Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

That's what friends are for: Emotional solidarity, friendship and social T
interactions between first-generation immigrants and their visiting friends
Robert Charles G. Capistranoa,∗, Adam Weaverb
a
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
b
Niagara College, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper explores the social interactions between immigrant-hosts and visiting friends (VFs). Through a
VFR travel qualitative approach, the study considers the personal meanings attached to VF visits by first-generation Filipino
Friendship immigrant households in New Zealand (the hosts) and their respective VFs from the Philippines (the guests). The
Emotional solidarity notion of friendship is largely absent from tourism scholarship, a surprise since tourism revolves around social
Filipino culture
interactions. Friendship is a special relationship to which people attach great importance. This study contributes
Social interaction
to knowledge by utilising the theory of emotional solidarity in a specific cultural context to interpret host-guest
interactions oriented around friendship. Emotional solidarity is applied and adapted to situations where travel
supports the maintenance of friendship over great distances. Within the growing VFR travel literature, this study
is the first to explore the perspectives of both the hosts and visiting friends with respect to social interactions that
underpin friendship.

1. Introduction social interactions between first-generation Filipino immigrant house-

Families and friends are more widely dispersed than ever. Visiting
friends and relatives (VFR) travel is one form of travel that brings fa-
mily and friends together for the purpose of (re)connection. The growth
of permanent migrant communities as a global phenomenon generates
a major source of tourists as a result of immigrants developing and
extending international friendship and kinship ties (Schänzel, Brocx, &
Sadaraka, 2014; Yousuf & Backer, 2015). Examining VFR travel within
the tourism and migration nexus could include tourism-related ex-
periences that involve prior personal relationships (Griffin, 2013, 2017;
Palovic, Kam, Janta, Cohen, & Williams, 2014) between hosts and
guests. Most of the previous research in VFR travel that analyses the
relationship between tourism and migration addresses macro-level
flows (Dwyer, Seetaram, Forsyth, & King, 2014; Io, 2015; King &
Dwyer, 2015; Massidda, Etzo, & Piras, 2014) and has not considered the
micro-level, interpersonal ties responsible for shaping the bonds that
exist between people. A study that foregrounds the importance of
personal relationships and culture has not yet been undertaken.
Friendship is a special relationship to which people attach great
personal and cultural importance not only providing one with a sense of
identity, but also confirming social worth (Allan, 1989). Currently, in-
terpretations of friendship in the context of VFR travel research are rare
(Backer & King, 2015; Yousuf & Backer, 2017). This study explores
holds as hosts in New Zealand and their respective VFs from the Phi-
lippines as guests. First-generation immigrants, according to the lit-
erature, typically have stronger attachments to their former homeland
than succeeding generations (Levitt & Jaworsky, 2007). Only VFs from
the Philippines – along with their hosts – were chosen as participants;
the VFs were interviewed after returning home from their visit to New
Zealand. The rationale is that the cultural identity of first-generation
immigrants in New Zealand is still evolving while their visitors who
reside in the Philippines are still completely rooted in their homeland.
This seemingly small but important difference between VFs and their
hosts facilitated exchanges that extended beyond travel and friendship
to discussions about cultural practices during the course of the research.
Culture is an essential element for understanding the activities of
any social group, including VF travel. Although immigrant-hosts and
VFs may have the same ethnic background, these groups may have had
very different cultural experiences as the former could have been in-
fluenced by New Zealand culture. Researchers have signalled the need
for studies of visiting friends and relatives that address matters related
to culture and ethnicity (Griffin, 2017; Huang, King, & Suntikul, 2017;
Schänzel et al., 2014; Yousuf & Backer, 2015). The overall question that
guides this research is: How are social interactions between immigrant-
hosts and their VFs understood and interpreted by them? The main
contribution of this research is its theoretically-informed exploration of

