PARCHAMENTO, Johnrey Vincent M.

2019-03551-MN-0

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

1. Structural steels have traditionally been used in shipbuilding; however, with increasing fuel costs, it
is desirable to find alternative lower weight materials. Some of the key properties required for
shipbuilding materials are high yield strength, high corrosion resistance, and low cost. Discuss the
benefits and disadvantages of aluminum alloys as a replacement for structural steels in ships.

Like in bicycles, using aluminum alloys for structural steels in ships have its own pros and cons.
Aluminum has a high strength to density ratio. It also has high tensile strength, while being lightweight
which decrease the overall weight of the structure thus less fuel and fuel cost is needed. In addition,
aluminum also has better corrosion resistance. An oxide layer forms over its surface when it reacts with
water and protects it from galvanic corrosion. On the hindsight, aluminum alloys as structural steels in
ships are not advisable when it will travel across the equator since it has low melting temperature. It is
also prone to damage whenever a fire hazard occurs. Lastly, Al is not readily weldable like steels.

2. If the density remains unchanged, compare the specific strength of the 2090-T6 aluminum alloy to
that of a die cast 443-F aluminum alloy. If you considered the actual density, do you think thedifference
between the specific strengths would increase or become smaller? Explain.

Specific strength refers to the material’s strength (force per unit area) over its density. Both
commercially pure 2090-T6 aluminum alloy and die cast 443-F aluminum alloy have a density of 2.7 g/cm3.
2090-T6 has a tensile stress of 552 MPa while 443-F is 228 Mpa. Below is the computation for the specific
strength of respective alloys.

2090-T6

Specific Strength =
Specific Strength = 8.25 x 105 in

443-F

Specific Strength =
Specific Strength = 3.41 x 105 in

Based on the computation, 2090-T6 aluminum alloy has higher specific strength than the 443-F
alloy. Considering the actual density when computing for the specific strengths, an increase in the strength
difference is evident. Since both Lithium and Silicon, the major alloying elements for 2090-T6 and 443-F
respectively, are less dense than aluminum, the difference between the specific strengths will increase.

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3. Explain why aluminum alloys containing more than about 15% Mg are not used.

A eutectic reaction is a three-phase reaction, by which, on cooling, a liquid transform into two solid
phases at the same time. A eutectic microconstituent refers to a characteristic mixture of two phases formed
because of the eutectic reaction. In the aluminum alloy – magnesium case, eutectic microconstituent will
form if we add more than 15% Mg to the aluminum based on the diagram below.

Based on the diagram, Al composition in alpha and beta phase are 35.5% and 14.9% respectively.
Al composition is 35% for this alloy at room temperature. Eutectic compound is computed below:

The brittle eutectic microconstituent is continuous. For this reason, Aluminum alloys containing
more than 15% Mg are not used because it will make the complete alloy brittle.

4. Explain how pure copper is made. What are some of the important properties of copper?

Pure copper or high copper alloys are created from copper ores mined from mines as sulfides,
which contain zinc, lead, and other sulfur. The ores are ground into a powder by crushing and milling them.
The metal and non-metal components of the powder are separated from one another using a process called
flotation. The following stage is a concentrating stage, in which minerals are concentrated into a slurry
containing around 15% copper. Through electrolysis, the copper is melted and refined multiple times
through electrolysis until it is 99% pure.
Some important properties of pure copper include, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and
good corrosion resistance which is evident in our usage of copper in our electrical wirings. Any alloying
element would be detrimental to the said properties.

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5. What is brass? What is bronze?

Brass and bronze are both metal alloys. Brass is composed of copper and zinc. It has a relatively
low melting point (900oC), non-ferromagnetic, malleable, and castable This is generally used in applications
where corrosion resistance and low friction are needed. One notable characteristics of brass is that it is a
poor breeding ground for bacteria, making it an ideal material in architectural designs, decorations, and
material selection. Furthermore, it is also widely used in mechanical applications such as bearings and gears.
Bronze is composed primarily of copper and tin but sometimes added with other elements such as
phosphorus or aluminum. It has a melting point of 950oC, reddish brown, also high resistance to corrosion
from saltwater, and exhibits low metal to metal friction. In electrical engineering scope, it is used as electrical
connectors and springs since it has good electrical conductivity. Like brass, it is also used as bushings and
bearings. Moreover, the presence of bronze in boats and ships are found in bronze fittings and propellers
due to its said properties.

