity is zero i.e. car is at rest.

 30 s to 35 s 10−0
Constant acceleration of a = = 2 m s−2 .
5

Velocity decreases non-uniformly from 10 m s−2 to 0 m s−2 i.e.

non-uniform or variable retardation.

Self-Assessment Questions

(a) Can you tell from a velocity-time graph whether an object is stationary?
(b) How would you obtain the acceleration of an object from a velocity-time
graph? What does the area under a velocity-time graph represent?

2.6 The Acceleration of Free Fall, g

A very important acceleration that affects our daily lives is the acceleration of free fall
(or acceleration due to gravity). It is given a special symbol, g. For objects close to
the Earth (less than 1 km from the surface), the acceleration of free fall, g, can be
taken to be constant. Any object falling from rest, at a height of less than 1 km, is
said to be under the influence of a uniform gravitational field. The object is said to
experience the force of gravity which is commonly referred to as the weight of the
object (see Unit 3 on Forces).

Motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance

Figure 2.15 shows the motion of a hammer of weight W 2 and a feather of weight W 1 if
they are allowed to fall freely in a vacuum, that is, in the absence of air.

The following deductions can be made:

1. Both the feather and the hammer increase their speed at a rate of 10 m s−1
every second, that is, they undergo a constant acceleration of 10 m s−2 .
2. The direction of this accelerated motion is downwards, towards the centre of
the Earth.
3. The acceleration does not depend on the masses or the weights of the falling
bodies. In other words, all objects (regardless of mass) increase their speed
at the same rate. This motion is represented by the velocity-time graph shown
in Figure 2.16.
2.7 The IT Laboratory

To determine the acceleration due to gravity. (Refer to Expt P07 of PASCO Physics
Lab Manual.)

Apparatus: Science Workshop™ Interface, free fall adaptor, steel balls – 13 mm and
19 mm, metre rule, retort stand.

Procedure:

1. Measure distance, s, that the ball will fall before touching the timing pad, say 1.5
m.
2. Start recording. Allow the ball to fall by loosening the release mechanism.
3. Replace the ball in the mechanism. Now reduce the distance, s, by 0.25 m.
repeat step 2. The computer interface automatically records the time taken, t, for
the ball to hit the timing pad.

4. Plot the graph of 2s against t 2. The gradient will give the acceleration due to
gravity.
5. Repeat the experiment with a steel ball of another size.

Self-Assessment Questions

a stone is thrown upwards into the air. Assuming negligible air resistance, what is the
magnitude and direction of its acceleration?

2.8 Terminal Velocity (Optional)

Have you noticed that when you run, you can feel the air pushing against you? This
opposing force to your motion is called air resistance. Air resistance is a form of
frictional force (see Unit 3 on Forces). It has the following characteristics:

1. It always opposes the motion of moving objects.

2. It increases with the speed of the object.
3. It increases with the area (or size) of the object.
4. It increases with the density of air.

As mentioned in Section 2.6, all objects, if allowed to fall freely, will accelerate
towards the centre of the Earth. Small, heavy and round objects such as steel balls
will accelerate in the same way and hit the ground at the same time if the air
resistance is small. However, if you release a piece of paper which is light and has a
large surface area, the motion of the paper can be described in Figure 2.17.

The following can be observed:

 1. From t = 0 s to t = 1 s, the velocity of the paper increases from zero to v1
rapidly, that is, with large acceleration.

2. From t = 1 s to t = 2 s, the velocity of the paper continues to increase from v1

to v 2 ( v 2> v 1). However, the rate of increase of velocity from v1 to v 2 is smaller
than that from zero to v1 over the same time interval of 1 s, that is, with
smaller acceleration due to increasing air resistance, R.

3. From t = 2 s to t = 4 s and even beyond, the velocity of the paper does not
increase any more but remains constant, that is, v 4 = v3 = v 2= maximum
constant velocity reached since R equals W. Such a maximum constant
velocity is called the terminal velocity. The acceleration is now zero.

4. The velocity-time graph shown in Figure 2.18 can be used to represent this
type of motion. Note that the area A1, A2, A3 and A 4 represent the
displacements s1, s2, s3 and s4 respectively since displacement (A) =
velocity(s) x time(t)

Worked Example 2.8

Figure 2.19 shows the motion of a parachutist from the instant he jumps out of the
aircraft to the time he hits the ground. Describe his motion to the following time
intervals:
(a) t = 0 s to t = 3 s
(b) t = 3 s to t = 10 s
(c) t = 10 s to t = 20 s
(d) t = 20 s to t = 22 s
(e) t = 22 s to t = 35 s
(f) t = 35 s to t = 38 s

Time Motion
0 s to 3 s Velocity increases almost uniformly
when he first leaves the aircraft. The
30
acceleration a is about = 10 m s−2 ,
3
close to g.
3 s to 10 s Velocity increases from 30 m s−1 to 50 m
s
−1
over ∆ t = 7 s i.e. average
acceleration a = 2.9 m s−2 which is
smaller than that from t = 0 s to t = 3 s.
10 s to 20 s Velocity constant i.e. terminal velocity is
reached (acceleration is zero).
20 s to 22 s Velocity decreases rapidly from 50 m s−1
to 10 m s−1 in ∆ t = 2 s, i.e. rapid
deceleration (caused by large air
resistance when the parachute opens).
22 s to 35 s Constant velocity again but smaller than
the first terminal velocity before the
opening of the parachute.
35 s to 38 s Velocity decreases from 10 m s−1 to 0 m
s−1 in ∆ t = 3 s, i.e. large deceleration as
he hits the ground and comes to a halt.

