United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines
“climate change” as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.”

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Related terms:

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substantive obligations. As knowledge and consensus grow within this framework,
the agreement is supplemented by a series of protocols and amendments imposing
progressively more specific and more stringent obligations on the treaty parties”
(Hunter et al., 2011). The Vienna Convention did not directly impose controls
on ozone depleting substances but instead created a process for the collection
of information and the negotiation of a later agreement (the Montreal Protocol
on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer) containing specific emission limits.
Similarly, the UNFCCC contains few specific requirements and, notably, no en-
forceable requirement for signatories to reduce the emission of GHGs. The parties
announce a goal of stabilizing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system,
and developed country parties agree to adopt national policies to mitigate climate
change with the “aim” of returning to their 1990 levels of anthropogenic emissions
of GHGs. The UNFCCC was designed primarily as a means to begin and support a
process for future, and more detailed, agreements about how to respond to climate
change. Some of the most significant ways that the UNFCCC has influenced, and
continues to shape, international climate negotiations are described below.
 substantive obligations. As knowledge and consensus grow within this framework,
the agreement is supplemented by a series of protocols and amendments imposing
progressively more specific and more stringent obligations on the treaty parties”
(Hunter et al., 2011). The Vienna Convention did not directly impose controls
on ozone depleting substances but instead created a process for the collection
of information and the negotiation of a later agreement (the Montreal Protocol
on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer) containing specific emission limits.
Similarly, the UNFCCC contains few specific requirements and, notably, no en-
forceable requirement for signatories to reduce the emission of GHGs. The parties
announce a goal of stabilizing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system,
and developed country parties agree to adopt national policies to mitigate climate
change with the “aim” of returning to their 1990 levels of anthropogenic emissions
of GHGs. The UNFCCC was designed primarily as a means to begin and support a
process for future, and more detailed, agreements about how to respond to climate
change. Some of the most significant ways that the UNFCCC has influenced, and
continues to shape, international climate negotiations are described below.

Common but differentiated

Common butresponsibilities
differentiated responsibilities
The UNFCCC endorsesThe UNFCCC
the concept
endorses
of common
the concept
but differentiated
of common responsibility
but differentiatedin responsibility in
the climate context.the
This
climate
means context.
that while
Thisdeveloping
means thatcountry
while developing
parties arecountry
expect- parties are expect-
ed to contribute toedclimate
to contribute
mitigation,
to climate
because mitigation,
of superiorbecause
capacityoftosuperior
undertake
capacity to undertake
mitigation and greater
mitigation
contribution
and greater
to thecontribution
problem of climate
to the problem
change as of climate
a result change
of as a result of
historical emissions,
historical
developed
emissions,
countries
developed
are expected
countries
to “take
arethe
expected
lead in to
combating
“take the lead in combating
climate change andclimate
the adverse
change effects
and the
thereof.”
adverseTheeffects
Convention
thereof.”
repeatedly
The Convention
refer- repeatedly refer-
ences the need to promote
ences thesustainable
need to promote
economic
sustainable
growth, economic
particularlygrowth,
in developing
particularly in developing
countries; developing
countries;
countries
developing
are subject
countries
to less stringent
are subjectreporting
to less stringent
and otherreporting and other
requirements thanrequirements
developed countries
than developed
under thecountries
Convention,
underand
thethe
Convention,
performanceand the performance
of developing country
of developing
parties is expressly
country parties
conditioned
is expressly
on theconditioned
adequate provision
on the adequate
of provision of
financial support and
financial
technology
support transfer
and technology
from developed
transfer
country
from developed
parties. country parties.