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: robert.capistrano@dlsu.edu.ph (R.C.G. Capistrano), adweaver@niagaracollege.ca (A. Weaver).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2018.07.003
Received 29 January 2018; Received in revised form 10 July 2018; Accepted 23 July 2018
1447-6770/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
visits made by friends as well as the hosting practices in support of these
visits within a particular cultural context.
VFR is the second largest visitor group in New Zealand after holiday
visitors and over the last decade VFR numbers have shown a dramatic
increase, up from 412,000 in 1999 to 743,000 in 2008 (an increase of
approximately 80%). The number of VFR visitors as a proportion of
total arrivals has increased from 26% to 30% over the same period
(Ministry of Economic Development, 2009). A recent forecast from the
Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2017) showed that
untapped Asian markets are growing strongly despite the smaller visitor
base compared to the more dominant Chinese market. For the year
ending September 2017, more than 23,000 Filipinos visited New
Zealand with holidaymakers staying an average of 14.9 days – the
longest duration of stay across Tourism New Zealand's South and
Southeast Asian markets (Tourism New Zealand, 2017). Smaller travel
markets such as the Philippines have an important role to play within
New Zealand's broadening portfolio of international markets. They help
to prevent an overreliance on a small number of large travel markets.
Although the Filipino travel market is not an especially large one for
New Zealand, Filipinos are a sizeable group of migrants to the country.
The Philippines has ranked fifth as a source country for permanent
residency approvals and fourth under the skilled migrant category
(Department of Labour, 2011). The trend has continued; the Philippines
has consistently been in the top five of these categories in New Zealand
together with the United Kingdom, China, India and South Africa
(Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment, 2016). Filipino
residents and skilled migrants in New Zealand can act as hosts for their
friends from the Philippines. These hosts are an untapped resource in
New Zealand's tourism industry that could significantly increase inter-
national visitation. The Filipino community in New Zealand is part of a
wider Filipino diaspora (Licuanan, Mahmoud, & Steinmayr, 2015). This
New Zealand-based community could be seen as a microcosm; the in-
vitations extended by Filipino hosts in New Zealand to friends who
reside in the Philippines no doubt resemble invitations extended by
Filipino hosts based in other countries. These invitations, in larger
numbers and if encouraged in some fashion, have the potential to boost
visitation.
The VF market is a segment within the VFR market worthy of at-
tention for reasons related to scholarly enquiry (due to the scarcity of
friendship-related research in tourism studies) and commercial im-
portance (as suggested by the aforementioned statistics). The scholarly
contribution of this paper is that it is a theoretically- and culturally-
informed exploration of meaning-rich trips involving two distinct but
connected groups of friends: immigrant-hosts and their visitors. The
paper explores the perspectives of hosts and guests rather simply one
group or the other (e.g., Dutt & Ninov, 2017; Hung, Xiao, & Yang, 2013;
Schänzel et al., 2014; Shani, 2013). Travel emerges as an activity that
sustains host-guest friendships that are transnational in nature. The
theory of emotional solidarity, in conjunction with concepts that speak
to aspects of Filipino culture, provide the analytical architecture for this
paper. This theory, in its enhanced form, can be used to access the
emotional realm that defines the relationship between friends. Research
that addresses VFR-related travel in a cultural context is only starting to
emerge (Griffin, 2017; Huang et al., 2017). In practical terms, the im-
plication of this study may be beneficial for the tourism industry and
immigration policies in immigrant-receiving countries such as New
Zealand.
2. Literature review
This study, in broad terms, represents an effort to advance academic
discourse related to VFR travel. In particular, the research draws upon
scholarly works in a variety of domains: VFR travel research, friendship
and social interaction as well as cultural perspectives with respect to
hospitality and emotional solidarity. Scholarship across these domains
serves as an appropriate foundation for a study of VF travel that
58
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
addresses culture and hosting practices. This study requires an under-
standing of the significance of interpersonal relationships – in this case,
the hosts and their VFs.
2.1. VFR travel
The study of VFR travel has experienced a resurgence in recent
years. Early work by Jackson (1990) established its significance and set
an agenda for subsequent research that is starting to reflect the richness
of VFR travel. The growing volume of VFR research has prompted some
scholars to prepare comprehensive, article-length reviews (Griffin,
2012; Yousuf & Backer, 2015). These reviews, as well as other studies,
have noted a number of patterns. VFR is usually informed by positivist
approaches (Griffin, 2012). In addition, some studies of VFR travel are
seen to have a marketing- or business-oriented thrust (Backer & Ritchie,
2017; Backer, Leisch, & Dolnicar, 2017; Bischoff & Koenig-Lewis,
2007); social interactions between hosts and their visitors are under-
explored.
A more holistic approach to studying VFR travel is warranted. At
present, hosts and guests are typically studied in isolation. Either the
perspectives of the hosts (Dutt & Ninov, 2017; Griffin, 2013; Schänzel
et al., 2014; Shani & Uriely, 2011) or the guests (Hung et al., 2013;
Shani, 2013) are addressed. Research that combines the two perspec-
tives with respect to VF travel would be a novel and arguably much-
needed contribution to the VFR literature.
2.2. Friendship and social interaction
Friendship involves affective, micro-level ties between people that
produce positive feeling; concern and care are shown for one's friends
(Rawlins, 2017). People make and unmake friendships of their own
choosing and according to their own standards; there is mutual in-
volvement or collaboration between two or more individuals con-
structing a shared social reality. A major and distinctive aspect of
friendship is the absence of formal bonds. The relationship is voluntary
(Wiseman, 1986) as compared with more institutionalized relation-
ships, such as kinship. People select their friends and, as well, make
choices regarding friendships as they either extend (as hosts) or accept/
reject (as guests) invitations.
Previous studies of friendship are usually found in social psychology
(Derlega & Winstead, 1986), sociology (Moody, 2001), anthropology
(Bell & Coleman, 1999) and human resource management (Mao, 2006).
Within tourism studies, the notion of friendship remains understudied
(Backer & King, 2015; Yousuf & Backer, 2017). For instance, Foley and
Hayllar (2007) address friendship in the context of caravan park holi-
days and found that an important element of the appeal of the parks
was the friendships that were created. Overall, however, the personal
meanings of friendship in the context of VFR travel research are starkly
absent from tourism scholarship considering that tourism revolves
around social interactions (Moyle, Croy, & Weiler, 2010; Papathanassis,
2012; White & White, 2008). The study of friendship has yet to consider
the maintenance of friendship across great distances. This research
proceeded on the assumption that both hosts and guests have mean-
ingful views to share regarding hospitality and friendship within the
context of sustaining relationships that are international in scope. Time,
money, effort and emotion are invested into staying close to those who
are far away. Through visiting friends, there is co-presence and social
interaction that sustain familiarity (Larsen, Urry, & Axhausen, 2007).
Studies of social interaction within tourism typically involve re-
search participants who have not met prior to the trip – for example,
backpackers (Murphy, 2001) as well as other types of international
visitors (Reichenberger, 2017). What separates the social interactions
between hosts and guests in the context of VFR travel from the tradi-
tional host-guest relationship (Smith & Brent, 2001) is that it does not
involve strangers, but people known to each other through friendship
and kinship. VF trips are typically part of previously established,
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
ongoing relationships. In addition, social interactions between friends
are usually found in other disciplines (social psychology and anthro-
pology) but are absent in current studies related to VF travel. Travel for
purposes related to friendship has yet to receive much scholarly at-
tention; there are exceptions, however (Backer & King, 2015; Yousuf &
Backer, 2017). Social interactions, including those related to friendship,
have more than one participant. There is scope, in the context of
tourism studies, to study friendship and social interaction from the
vantage points of both the hosts and VFs.
2.3. Cultural perspectives with respect to hospitality and emotional
solidarity
This research focuses on one cultural group: Filipinos. Therefore,
analysing the meanings attached to hosting and being a guest should be
understood in the context of Filipino culture. There are norms and
expectations within Filipino culture that the hosts should provide the
utmost hospitality to their guests (De Guzman et al., 2012; Saito,
Imamura, & Miyagi, 2010). More problematic dimensions of VF travel
such as the difficulties associated with hosting and visiting emerged as
themes in research conducted by Schänzel et al. (2014). Filipinos,
however, have a tendency to keep problems discreetly within the family
(Wolf, 2002). Aguilar (2009) noted that within Filipino culture, family
is central to individual and social life. Filipino identity and social status
are strongly influenced by the family, and it is the family that serves as
a major source of social, economic, emotional and moral support
(Miralao, 1997). A concept used in Filipino scholarship, pakiki-
pagkapwa, has relevance to research that involves social interaction
between people who share close social bonds. It is fundamental to the
reciprocity that occurs between the self and others (Guevara, 2005).
Pakikipagkapwa involves an openness to the feelings and circumstances
of others as well as a sense of connection with those who are held dear.
In conceptual terms, this study contributes to knowledge by using
the theory of emotional solidarity (Ribeiro, Woosnam, Pinto, & Silva,
2018; Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2012, 2018; Woosnam, Norman, &
Ying, 2009) to interpret friendship, host-guest interactions, hospitality
and culture in the context of VF travel. Theoretical frameworks useful
for examining the relationship between hosts and guests in the context
of VFR travel remain limited. Using Durkheim's (1915/1995) theory of
emotional solidarity in the conceptualisation of host-guest interactions,
the ultimate motivating force in human interaction is the need to affirm
group membership and a sense of solidarity with others, leading people
to initiate and sustain interaction rituals (Turner, 1988). In relation to
VFR travel – specifically, VF travel – hosting and visiting as a social
obligation between friends is essential for developing relations of trust
that persist even during often lengthy periods of separation (Urry,
2003).
Immigration stretches familial relationships across continents and
oceans. Friendships can similarly assume a transnational character. The
theory of emotional solidarity addresses the affectively-charged bonds
between people, and it is applicable to those who may see each other
infrequently. The theory speaks to the sense of unity and fellowship that
binds together a group of people, thereby fostering a sense of “we to-
gether” as opposed to a “me versus you” sentiment (Jacobs & Allen,
2005; Woosnam et al., 2009). Emotional solidarity is conceptualised as
having three major attributes that bring about a sense of commonality
and familiarity: shared beliefs, shared behaviour and social interaction
(Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2012; Woosnam et al., 2009). This study
introduces the theory of emotional solidarity into the domain of re-
search related to VF travel and shared culture. The objective is to offer a
new approach to research that addresses the ties that bind immigrants
to their (visiting) friends.
Host-guest interactions have been explored using the theory of
emotional solidarity in the context of the relationship between residents
of host communities and the tourists who visit these communities
(Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2012, 2018; Woosnam & Norman, 2009;
59
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
Woosnam, 2011; Woosnam et al., 2009). What separates the present
study from others is that host-guest interactions are layered upon ele-
ments of a pre-existing relationship: friendship. People familiar with
each other rather than strangers (for example, tourists vis-à-vis the
residents of the host community) are studied. The theory of emotional
solidarity, in this study, is therefore applied to friendship rather than
the resident-tourist relationship.
Emotional solidarity is likely to be strong amongst those who share
a similar cultural background (Mesquita, 2001). The theory of emo-
tional solidarity was considered applicable to this study because it can
be easily blended with the Filipino notion of pakikipagkapwa, being
“one with the other”. This notion whereby the self is seen as operating
in association with others is compatible with the forging and main-
tenance of rapport and friendship. Both pakikipagkapwa and the theory
of emotional solidarity can be identified as ways of conceptualising
interpersonal attachments when people are known to each other. That
an understanding of emotional solidarity may be coupled with an un-
derstanding of cultural norms and practices – in particular, those as-
sociated with Filipino culture – within a tourism context remains un-
explored.
3. Methods
The recruitment of research participants was undertaken via
Internet communities where immigrants maintain their social networks.
Using Internet communities as a means to recruit participants has
precedent (Eysenbach & Till, 2001). This approach was used as a means
of recruitment when an attempt to recruit participants involving paper
flyers displayed in targeted stores was not effective. When approaching
an immigrant community through virtual communication, permission
was obtained from the individual responsible for updating the com-
munity postings. At first, only members of the Filipino community in
Wellington were approached. However, a second study city was tar-
geted as it was difficult to recruit enough immigrant families who
hosted VF(s), and to also compensate for the inherent intimacy amongst
Filipino immigrants in Wellington. Research participants would have
been able to identify each other easily if a second city was not selected.
Hence, the recruitment of participants was extended to Auckland, New
Zealand's largest city.
Five pairs of immigrant-hosts and VFs were recruited, generating
fifteen individual interviews and four group interviews. The connection
between the VFs and their respective host household is noted (see
Table 1). The friendships that were formed by the research participants
were created through personal face-to-face interactions prior to the
hosts migrating to New Zealand. In order to maintain anonymity, the
hosting households were assigned pseudonyms while the guests were
named in reference to their hosts. The very small sample size was at-
tributed to the difficulty associated with recruiting immigrant families
who have hosted VFs in New Zealand. Small samples have been used in
VFR research (Schänzel et al., 2014) and while the number of partici-
pants was small, the use of both individual and group interviews meant
that the number of interviews exceeded the number of participants. Due
to the very small sample size, this study has to be seen as exploratory in
nature.
The criteria for the selection of first-generation Filipino immigrant
families in the study were as follows: at least 18 years old, originally
from the Philippines, permanent New Zealand residents or those who
have acquired New Zealand citizenship and those who had hosted a
Filipino friend within the last three to twelve months. In this study,
first-generation Filipino immigrants were defined as those who were
born in the Philippines to parents of Filipino heritage and eventually
migrated to New Zealand. The VFs interviewed for this study were
Filipino, at least 18 years old, currently residing in the Philippines and
had visited their Filipino friends in New Zealand within the past twelve
months. It was decided to interview hosts and guests between three to
twelve months after the visit had been made because the focus of the
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66