6. Why is the Statue of Liberty green?

The Statue of Liberty is a huge famous sculpture on Liberty Island in New York City. It was
assembled in the late 19th century. At the date of its assembly, it was originally dull brown. As time passed
by, it undergoes weathering process or oxidation. Air and water reacted with the copper plates as main
component of the sculpture. The weathering process created a thin layer of copper carbonate known as
patina which protects the copper underneath it from continuous corrosion.

7. Compare the percent increase in the yield strength of commercially pure annealed aluminum,
magnesium, and copper by strain hardening. Explain the differences observed.

Annealed aluminum has improved thermal conductivity where it resets the thermal
conductivity of the studied alloys up to 50%. Yield strength refers to the maximum stress that can be
applied before it begins to change shape permanently. Strain Hardening is when a metal is strained
beyond the yield strength. Below is the computation to compare the percent increase in the yield
strength of commercially pure annealed aluminum,magnesium, and copper by strain hardening.

% Increase in pure annealed aluminum = ((152 MPa – 35 MPa) / 35 MPa)) x 100 = 340%
% Increase in magnesium= ((117 MPa – 90 MPa) / 90 MPa)) x 100 = 30%
% Increase in pure annealed aluminum = ((365 MPa – 33 MPa) / 33 MPa)) x 100 = 1000%

Based on the computation, Aluminum and Copper have high percentage increase in yield
strength by strain hardening. Copper topped the given elements. Magnesium has low percentage
increase. To sum it up, Al and Cu are cold worked ready unlike Mg.

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8. Would you expect the fracture toughness of quenched and tempered aluminum bronze to be high
or low? Would there be a difference in the resistance of the alloy to crack nucleation compared with
crack growth? Explain.

Quenching is a type of metal heat treatment process that involves the rapid cooling of metal
to adjust its mechanical properties. On the other hand, tempering refers to the process of precisely
heating to below the critical temperature. Both processes are used to increase the toughness of certain
metals, in this case aluminum bronze. I expect that the fracture toughness of the said alloy to be high.
In this scenario, an acicular microstructure is formed making it hard to complete a fracture. Acicular
microstructure exhibits less resistance to crack nucleation because cracks are frequently formed
because of stress concentration.

9. Several casting alloys have very high lead contents; however, the Pb content in wrought alloys is
comparatively low. Why isn’t more lead added to the wrought alloys? What precautions must be taken
when a lead wrought alloy is hot worked, or heat treated?

Wrought alloys are non-ferrous metal alloys with a composition that makes them extremely
ductile. They are worked as solids and sample processes include stamping, bending, rolling, and extrusion.
On the other hand, cast alloys are also non-ferrous metal alloys but it undergoes melting process in a
furnace and poured into a mold. Lead has low melting point, so it is suitable for cast alloys. Adding more
lead to wrought alloys makes it difficult to heat worked or melt. It may also form stingers or metal defects
when worked in cold temperature. It is important to consider having a low temperature when a lead
wrought alloy is hot worked.

10. When steel is joined using arc welding, only the liquid-fusion zone must be protected by a gas or
flux. When titanium is welded, both the front and back sides of the welded metal must be protected.
Why must these extra precautions be taken when joining titanium?

Arc welding is the first welding technique ever used. Liquid-fusion zone is the portion of materials
that have undergone melting in term of liquid. The fusion temperature of titanium when welded can go
up to 535oC. In this temperature, titanium is prone to brittleness. With that, the fusion zone is surrounded
by a gas until it cools below 535oC. Both sides of the titanium will get heated up when welded so it is
important to provide shield or cover on both sides of the welded metal.

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11. What is a refractory metal or an alloy? What is a precious metal?

Refractory metals or alloy are group of metallic elements that are extremely heat and wear
resistant. These elements commonly have a melting point about 2000OC. In addition, these metals are
extensively used as alloying elements in steels, stainless steels, heat resistant alloys and super alloys. Some
refractory metals include Tungsten (W), Molybdenum (Mo), Tantalum (Ta), Niobium (No).
Precious metals are group of rare metals that have high economic value, the name itself says it all.
Some precious metals include Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Palladium (Pd), Platinum (Pt), Rhodium (Rh). These
metals are precious due to its top tier properties such as high corrosion resistance and high electricity
conductivity. On top of that, they can resist most types on environmental and chemical attack. They are
commonly used in jewelry, industrial processes or in investments.