Data gathering and

Datareporting
gathering and reporting
The UNFCCC instituted
The UNFCCC
a processinstituted
for countries
a process
to generate
for countries
and share
to generate
data about
and share data about
domestic GHG emissions.
domesticUnder
GHGtheemissions.
UNFCCC, Under
all parties
the UNFCCC,
are required
all parties
to submit
are required
na- to submit na-
tional GHG inventories,
tional and
GHG developed
inventories,
country
and developed
parties arecountry
requiredparties
to submit
are required
more to submit more
detailed descriptions
detailed
of mitigation
descriptions
policies
of mitigation
and projections
policies
of and
the projected
projectionsimpact
of the projected impact
of these policies onofGHG
theseemissions.
policies onThe
GHGdata
emissions.
collected The
through
data the
collected
UNFCCCthrough
have the UNFCCC have
proved important to proved
developing
important
scientific
to developing
understanding
scientific
of the
understanding
climate problem,
of the climate problem,
and later agreementsandhave
laterbuilt
agreements
upon thehave
UNFCCC's
built uponreporting
the UNFCCC's
requirements.
reporting requirements.
Administrative institutions, structure, and process
 Administrative institutions, structure, and process
The UNFCCC has provided
The UNFCCC the basic
has provided
institutional
the structure
basic institutional
for the negotiation
structure for
and
the negotiation and
adoption of a series
adoption
of protocols,
of a series
modifications,
of protocols,
andmodifications,
agreements related
and agreements
to the related to the
Convention's mandate,
Convention's
most recently
mandate,the Paris
mostAgreement.
recently theThe
Paris
Convention
Agreement. estab-
The Convention estab-
lished a Conferencelished
of the
a Conference
Parties, a secretariat,
of the Parties,
and subsidiary
a secretariat,
bodies
and that
subsidiary
overseebodies that oversee
implementation ofimplementation
the Convention of andtherelated
Convention
instruments
and related
withininstruments
its mandate.within its mandate.
change should be arrested in a time frame that allows ecosystems to “adapt natu-
rally” to climate change, does not impede sustainable development, and maintains
agricultural productivity.
(as appropriate). Although it is generally difficult to quantify the impact of NGOs,
their relevant contributions to the debate, including policy analysis, position papers,
fact sheets, scientific research, and economic analysis of mitigation options in the
energy sector, among other inputs, have been recognized by the UNFCCC secretariat
as well as by governments, which are gradually including a larger number of NGOs
in their official delegations.
 (as appropriate). Although it is generally difficult to quantify the impact of NGOs,
their relevant contributions to the debate, including policy analysis, position papers,
fact sheets, scientific research, and economic analysis of mitigation options in the
energy sector, among other inputs, have been recognized by the UNFCCC secretariat
as well as by governments, which are gradually including a larger number of NGOs
in their official delegations.

For example, in 1991,

Forthe
example,
Centerinfor1991,
Science
the Center
and Environment
for Science(CSE),
and Environment
an Indian NGO (CSE), an Indian NGO
based in Delhi, published
based ina Delhi,
report published
called “Global
a report
Warming
called in“Global
an Unequal
Warming World,”
in an Unequal World,”
that expressed the frustration
that expressedof both
the frustration
Southern governments
of both Southernand many
governments
NGOs about and many NGOs about
the lack of attention
thegiven
lack of
to the
attention
equitygiven
issue to
in the
the equity
climateissue
deliberations
in the climate
and thatdeliberations and that
forcefully injected the
forcefully
topic into
injected
the international
the topic intodiscussions.
the international
CSE wasdiscussions.
also askedCSE was also asked
to advise the Indiantogovernment
advise the Indian
on climate
government
change,on andclimate
it continues
change,toandhaveit acontinues to have a
significant influence significant
on the country's
influenceclimate
on thepolicies.
country'sOn climate
the other
policies.
end ofOnthethe other end of the
policy process, ENDApolicy
Energy,
process,
the ENDA
energyEnergy,
branch theof ENDA
energyTierbranch
Mondeof ENDA
from Africa,
Tier Monde from Africa,
is helping to implement
is helping
the UNFCCC
to implement
in African
the UNFCCC
countriesin(seeAfrican
subsection
countries
on (see
ENDA subsection on ENDA
Energy in Section 2.4).
Energy in Section 2.4).