study is to capture recollections of the trip and understand the mean-

First-time visit of the VF(s) to New
ings attached to the friend-to-friend social interactions. Setting the in-
terviews at least three months after the visit was practical since con-
ducting interviews in New Zealand took a few months to organise and
conduct. These interviews in the host country (New Zealand) were
Zealand (Yes/No)

underway while still recruiting additional participants, the guests, in

the Philippines.
Interviewing the participants was underpinned by a retrospective
research method that analyses respondents' recall within one year of the
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
activities experienced (Yu & Lee, 2014). The approach used was novel
compared to other VFR studies because it sought the perspectives of
Total duration of stay of VF(s)

both hosts and guests across time and distance. The first author, a Fi-
lipino, conducted the interviews and was in the best position to act as a
“cultural insider” who could represent the language, values and cultural
perspectives of the research participants more effectively. The inter-
in New Zealand

views were digitally recorded and then transcribed.

Hosts were asked to identify a visitor or group of visitors who they
2 weeks

3 weeks

3 weeks

10 days

10 days

thought would be willing to participate. Hosting is an endeavour shared

by members of a household but typically the guest has a stronger
connection with one member of the household. However, there was
Duration of visit with the

only one multi-visitor visit identified within the sample, so only one
group interview with visitors was conducted. The semi-structured in-
terviews began with an individual, one-on-one interview with each
adult member of the immigrant-host family in New Zealand, followed
host family

by a group interview with the entire immigrant-host household unit

10 days
1 week

1 week

(except for the Ragang and Taal households as there was only one host
3 days

3 days

in those households, respectively). Therefore, where applicable, each

adult family member was interviewed twice (first, individually, and
visiting friend of principal female
visiting friend of immigrant-host

best friend of immigrant-host

then as part of a group). The one-on-one interviews included questions

visiting friend of immigrant-

related to activities undertaken during trips taken by guests (and hosts

too), the types of hospitality offered by the host (for example, if ac-
of female best friend

commodation or other forms of assistance were provided), the variety

and depth of the host-guest interactions, the cultural dimensions of
• Female visiting friend

these interactions and the nature of the emotional ties between friends.
The visiting friend(s)

immigrant-host

Group interviews were oriented around, where possible, uncovering

host parents

shared beliefs and behaviours (fundamental to the theory of emotional

husband

solidarity) and exploring collective perspectives with respect to

• Mother
• Female

• Female
• Male

• Male

wife

friendship, hospitality and culture. Each individual and each group

were asked the same set of questions (to ensure consistency) but the
nature of the conversations varied across the interviews because dif-
ferent individuals and groups had their own distinctive (individual and
female immigrant-
Composition of immigrant-host

collective) experiences to share (see Table 2).

husband

mother

• Female immigrant-host

The order in which the interviews – individual and group – would

father
wife

• Immigrant-host wife
son

take place was considered carefully. The choice to conduct the in-
female
• Immigrant-host
• Immigrant-host
• Immigrant-host
• Immigrant-host
• Immigrant-host

immigrant-host

dividual interviews prior to group interviews prevented individual re-

sponses from being influenced by group interviews and allowed each
• Secondary
• Principal

member to provide their individual meanings to the social interactions

Profile of immigrant-host households and their visiting friends.

host

that are unique to them. However, the study acknowledged that there
family

would also be advantages to commencing with the group interviews as

an initial interview with the entire group may make interviewees feel
Years of residency in New

more comfortable in subsequent individual interviews (Schänzel,

2010). In practical terms, however, it was necessary to conduct the
individual interview first as each member of the family/group often
arrived home at different times. Since most of the interviews were held
in the evening, the interviewer had to maximise the time by inter-
Zealand

viewing those who were immediately available in the household then

> 15

moving onto the group interview after the entire family unit had ar-
2

rived home for the evening.