Exercise 2
Section A multiple-Choice Questions

1. The average speed of a car is 35 km h−1. How far can it travel in 45 minutes?

A 0.78 km
B 129 km
C 26.26 km
D 467 km

2. A car accelerate uniformly from 5 m s−1 to 13 m s−1 in 4.0 s. What is the

acceleration of the car in m s−1 ?

A 0.50
B 0.80
C 1.25
D 2.00

3. A ball which is thrown vertically upwards at 1.2 m s−1 decelerates uniformly at

10 m s−1 . How long will it take to reach zero velocity?

A 0.12 s
B 2.4 s
C 6.0 s
D 12.0 s

4. What information would you expect to find from a given velocity-time graph?

A The velocity.
B The velocity and acceleration.
C The velocity and displacement.
D The velocity, displacement and acceleration.

5. Which one of the following velocity-time graphs show am object showing

down with a non-uniform acceleration?
Section B Structured Questions

1. (a) Define average speed.

(b) The figure below shows the route taken by a cyclist as he journeys past
the places marked A, B, C and D before returning to A.

Calculate the average speed in km h−1:

(i) from A to B;
(ii) from B to C;
(iii) over the whole journey.

2. The diagram below shows the velocity-time graphs for four particles A, B, C
and D.
 Describe the motion of these four particles.

3. A locomotive pulling a train out from one station travels along a straight
horizontal track towards another station. The graph below shows how the
velocity of the train varies with the time over the whole journey.

Using the graph, determine,

(a) the acceleration of the train in the first two seconds of the journey;

(b) the maximum velocity attained by the train;

(c) the time during which the train is retarding;

(d) the total distance between the two stations;

(e) the average velocity of the train.

4. (a) What is meant by (i) velocity, and

(ii) acceleration?
 (b) A lift, on its upward journey, starts from rest and accelerates for 5 s until it
reaches a velocity of 2 m s−1 . After this, it moves at a constant speed for 10 s
and then retards to rest after another 5 s.

For its downward journey, it again starts from rest and accelerates for 10 s
until it reaches a velocity of 3 m s−1 . Then it retards to rest after another 10 s.
Sketch the velocity-time graphs for both the upward and downward journeys
made by the lift.

Calculate
(i) its acceleration during the upward journey;
(ii) its retardation during the downward journey;
(iii) What can you say about the areas under the two velocity-time graphs?

5. A feather is allowed to be released from rest in two different environments;

one without air (i.e. a vacuum) and then in the presence of air.

(a) Discuss the motion of the feather as it moves through the two environments.
(b) Draw the velocity-time graphs for the motion of the feather in both cases,
assuming that the distance fallen is sufficiently large.

6. The graph below shows how the velocity of a certain moving body varies with
time t.

(i) Calculate the acceleration during the first 10 s shown ion the graph.

(ii) During the period t = 30 s and t = 45 s the body decelerates uniformly

to rest. Complete the graph and obtain the velocity of the body when t
= 37.5 s.
(iii) Obtain the distance travelled by the body during the period t = 30 s and
t = 45 s.
7.

The horizontal section BC (of length 50.0 m) of the smooth track ABCD shown
in the diagram was calibrated in metres. A steel sphere of mass 0.3 kg was
released from a point of the slope AB and it rolled towards the end D of the
track.

A short time after the sphere had passed B, a stopwatch was started and the
times at which the sphere passed various calibration marks were noted and
recorded in the following table.

Distance from B/m 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Time/s 3.5 6.0 8.5 11.0

(a) Using graph paper, draw a distance-time graph for the sphere.
(b) Calculate the average velocity of the sphere as it rolled between the 3.0 m
and 4.0 m mark.
(c) Assuming that the sphere rolled freely after it left the slope AB, calculate the
distance of the sphere from B when the stopwatch was started.
(d) What is the acceleration of the sphere as it rolled along BC? Explain your
reasoning.
(e) When the sphere met the sloping part CD of the track it slowed down until it
stopped at the point T. The sphere reached T 13.0 s after the stopwatch was
started. Calculate the deceleration of the sphere as it rolled up the sloped
CD.

8. A person drops a table tennis ball from the top of a high building Figure 1 shows
the table tennis ball just after it has been released and Figure 2 shows the table
tennis ball just before it reaches the ground.
 (a) Name the three forces A, B and C.
(b) What is the value of the initial acceleration of the table tennis ball in
Figure 1?
(c) Explain why the acceleration of the table tennis ball decreases as it falls
to the ground.

ANSWERS
UNIT 2: SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Exercise 2

Section A

1. C

2. D

3. A

4. D

5. D
Section B

1. (b)(i) 3.3 km h−1 (ii) 2.7 km h−1 (iii) 3.1 km h−1

3. (a) 20 m s−2 (b) 40 m s−1 (c) t = 12 to 16 s

(d) 520 m (e) 32.5 m s−1

4. (b)(i) 0.4 m s−2 (ii) 0.3 m s−2 (iii) same distance covered

6. (i) 3.5 m s−2 (ii) 22 m s−1 (iii) 337.5 m

7. (b) 0.40 m s−1 (c) 0.6 m (d) zero

(e) 0.2 m s−2

8. (a) A: weight; B: weight; C: air resistance

(b) 9.81 m s−2