During the climateDuring

negotiations,
the climate
NGOs negotiations,
have found NGOs
numeroushaveways
foundin numerous
which to ways in which to
exert influence. CAN exert
NGOs
influence.
publish
CANa daily
NGOsnewspaper,
publish aECO,
dailythat
newspaper,
reports and ECO, that reports and
comments on the details
commentsof the
onnegotiations
the details ofand
theisnegotiations
considered by andmany
is considered
negotiators by many negotiators
and observers to beanda key
observers
source to
of be
information,
a key sourcepolicy
of information,
analysis, andpolicy
humor. analysis,
CAN and humor. CAN
representatives alsorepresentatives
organize a dailyalso
press
organize
conference
a dailyand
pressdistribute
conference
press andreleases
distribute press releases
commenting on the commenting
status of theonclimate
the status
negotiations.
of the climate
A Canada-based
negotiations.NGO, A Canada-based
the NGO, the
International Institute
International
of Sustainable
Institute
Development
of Sustainable
(IISD),
Development
also publishes(IISD),
a more
also publishes a more
journalistic report journalistic
on the negotiations,
report onthetheEarth
negotiations,
Negotiations
the Earth
Bulletin.
Negotiations Bulletin.

Over time, NGOs have

Over gradually
time, NGOs become
have more
gradually
effective
becomeat networking
more effective
by working
at networking by working
together with theirtogether
counterparts
with their
from counterparts
various parts from
of thevarious
world. parts
Increased
of thefunding
world. Increased funding
from foundations and
fromfrom
foundations
bilateral,and
multilateral,
from bilateral,
and private
multilateral,
sources,
andcombined
private sources, combined
with North–South with
jointNorth–South
fund-raising, joint
has increased
fund-raising,
NGOs'hasability
increased
to travel
NGOs'andability to travel and
ensure a continuedensure
and consistent
a continuedpresence
and consistent
during more
presence
than during
a decade more
of climate
than a decade of climate
negotiations. negotiations.
The ‘Paris Agreement’ and the ‘Two-Degree World’
macroeconomic and energy market trends, which may accelerate—or impede—the
transition towards a lower carbon energy future…’.
 macroeconomic and energy market trends, which may accelerate—or impede—the
transition towards a lower carbon energy future…’.

This cautious approach

This cautious
is sharedapproach
by climate is commentator
shared by climate
Kevin commentator
Anderson, who Kevin Anderson, who
in 2015 published in
an2015
articlepublished
in the journal
an article
Nature
in the
expressing
journal Nature
concernexpressing
that the concern that the
NDCs rely too heavily
NDCs on rely
unproven
too heavily
technologies,
on unproven
particularly
technologies,
on the particularly
so-called on the so-called
negative-emissionnegative-emission
technology BECCStechnology
(bioenergy BECCS
and carbon
(bioenergy
captureand
andcarbon
storage).
capture and storage).
BECCS involves theBECCS
burninginvolves
of biomass
the burning
(rather of
than
biomass
fossil fuels)
(ratherand
than
thefossil
subsequent
fuels) and the subsequent
sequestration of resultant
sequestration
CO2 inofdeep
resultant
underground
CO2 in deep
stores.
underground
I will examine
stores.
the pros
I will examine the pros
and cons of BECCSand andcons
other ofcarbon
BECCSsequestration
and other carbontechnologies
sequestrationin thetechnologies
next chapter.in the next chapter.
> Read full chapter
 > Read full chapter

Volume 5Volume 5
Paul Basudde, in Encyclopedia
Paul Basudde,
of in
theEncyclopedia
World's Biomes,
of the2020
World's Biomes, 2020

Introduction Introduction
The United Nations The Framework
United Nations
ConventionFramework
on Climate
Convention
Changeondefines
Climate climate
Change defines climate
change as a shift ofchange
temperature
as a shift
and/or
of temperature
precipitationand/or
that isprecipitation
observed over thatcompa-
is observed over compa-
rable periods of time,
rable attributed
periods ofdirectly
time, attributed
or indirectlydirectly
to humanor indirectly
activity, to
above
humanthatactivity, above that
caused by natural climate
caused by variability
natural (United
climate Nations,
variability1992).
(UnitedTheNations,
Intergovernmental
1992). The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change
Panel on(IPCC)
Climate
findsChange
with 95%
(IPCC)
certainty
finds with
that 95%
humancertainty
activity,
that
by human activity, by
increasing concentrations
increasing of greenhouse
concentrations gases
of greenhouse
in the atmosphere,
gases inhas
thebeen
atmosphere,
the has been the
dominant cause ofdominant
the observedcause
warming
of the observed
since thewarming
mid-20thsince
century.
the mid-20th
Accordingcentury. According
to a 2014 Overseasto Development
a 2014 Overseas
Institute
Development
(ODI) publication,
Institutethe
(ODI)
primary
publication,
sources theofprimary sources of
emissions are fossilemissions
fuel emissions
are fossil
andfuel
changes
emissions
in landand
use.
changes in land use.