Pinatubo (same sex couple)
Immigrant-host household

The individual and group interviews each took approximately

30–40 min and were conducted in either or both Tagalog and English
(participants were encouraged to speak their language of preference).
The respondent's own words are used (regardless whether the expres-
sion is in English or Tagalog) to reflect the meanings of their social
interactions. For interviews in Tagalog, the interviews were coded first
Ragang
Halcon
Table 1

Mayon
name

Taal

before translating them into English. The translations were more con-
textual rather than “word for word” (a normal practice in the field of

60
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66

Table 2
Sample interview questions: One-on-one and group interviews.
Themes Questions

Past interactions; depth of interaction • How did you become friends with your host/guest?
• Did the visit re-establish/renew the relationship that you have with your friend(s)?
• How
trip?
would you describe the closeness of your relationship with your friend(s) before, during and after the

Motivations • Why did you visit your host? What was the primary motivation for the trip?
• What would be your motivation(s) should you decide to host/visit your friend(s) again?
Expectations • What was/were your expectation(s) in anticipation of your visit?
• Do you believe that you would have visited New Zealand if your host did not reside there?
Activities and shared experiences (before, during, and after the • How long was the visit? Is this visit a repeat one for the guest?
visit) • Can you give me examples of activities that you did enjoy and did not enjoy? Why did you enjoy or not
enjoy them?
• What do you think was your best time together with your host/guest in New Zealand?
• Did the visit lead to any misunderstandings in terms of your relationship with your host/guest?
Cultural beliefs, behaviours and hospitality • How do you think Filipino norms, values and practices influenced your visit to your host?
• Do you think that the behaviour of your host reflects aspects of Filipino culture and/or New Zealand
culture?
• What are your obligations (if any) to your friend after the trip?
• Do you feel that hosting/visiting strengthens your tie with your host/guest?
Personal meanings associated with social interaction • What are the most memorable aspects of your visit?
• How important was it for you to host/visit your friend?
• Do you believe that hosting/visiting your friend makes you feel in solidarity with them? If yes, how so?
translation studies) while ensuring the text makes sense to English- “catching up” and “rekindling significant memories”.
speaking readers (Lopez, Figueroa, Connor, & Maliski, 2008). This ap-
proach was made to capture the meanings conveyed by the Filipino
language while making sure the ideas expressed make sense in English. 4. Results
For each set of friends – the host(s) and guest(s) – the transcribed
interviews were read and re-read in order to gain an understanding of 4.1. Past interactions and shared history
social interactions. The initial phase of analysis consisted of identifying
the perspectives of the immigrant-hosts and their respective VFs re- A common feature of the friendships that have been formed be-
garding the visit and maintenance of the friendship. Passages from the tween the immigrant-hosts and VFs are that they have been maintained
interviews with a host family were compared with passages from the over time through visits, some prior to the migration of the immigrant-
interviews with their respective guest(s). Similarities and differences hosts. In order to have a deeper understanding of the emotional soli-
across the different groups of VFs and hosts were also noted. The first darity between immigrant-hosts and VFs, there is a need to consider
author undertook an initial analysis of the data. Subsequent rounds of their past interactions so as to understand the nature of their relation-
analyses, such as theme consolidation and refinement, were undertaken ship. Friendships may involve exchanges that are developed over time
by the second author. resulting in a special bond that produces certain responsibilities which
Providing extended quotations drawn from the interview transcripts are understood or assumed. It is through VF travel that the emotional
is a means of demonstrating that the data informs the interpretation solidarity between immigrant-hosts and their visitors, who may no
offered in a manner that is cogent and sound. The interpretative ap- longer reside within a reasonable proximity of each other, can continue
proach taken in this research aims to develop an understanding of a via face-to-face interactions.
particular phenomenon: the social interactions underpinning the The obligation of hosting or visiting in and of itself means that there
friendship-based trips taken by Filipinos to New Zealand. These trips are on-going relationships that the participants want to maintain even
were interpreted in a certain way by the authors using a particular across great distances:
theory: the theory of emotional solidarity. The findings are grounded in
She is our friend and ninang [godmother] in our marriage, a primary
a careful and deliberate reading of the interview transcripts; the com-
sponsor in our wedding. We've known her for so long. She was an offi-
mentary provided by the authors are supported by quoted material.
cemate of my wife. We have known her [the VF] for around 40 years,
Thematic analysis was used to explore the complexities of the host-
even before my wife and I got married. (Immigrant-host father, Mayon
VF social interactions (Braun & Clarke, 2008; Walters, 2016). The ap-
household)
proach taken involved the identification of a priori themes (pre-speci-
fied ones derived from the theory of emotional solidarity) as well as In the Philippines, the social system of ninong and ninang (the male
emerging ones (which surfaced through a more open-ended examina- and female sponsors, respectively) at weddings involves an obligation
tion of the interview transcripts). The significance of culture became to provide life-long counsel to the couple being married. In a typical
apparent during the course of analysis (and, therefore, it was noted as Filipino wedding, one can count several ninongs or ninangs who meta-
an emerging theme). The theory of emotional solidarity was viewed in phorically stand behind the couple, pledging their support and the
relation to aspects of Filipino culture (such as pakikipagkapwa) and promise of guidance (Song, 2006). Even if the Mayon household mi-
subsequently prompted the development of four themes that ultimately grated to New Zealand a long time ago, emotional solidarity still exists
structured the interpretation and presentation of the data: past inter- and is manifested in hosting for their ninang. This cultural (and spiri-
actions and shared history, connectedness in togetherness, interactions tual) practice of having ninongs and ninangs reinforces the friendship
that wax and wane over time and cultural beliefs and behaviours with bond which connects the Mayon household with their guest. Travel is
respect to hospitality. These themes, individually, were the product of used to maintain the emotional solidarity that is embedded within this
several different thematic codes. For instance, the first theme noted, culturally-distinctive form of friendship.
past interactions and shared history, was inductively derived from Meanwhile, the immigrant-host wife for the Ragang household and
several codes assigned to sections of the interview transcripts – namely, her VF have a long and very close relationship as they were classmates
in the Philippines and have known each other for over two decades:

61
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
She's my close friend, as in a confidante in college. We shared so many
common things. (Immigrant-host wife, Ragang household)
The Ragang immigrant-host wife's VF also recounted a similar in-
terpretation of their relationship:
We became friends because we were classmates, that was how many
years back when we were just in college. We studied together. During our
spare time, we are always together. So, that's how our friendship started
and has grown over the years.
The period when the immigrant-host wife in the Ragang household
and her guest became best friends was during adolescence, a period
when teenagers (including university students) explore their sense of
identity as they search for a group to which they can relate or belong.
Travel makes it possible to maintain this connection.
As friendship is a multi-dimensional experience, the shared or
communal nature of friendship allows individuals to participate in ac-
tivities of mutual interest (de Vries, 1996) whether through hosting or
visiting. Through emotional solidarity, the occasion of a visit gives an
opportunity for friends to exchange stories, reminisce about their past
interactions and get re-acquainted after they have been separated since
the immigrant-hosts left their former homeland, the Philippines.
Friendship implies enjoying the person and being concerned about the
person which gives rise to seeking out the person's companionship and
partaking in activities together (Annis, 1987). Through social interac-
tions, the mutual exchanges provide the immigrant-hosts and VFs with
the opportunity to become re-acquainted:
We enjoyed dining together, sharing stories, of what we did 40 years ago
when we [wife and I] were still single and were going out together, stories
from way back. Of course, you catch up, recall stories and ask what
happened on her side when she was away from us and what happened on
our side. (Immigrant-host father, Mayon household)
It's like nothing had changed. If we would see each other again here or in
other places, it would be the same. Only our looks or faces will change
but our relationship remains. (Female VF, Mayon household)
Social interactions in the form of a visit enable “catching up” to
occur, with the function of rekindling significant memories that the
friends previously shared as well as each person informing the other of
important happenings that have occurred during their time apart:
At first, I was a bit unsure of how I would react to her since the last time
we saw each other was 1995. What happened was that when I gave birth,
she went home to the province. I only met her once but, since then we
never saw each other again. As time goes by, you don't know whether her
ways or attitudes have changed. However, she has not changed.
(Immigrant-host wife, Ragang household)
First of all, I haven't seen her for a long time. I have to renew my ties. I
wanted to know anything new about her. What happened to her in be-
tween [those times that we parted ways], you know, rekindling ties with
friends. (Female VF, Ragang household)
Emotional solidarity is redeveloped over the course of the visit as
friends share a common history as they exchange stories about past
interactions in order to become re-acquainted and renew their friend-
ship ties. These on-going relationships are once again nurtured as they
recall the time they spent together previously.
4.2. Connectedness in togetherness
Togetherness is an essential element for determining the quality of
social interactions between immigrant-hosts and VFs. Wallace and
Hartley (1988, p. 97) indicated that “friends strive to create time and
space for repeated meetings, conversations and joint actions, just as
religious observance involves setting aside time for participation in
sacred rituals”. Friendship includes the sharing of personal thoughts
62
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
and feelings related to intimacy, appreciation and affection (including
respect and feelings of warmth, care and love) (de Vries, 1996) which is
demonstrated through hosting and visiting for friends. Togetherness is
made possible through travel.
Emotional solidarity becomes an affective bond that individuals
experience with one another and is characterized by perceived emo-
tional closeness and degree of contact (Hammarstrom, 2005; Woosnam
& Norman, 2009). Such emotional solidarity is made apparent through
the co-presence of friends – regardless of their role, be it host or guest.
Social interactions in New Zealand, as a home for immigrant families
and as a place visited by their guests, are produced and nurtured
through the togetherness of the hosts and guests. Therefore, through VF
travel, New Zealand becomes a place for the participants' face-to-face
social interactions, supports the continuation of their relationships and
situates people in relation to others as hosts/guests and as friends.
Immigrant-host households share their friendships with their guests
(and vice versa) and perceive their togetherness or co-presence as
memorable. The state of being together may also be influenced by the
places and/or activities shared by the social interactions between im-
migrant-hosts and VFs. Some immigrant-hosts recall that their hosting
activities were enjoyed by their guests which bolstered their concept of
New Zealand and of being New Zealand residents as hosting can en-
hance their sense of home (Griffin, 2013, 2017), particularly for new
immigrants who may have only had the opportunity to explore places in
their new homeland when they host a guest.
Both hosting and visiting are necessary to social life where corporeal
co-presence is essential in fulfilling social obligations (Larsen et al.,
2007). Hosting and visiting are important to having a vibrant social life,
remembering their past interactions together in New Zealand or other
places and nurturing their friendships:
When we were seated in a bench in Lake Taupo and the background
looks very beautiful, we had our photo taken together and thought we
should print a bigger version. It reminds us of the good old days and a
chance to catch up about what we have missed. (Immigrant-host wife,
Ragang household)
What is memorable is the bonding that we share and the time together
and exploring different places. Even the host hasn't gone to those places.
It's something new to me and to her also. (Female VF, Ragang household)
Hosting and visiting in the context of VF travel is a way of acting
and being with friends in real time which affords the opportunity for
shared experiences which facilitate advancement of the relationship.
Hosts and guests feel valued and cared for through the generosity and
reciprocal nature of the interactions that occur during a visit. Therefore,
they feel that the relationship benefits them and, as a result, is made
more significant. The visit magnifies the significance of events for the
players and they agree events seem to be more meaningful when shared
with a friend:
When we rented a unit in Rotorua which is like a house, we reminisce
about those times when we go out of town [in the Philippines]. We would
cook, buy groceries. We don't eat outside. We would cook food while
sharing stories. Then, when you wake up, you are still together with
friends. (Immigrant-host mother, Mayon household)
In this instance, where immigrant-hosts and VFs travelled together,
the places being visited as well as the situations experienced in a place
can stir emotions. Travel to places in and around New Zealand provide
amenable contexts for sustaining friendships.
4.3. Interactions that wax and wane
The interview transcripts show that there is a tendency for com-
munications to wax and wane; it is a common pattern recounted within
the individual and group interviews with the hosts and their respective
guest(s). As friendships are voluntary (Adams & Blieszner, 1994;
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
Wiseman, 1986), there is a tendency for the interactions to diminish
post-visit, returning to the standard frequency of interaction that the
participants maintained prior to the visit. It appears that while long
distance friendships are highly valued for nostalgic reasons, the im-
migrant-hosts and VFs in the post-visit phase return to their normal
routines:
Nothing [no communication after the trip], I guess because my connec-
tion with the guest is through [name of principal female immigrant-host],
but she is the type of person who is not really active in dealing with
friends. She is quiet but the affection remains that our friend is still
important. I mean, a friend is important but it doesn't mean you have to
talk every day or constantly catch up. (Secondary female immigrant-
host, Pinatubo household)
We would communicate through e-mail – although not that often –
maybe when I see her [name of principal female immigrant-host] online
on Facebook. (Male VF, Pinatubo household)
Likewise, time spent maintaining friendships over a distance be-
comes irregular as both actors may have other priorities during the
post-visit phase:
[Staying in touch] has somehow diminished because of my work. I did
have a lot of concerns, like, I still don't have my permanent residency. I
was only holding a work permit then. It was a big project for us to get our
permanent residency and get a bigger house and a car for our kids.
(Immigrant-host father, Halcon household)
Despite the vast distance from their former homeland, first-gen-
eration Filipino immigrants in New Zealand maintain their relation-
ships with their guests, which were forged through their past interac-