12. The temperature of a coated tungsten part is increased. What happens when the protective
coating on a tungsten part expands more than the tungsten? What happens when the protective
coating on a tungsten part expands less than the tungsten?

Tungsten is a refractory metal, and currently has the highest melting point among the
elements. If the coating on a tungsten part expands more than the tungsten itself, compressive
stresses will build up in the coating causing it to come or fall away from a surface in thin pieces. On
contrary, the protective coating on a tungsten part will experience tensile stress build-up, crack and
become porous if it expands less than the tungsten.

13. For what applications are Pt, Rh, Pd, and Ag used?

Platinum, Rhodium, Palladium and Silver are “Transition Precious Metals” which are commonly
used in jewelry and industrial processes. Pt, Rh, and Pd are generally used in catalytic converters in cars to
reduce harmful emissions in internal combustion engine. These metals are also used to make optical fibers,
LCDs, turbine blades, spark plugs, pacemakers, and dental fillings. Rhodium is said to improve the corrosion
resistance of platinum and palladium. Other the other hand, silver also offers a variety of application
primarily in electronics, solar technology, soldering, brazing, and engine bearings. These metals are also in
further development in the field of medicine.

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14. Not all aluminum alloys are easily weldable. Provide a few designations of readily weldable
aluminum alloys. List some welding techniques recommended for aluminum alloys.

Aluminum and its alloy are used in fabrications due to its lightweight, corrosion resistant, and
weldability Below are some designations of readily weldable aluminum alloys. These designations did
not hamper its properties
• 1XXX – Pure aluminum (99% pure). Commonly used to carry electrical current or for
corrosion resistance in specific environment. Ex. 1100
• 3XXX – Medium-strength alloy. Formable. Commonly used for heat exchangers and air
conditioners.
• 4XXX – Commonly used as welding or brazing filler alloys. Sometimes used as base materials.
Ex. 4043 filler metal
• 5XXX – High-strength sheet and plate alloys. Ex. Easily welded 5356 filler metal, 5183/5556
stronger alloys, 5083
• 6XXX – Crack-sensitive. Primarily the extrusion alloys, although they are available in sheet
and plate as well.

Some welding techniques recommended for aluminum alloys are the following
• Gas Tungsten Arc (GTAW) / Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding – most common method
• Gas Metal Arc Welding – uses an electrode for the wire that is continually fed at the base of
the weld
• Arc Welding – first welding technique. Uses a power supply to melt and join Al sheets
• Resistance Welding
• Electron Beam Welding and Laser Beam Welding

15. An actuating lever in an electrical device must open and close almost instantly and carry a high
current when closed. What design requirements would be important for this application? Design a
material and its processing to meet these requirements.

Actuating lever consists of mechanical components that allows an electrical switch to function.
Going back to previous course assignments, design parameters for this lever device should prioritize
efficiency since it resembles a switch to operate. It is an actuator. The following are the design parameters
to maximize the purpose of this device: high thermal and electrical conductivity, corrosion resistant, high
strength to density ratio, easy to fabricate, precise, no time delay, flexibility of its motion control
capabilities, etc. Gold will be a suitable material for this device since it is already widely used in electrical
contacts and passed all the design requirements I listed.

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REFERENCES:

Askeland, D. R., & Wright, W. J. (2018). Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering
(4th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Brass vs Bronze. (n.d.). Wandsworth Electrical | Designer Light Switches & Plug Sockets.
https://www.wandsworthelectrical.com/our-world/inspiration/what-is-the-difference-between-brass-
and-bronze/

Materials engineering: Little-known facts about precious metals. (n.d.). Machine Design.
https://www.machinedesign.com/archive/article/21817453/materials-engineering-littleknown-facts-
about-precious-metals

Resources: Standards & properties - Copper & copper alloy microstructures: Coppers. (n.d.).
Official Site of Copper Development Association, Inc. (USA).
https://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/coppers.html

Scott, B. (2020, March 27). Metal comparisons: Brass vs. bronze. Sequoia Brass & Copper.
https://www.sequoia-brass-copper.com/blog/brass-vs-bronze/

Types of welding used for aluminum. (n.d.). Materials UK. https://www.thyssenkrupp-

materials.co.uk/technical-knowledge-hub/types-of-welding-used-for-aluminium

Why is the Statue of Liberty green? (n.d.). Where the Wonders of Learning Never Cease |
Wonderopolis. https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-is-the-statue-of-liberty-green

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