tions in the Philippines where the friendships had been established.
Filipino immigrant-hosts in New Zealand maintain contact with their
VFs but communication is infrequent during the host's initial residency
period. Immigrant-hosts are still maintaining their ties with their
friends in the Philippines by inviting or accepting requests to host their
guests. However, as distances separate people, friendships may remain
continuous but the communication between friends is not necessarily
so. It is natural for communication to wane during a relationship, but
VF travel can re-open the lines of communication and help maintain the
bonds of friendship.
4.4. Cultural beliefs and behaviours with respect to hospitality
The immigrant-hosts were asked about their hosting beliefs and
behaviours, and whether they still reflect their Filipino identity. As
immigrant households host friends in New Zealand, these households
are in the process of learning about their new homeland. The transition
process of changing residency may influence the manner in which they
host their guests. For new immigrants, the value and utility of local
knowledge about their environs and about New Zealand were im-
portant aspects of their hosting behaviour.
As friends serve to validate identities (de Vries, 1996), immigrant-
host households still perceive their hosting behaviour as being “Fili-
pino” and VFs further reaffirm the notion of hospitality in the context of
Filipino culture. Hospitality is not only a material relation (Lynch,
Molz, McIntosh, Lugosi, & Lashley, 2011; O'Gorman, 2010); it becomes
central to pakikipagkapwa or humaneness which is at the core of Filipino
culture in relation to others, including friends. Providing hospitality
may be an unwritten obligation of the hosts and what their Filipino
guests may be expecting from them, as far as hosting obligations are
concerned, when they visit New Zealand. Within Filipino culture, the
generosity of a host becomes an essential element of their interpersonal
relationships with their guests regardless of the personal cost.
Examining how Filipino culture affects the social interaction be-
tween hosts and guests meant that both were asked about their per-
ceived beliefs and behaviours on hosting friends in New Zealand. For
63
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
instance, while the Halcon household may not have extra space to host
properly as they were living in a studio apartment at the time, they
agreed to accommodate their guest within their modestly sized home
and gave up their privacy for a couple of days in exchange for the
pleasure of reconnecting with a close friend. In a group interview, the
Halcon household describe their hosting behaviour:
Host-wife: You have to be understanding, flexible, open-minded, also
willing to sacrifice a bit of comfort for a few days and your privacy.
Host-husband: Flexibility, taking care of the wants and needs of the
guest.
Meanwhile, the Halcon household's guest shares similar insights:
They still accommodated me and then they wouldn't mind if I squeeze
myself in their place. They would offer food and accommodation, that's
it. Let us say for example, I compare it with the values of others like a
friend who is married to a non-Filipino, it's unlikely that you'd ask them if
you can stay in their place. [ …. ] You're expected not to be able to stay
at their place if there is a non-Filipino. (Male VF, Halcon household)
In relation to the effect of culture on hosting, it may serve to explain
the degree of sacrifice that a host will accept such as temporarily sur-
rendering one's privacy or the effort to help organise the visit and ac-
tivities of a friend.
With regard to the principal female immigrant-host in the Pinatubo
household, she paid for her friend's airfare from Auckland to Wellington
and spent her whole weekend with her guest and introduced her friend
to her life-partner (the secondary female-immigrant-host) which is an
expression of her authentic self. While there is a closer relationship
between the principal female immigrant-host and her guest due to their
past interactions overseas, the secondary female immigrant-host even-
tually felt part of this unity by seeing the importance of her partner's
hosting of a friend:
It's very Filipino that you provide whatever the best that you have for
your guest. It means you have to use the best china. It means that you
choose the best cut of meat that you can afford. Ah, that's very Filipino.
(Principal female immigrant-host, Pinatubo household)
I guess the standards of Filipino hosting is different. When a guest tells
you that they will be visiting, there is a sense of responsibility to make
sure that the visitor is welcome in your house. Within Filipino culture,
you have to fit them in your schedule. (Secondary female immigrant-
host, Pinatubo household)
Meanwhile, the notion of Filipino hospitality accorded by im-
migrant-hosts is echoed by the VF of the Pinatubo household who is a
guest:
Male VF: Yes, definitely because they showed the usual way that we treat
our guests.
Interviewer: What do you mean “the usual”?
Male VF: They treat you out for dinners, lunch. And then free accom-
modation, right? And then they ask you where you want to go? So, I told
them since I've heard that there was this nice museum in the city […].
Interviewer: When you say “the usual way of treating our guest”, do you
mean to say the Filipino way?
Male VF: The Filipino way.
Outside of the de facto relationship category of family, friendship
also appears to be a special relationship to which people attach great
personal and cultural importance, not only providing one with a sense
of identity, but also to confirm social worth (Allan, 1989). Hosting
visitors involves small sacrifices and obligations that have cultural
origins as well as a desire to maintain and deepen those friendships
originally established in the Philippines.
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
5. Discussion and conclusion
The findings of this study provide several theoretical insights re-
garding the personal meanings of friendships from the perspectives of
immigrant-hosts and their visiting friends. Within the VFR literature,
this study is the first to consider friendship-based social interactions
from the perspectives of both the hosts and visiting friends. Qualitative
approaches that explore VFR travel has yet to address the personal
meanings of friendship as VFR travel scholarship, as noted by various
authors, is still dominated by quantitative studies (e.g., Backer & King,
2017; Backer, 2018; Backer et al., 2017; Dutt & Ninov, 2017; Gafter &
Tchetchik, 2017). However, as useful as it is to identify broader pat-
terns and relationships, statistics are not able to convey much about
human experiences (Carr, 2010) including the hosting and visiting of
friends.
This research makes four noteworthy contributions to scholarship
regarding VFR travel. First, by using theory of emotional solidarity that
has previously been applied to the study of resident-tourist interactions,
the emotional solidarity that exists between friends through VF travel
stems from sharing and the giving of oneself, a phenomenon conveyed
by the Filipino word pakikipagkapwa that encapsulates culturally-in-
fluenced notions of connection, reciprocity and devotion. Hosting and
visiting friends as a form of social interaction allows the bodily co-
presence of people providing moments for physical proximity between
hosts and guests that probably makes the visit desirable or even ob-
ligatory for some (Hannam, Sheller, & Urry, 2006; Urry, 2003). The
conceptualisation of emotional solidarity used in this study – developed
from an analysis of the interview transcripts and a careful review of
Durkheim (1915/1995), Woosnam and Norman (2009), Woosnam et al.
(2009), and Woosnam and Aleshinloye (2012, 2018) – was especially
attuned to issues related to time, closeness, culture, hospitality and
friendship. The main research question that informed this study was
addressed by exploring host-VF social interactions in a manner in-
formed by the theory of emotional solidarity and an understanding of
Filipino culture.
Second, from a philosophical point of view, the phenomenon of
hospitality necessarily contains the concept of the stranger since hos-
pitality requires, a priori, an outsider or guest (O'Gorman, 2010).
However, this study shows that hospitality may also be part of one's
cultural norms and expectations when dealing with one's friends. Spe-
cifically, immigrant-hosts and VFs provide insight into their cultural
beliefs and behaviours pertaining to Filipino hospitality in a different
setting, New Zealand. Rather than exposing difficulties associated with
hosting as per Schänzel et al. (2014) – a study of Polynesians in New
Zealand – the Filipinos interviewed for this research project provided
only positive feedback regarding their interactions with friends. The
short stays of the Filipino guests probably played a role with respect to
the absence of conflict. However, hospitality – whether a source of
harmony or discord – can be provided to friends as well as strangers.
Third, this study makes a contribution to understanding VFR travel
involving immigrant groups – in this instance, Filipinos. Hosting fa-
miliar visitors – in this case, friends – occurred in a country that was
still relatively new and in some ways unfamiliar to the immigrant-hosts.
Even though a place may (still) be somewhat “foreign” for some recent
immigrants and may be considered “strange” to their guests, the ac-
counts of the immigrant-host families reveal how their hosting beha-
viours still reflect their Filipino identity, which was substantiated by
their VFs. This study adds value to the work of Griffin (2017) in relation
to immigrant-hosts as hosting both inspires intra-regional travel and
enhances shared memories. The study is limited to Filipino immigrants
in New Zealand and their respective friends in the Philippines but it
does offer a broadly applicable conceptual schema to study travel and
friendship (or kinship) both from immigrants' and visiting friends'
perspectives.
Fourth, this research has advanced enquiry into the relationship
between friendship and emotion within a travel context. As the social
64
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
interactions between the immigrant-hosts and VFs are related to their
past interactions, it is assumed that these past interactions and the
shared history between the primary host(s) and the primary VF(s) has,
overall, produced positive emotions based on positive evaluations of
the exchanges between them. The shared history between the hosts and
guests allows a continuation of their friendship which allows them to
maintain their relationship from a distance. Despite limited contact or
irregular communication, the ties of friendship persist over the years
despite extended periods of separation. As Yousuf and Backer (2017)
demonstrate in their study of people hosting friends, friendships are
oriented around having similar interests as well as performing activities
together. This study reinforces this view through its exploration of the
perspectives of guests as well as hosts.
From a practical perspective, these findings suggest the importance
of marketing efforts and tourism or hospitality products that facilitate
sharing and re-acquaintance. Commercial imperatives did not drive this
research but no doubt its findings could have business-related appli-
cations. Friendship – and the repeated visitation it may prompt – de-
serves attention from marketers. Themes such as reconnection and past
ties, even tinged with an element of guilt, could be included in pro-
motional materials. There is also potential for marketers to make con-
tact with immigrant communities who can extend invitations to over-
seas friends. Prospective hosts can incorporate emotions into their
invitations in ways that cannot be easily replicated by industry actors
such as marketers. Hosting in a new homeland provides an opportunity
for immigrants to express deeply-felt pride and share their successes
with friends from their place of origin. While regional and local tourism
organizations, policy makers, tourism operators and investors focus on
the economic contribution of VFR travel, understanding the culture of
the immigrants as “new” residents will enable officials to serve hosts'
needs as well as those of their respective VFRs.
The research has limitations. One limitation is that social interac-
tions between immigrant-hosts and VFs as a phenomenon are not
generalisable due to the very small sample size and, therefore, a lack
broad representativeness. The social interactions between hosts and
guests only reflect aspects of Filipino culture and different findings may
emerge should an analysis be undertaken of other immigrant-host
communities in New Zealand and their respective VFs. However, the
study does offer a framework that could act as the foundation for other
studies that explore the emotional aspects of friendship-based travel.
Other researchers are encouraged to recruit more participants. Some of
the findings in this study could be addressed in more depth and detail
using a larger sample.
There is scope for future VF-related research. The immigrant-host
families and their VFs in this study share many of the same beliefs and
behaviours with regard to hosting and visiting. Studies that address the
personal interpretations of friendship in other societies and how they
relate to VF travel may be useful to understanding immigrant-hosts
communities living in their new homeland. Countries around the world
are home to diverse immigrant communities that, in turn, attract VFs.
Potentially diverse meanings assigned to friendship in the context of VF
travel are articulated by an array of immigrant or ethnic communities.
This research demonstrated that behind the easily quantifiable world of
transnational migrants and VF trips, there is an understudied emotional
realm. Friendships are part of this realm, and travel supports this type
of camaraderie. Furthermore, a longitudinal study could determine if
VFs are returning to New Zealand and are still being hosted to maintain
their friendship with their respective immigrant-hosts. The VFs inter-
viewed were first-time visitors to New Zealand and there is potential for
the visits to continue, to be reciprocated or to cease.
Friendship is shaped by recreating and maintaining social interac-
tions. Through VF travel, social interactions occurring in the co-pre-
sence of friends establishes one's identity – whether in expressing cul-
ture, hospitality or friendship. Given that social interactions during the
visit provide a shared experience for both hosts and guests, hosting and
visiting friends becomes essential for the advancement of the
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
relationship and assumes deep meaning through shared experiences.
Sustaining a friendship, in the context of VF travel, requires time and
effort as well as sacrifices willingly – even gladly – made. But, after all,
“that's what friends are for”.
Financial interest
The authors whose names are listed immediately below certify that
they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or
entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational
grants; participation in speakers’ bureaus; membership, employment,
consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert
testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest
(such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge
or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manu-
script.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2018.07.003.
References
Adams, R. G., & Blieszner, R. (1994). An integrative conceptual framework for friendship
research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11(2), 163–184.
Aguilar, F. (2009). Labour migration and ties of relatedness: Diasporic houses and in-
vestments in memory in a rural Philippine village. Thesis Eleven, 98(1) 88-14.
Allan, G. (1989). Friendship: Developing a sociological perspective. Hertfordshire, UK:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Annis, D. B. (1987). The meaning, value, and duties of friendship. American Philosophical
Quarterly, 24(4), 349–356.
Backer, E. (2018). VFR travel: Do visits improve or reduce our quality of life? Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2018.04.004.
Backer, E., & King, B. (Eds.). (2015). VFR travel research: International perspectives. Bristol:
Channel View.
Backer, E., & King, B. (2017). VFR traveller demographics: The social tourism dimension.
Journal of Vacation Marketing, 23(3), 191–204.
Backer, E., Leisch, F., & Dolnicar, S. (2017). Visiting friends or relatives? Tourism
Management, 60, 56–64.
Backer, E., & Ritchie, B. W. (2017). VFR travel: A viable market for tourism crisis and
disaster recovery? International Journal of Tourism Research, 19(4), 400–411.
Bell, S., & Coleman, S. (Eds.). (1999). The anthropology of friendship. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Bischoff, E., & Koenig-Lewis, N. (2007). VFR tourism: The importance of university stu-
dents as hosts. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(6), 465–484.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2008). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research
in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Carr, S. C. (Ed.). (2010). The psychology of global mobility. New York: Springer.
De Guzman, A. B., De Castro, B. V., Calanog, J. F. V., Taguinin, A. J. R., Afalla, J. R. S.,
Aldover, A. L. R., et al. (2012). The Australian tourists' travel motivation and pre-and
post-images of the Philippines as their destination. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in
Hospitality and Tourism, 1(2), 143–164.
Department of Labour (2011). International migration outlook – New Zealand 2010/11:
Labour and immigration research centre. Department of Labour.
Derlega, V. J., & Winstead, B. A. (Eds.). (1986). Friendship and social interaction. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
de Vries, B. (1996). The understanding of friendship: An adult life course perspective. In
C. Magai, & S. H. McFadden (Eds.). Handbook of emotion, adult development, and aging
(pp. 240–268). San Diego, California: Academic Press.
Durkheim, E. (1915/1995). The elementary forms of the religious life. New York: Free Press.
Dutt, C. S., & Ninov, I. (2017). Expatriates' learning: The role of VFR tourism. Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Management, 31, 253–264.
Dwyer, L., Seetaram, N., Forsyth, P., & King, B. (2014). Is the migration-tourism re-
lationship only about VFR? Annals of Tourism Research, 46, 130–143.
Eysenbach, G., & Till, J. E. (2001). Ethical issues in qualitative research on internet
communities. British Medical Journal, 323(7321), 1103–1105.
Foley, C. T., & Hayllar, B. R. (2007). A tale of two caravan parks. Tourism Today, 7, 7–28.
Gafter, L. M., & Tchetchik, A. (2017). The role of social ties and communication tech-
nologies in visiting friends tourism – a GMM simultaneous equations approach.
Tourism Management, 61, 343–353.
Griffin, T. (2012). Research note: A content analysis of articles on visiting friends and
relatives tourism, 1990-2010. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22(7),
781–802.
Griffin, T. (2013). A paradigmatic discussion for the study of immigrant hosts. Current
Issues in Tourism, 17(6), 487–498.
Griffin, T. (2017). Immigrant hosts and intra-regional travel. Tourism Geographies, 19(1),
44–62.
Guevara, J. P. (2005). Pakikipagkapwa (sharing/merging oneself with others). In R. M.
65
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
Gripaldo (Ed.). Filipino cultural traits: Philippine philosophical studies (pp. 9–20).
Washington: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.
Hammarstrom, G. (2005). The construct of intergenerational solidarity in a lineage per-
spective: A discussion on underlying theoretical assumptions. Journal of Aging Studies,
19(1), 33–51.
Hannam, K., Sheller, M., & Urry, J. (2006). Editorial: Mobilities, immobilities and
moorings. Mobilities, 1(1), 1–22.
Huang, W.-J., King, B., & Suntikul, W. (2017). VFR tourism and the tourist gaze: Overseas
migrant perceptions of home. International Journal of Tourism Research, 19(4),
421–434.
Hung, K., Xiao, H., & Yang, X. (2013). Why immigrants travel to their home places: Social
capital and acculturation perspective. Tourism Management, 36, 304–313.
Io, M.-U. (2015). Exploring the Chinese immigrants' preference of tourist activities during
their homeland visit and use of past memories. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
Research, 20(9), 990–1004.
Jackson, R. T. (1990). VFR tourism: Is it underestimated? Journal of Tourism Studies, 1(2),
10–17.
Jacobs, S., & Allen, R. T. (Eds.). (2005). Emotion, reason, and tradition: Essays on the social,
political and economic thought of Michael Polanyi. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
King, B., & Dwyer, L. (2015). The VFR and migration nexus – the impacts of migration on
inbound and outbound Australian VFR travel. In E. Backer, & B. King (Eds.). VFR
travel research: International perspectives (pp. 46–55). Bristol: Channel View.
Larsen, J., Urry, J., & Axhausen, K. W. (2007). Networks and tourism: Mobile social life.
Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1), 244–262.
Levitt, P., & Jaworsky, N. B. (2007). Transnational migration studies: Past developments
and future trends. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 129–156.
Licuanan, V., Mahmoud, T. O., & Steinmayr, A. (2015). The drivers of diaspora donations
for development: Evidence from the Philippines. World Development, 65, 94–109.
Lopez, G. I., Figueroa, M., Connor, S. E., & Maliski, S. L. (2008). Translation barriers in
conducting qualitative research with Spanish speakers. Qualitative Health Research,
18(12), 1729–1737.
Lynch, P., Molz, J. G., McIntosh, A., Lugosi, P., & Lashley, C. (2011). Editorial: Theorizing
hospitality. Hospitality & Society, 1(1), 3–24.
Mao, H. (2006). The relationship between organizational level and workplace friendship.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(10), 1819–1833.
Massidda, C., Etzo, I., & Piras, R. (2014). Migration and inbound tourism: An Italian
perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(12), 1152–1171.
Mesquita, B. (2001). Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 68–74.
Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment (2016). Migration trends 2015/2016.
Retrieved from http://www.mbie.govt.nz/publications-research/research/
migrants—monitoring/migration-trends-and-outlook-2015-16.pdf.
Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment (2017). New Zealand tourism forecasts
2017-2023. Retrieved from http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-
industries/tourism/tourism-research-data/international-tourism-forecasts/
documents-image-library/forecasts-2017-report-final.pdf.
Ministry of Economic Development (2009). International visitors. Retrieved from http://
www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Documents/International%20Market%20Profiles/
Total%20Profile.pdf.
Miralao, V. (1997). The family, traditional values, and the sociocultural transformation of
Philippine Society. Philippine Sociological Review, 45, 189–215.
Moody, J. (2001). Race, school integration, and friendship segregation in America.
American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 679–716.
Moyle, B., Croy, G., & Weiler, B. (2010). Tourism interaction on islands: The community
and visitor social exchange. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, 4(2), 95–107.
Murphy, L. (2001). Exploring social interactions of backpackers. Annals of Tourism
Research, 28(1), 50–67.
O'Gorman, K. D. (2010). The origins of hospitality and tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow
Publishers.
Palovic, Z., Kam, S., Janta, H., Cohen, S., & Williams, A. (2014). Surrey think tank –
reconceptualising visiting friends and relatives (VFR) travel. Journal of Destination
Marketing & Management, 2(4), 266–268.
Papathanassis, A. (2012). Guest-to-guest interaction on board cruise ships: Exploring
social dynamics and the role of situational factors. Tourism Management, 33(5),
1148–1158.
Rawlins, W. K. (2017). Friendship matters: Communication, dialectics, and the life course
London. Routledge.
Reichenberger, I. (2017). C2C value co-creation through social interactions in tourism.
International Journal of Tourism Research, 19(6), 629–638.
Ribeiro, M. A., Woosnam, K., Pinto, P., & Silva, J. A. (2018). Tourists' destination loyalty
through emotional solidarity with residents: An integrative moderated mediation
model. Journal of Travel Research, 57(3), 279–295.
Saito, I., Imamura, T., & Miyagi, M. (2010). Filipino personality traits and values for social
support: Filipino overseas workers as human resources for work-life balance in Japan, Vol.
8, Bulletin of Institute of Psychology, Rissho University1–16.
Schänzel, H. A. (2010). Whole-family research: Towards a methodology in tourism for
encompassing generation, gender, and group dynamic perspectives. Tourism Analysis,
15(5), 559–569.
Schänzel, H. A., Brocx, M., & Sadaraka, L. (2014). Un)conditional hospitality: The host
experience of the Polynesian community in Auckland. Hospitality & Society, 4(2),
135–154.
Shani, A. (2013). The VFR experience: “Home” away from home? Current Issues in
Tourism, 16(1), 1–15.
Shani, A., & Uriely, N. (2011). VFR tourism: The host experience. Annals of Tourism
Research, 39(1), 421–440.
R.C.G. Capistrano, A. Weaver
Smith, V. L., & Brent, M. (Eds.). (2001). Host and guests revisited: Tourism issues of the 21st
century. New York: Cognizant Communication.
Song, M. (2006). Contextualization and discipleship: Closing the gap between theory and
practice. Evangelical Review of Theology, 30(3), 249–263.
Tourism New Zealand (2017). Tourism New Zealand says maligayang to the Philippines.
Retried from https://www.tourismnewzealand.com/news/tourism-new-zealand-
says-maligayang-to-the-philippines/.
Turner, J. H. (1988). A theory of social interaction. Stanford, California: Stanford
University Press.
Urry, J. (2003). Social networks, travel and talk. British Journal of Sociology, 54(2),
155–176.
Wallace, R. A., & Hartley, S. F. (1988). Religious elements in friendship: Durkheimian
theory in an empirical context. In J. C. Alexander (Ed.). Durkheimian sociology:
Cultural studies (pp. 93–106). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walters, T. (2016). Using thematic analysis in tourism research. Tourism Analysis, 21(1),
107–116.
White, N. R., & White, P. B. (2008). Travel as interaction: Encountering place and others.
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 15(3), 42–48.
Wiseman, J. P. (1986). Friendship: Bonds and binds in a voluntary relationship. Journal of
Social and Personal Relationships, 3(2), 191–211.
Wolf, D. L. (2002). There's no place like “home”: Emotional transnationalism and the
struggles of second-generation Filipinos. In P. Levitt, & M. C. Walters (Eds.). The
changing face of home: The transnational lives of the second generation (pp. 255–294).
66
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 36 (2018) 57–66
New York: Sage.
Woosnam, K. M. (2011). Comparing residents' and tourists' emotional solidarity with one
another: An extension of Durkheim's model. Journal of Travel Research, 50(6),
615–626.
Woosnam, K. M., & Aleshinloye, K. D. (2012). Can tourists experience emotional soli-
darity with residents? Testing Durkheim's model from a new perspective. Journal of
Travel Research, 52(4), 494–505.
Woosnam, K. M., & Aleshinloye, K. D. (2018). Residents' emotional solidarity with
tourists: Explaining perceived impacts of a cultural heritage festival. Journal of
Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(4), 587–605.
Woosnam, K. M., & Norman, W. C. (2009). Measuring residents' emotional solidarity with
tourists: Scale development of Durkheim's theoretical constructs. Journal of Travel
Research, 49(3), 365–380.
Woosnam, K. M., Norman, W. C., & Ying, T. (2009). Exploring the theoretical framework
of emotional solidarity between residents and tourists. Journal of Travel Research,
48(2), 245–258.
Yousuf, M., & Backer, E. (2015). A content analysis of Visiting Friends and Relatives
(VFR) travel research. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 25, 1–10.
Yousuf, M., & Backer, E. (2017). Hosting friends versus hosting relatives: Is blood thicker
than water? International Journal of Tourism Research, 19(4), 435–446.
Yu, J., & Lee, T. J. (2014). Impact of tourists' intercultural interactions. Journal of Travel
Research, 53(2), 225–238.