To address these drivers

To address
of climate
these change,
drivers of
areclimate
climate-smart
change, energy
are climate-smart
technologies energy technologies
which are an important
whichsubset
are anofimportant
climate-smart
subsetgoods
of climate-smart
and technologies
goods(UNESCAP,
and technologies (UNESCAP,
2011). UNESCAP (2011)
2011).mentions
UNESCAP four
(2011)
categories
mentions of climate
four categories
smart energy
of climate
technolo-
smart energy technolo-
gies; clean coal technologies,
gies; clean coal
windtechnologies,
power, solar technology,
wind power,and solar
energy-efficient
technology, and energy-efficient
lighting. The Worldlighting.
Trade Organization
The World Trade
(WTO) Organization
provided a list
(WTO)
of 153
provided
environmental
a list of 153 environmental
goods as a result ofgoods
The Doha
as a result
Ministerial
of TheDeclaration.
Doha Ministerial
The World
Declaration.
Bank identified
The World Bank identified
43 climate-friendly43products
climate-friendly
that had been
products
derived
thatfrom
had been
the previously
derived fromsubmitted
the previously submitted
WTO 153-product WTO list. In153-product
addition, UNESCAP
list. In addition,
proposedUNESCAP
a list of an
proposed
additional
a list
21of an additional 21
products that appeared productson onethatofappeared
the International
on one ofCentre
the International
for Trade and Centre
Sustainable
for Trade and Sustainable
Development (ICTSD) Development
lists and also(ICTSD)
on one lists
of the
andAsia-Pacific
also on oneEconomic
of the Asia-Pacific
Cooperation
Economic Cooperation
(APEC), Organization (APEC),
for Economic
OrganizationCo-operation
for Economicand Development
Co-operation (OECD)
and Development
or WTO (OECD) or WTO
lists. In total, the list
lists.
comprises
In total, 64
theClimate-smart
list comprises goods
64 Climate-smart
and technologies
goods(CSGTs)
and technologies (CSGTs)
classified by the Harmonized
classified by Commodity
the Harmonized Description
Commodity
and Coding
Description
Systemand
(HS)Coding
2002 System (HS) 2002
codes at the 6-digitcodes level at
of the
the 6-digit
Harmonizedlevel ofSystem.
the Harmonized System.

Technology transfer,
Technology
the act of transfer,
conveying theknowledge
act of conveying
from oneknowledge
organization
fromorone organization or
sub-unit to another,
sub-unit
is necessary
to another,
if the above
is necessary
technologies
if the above
and goods
technologies
are goingand goods are going
to adopted broadly.toTeece
adopted(1977)
broadly.
identified
Teecefour(1977)
stages
identified
of technology
four stages
transfer:
of technology
(1) transfer: (1)
pre-engineering technological
pre-engineering exchanges,
technological
(2) transfer
exchanges,
of process
(2) transfer
design and
of process
asso- design and asso-
ciated process engineering
ciated process
for process
engineering
innovation;
for process
productinnovation;
design andproduct
production
design and production
engineering for product
engineering
innovation,
for product
(3) useinnovation,
of research (3)
anduse
development
of research to
and
adapt
development to adapt
and troubleshoot the
andtechnology,
troubleshoot andthe(4)technology,
pre-startupand training
(4) pre-startup
and processtraining
debug- and process debug-
ging costs. ging costs.
Most of the previous studies have attempted to answer the question: “Is there
any trade opportunity for climate smart energy technologies to mitigate climate
change?” For example, the research work includes Anbumozhi et al. (2016); as well
as World Bank (2008). Haselip et al. (2011) aim to share different views about
enabling frameworks and best practices for technology transfer in the area of
climate change. Notable, quantitative analysis using gravity modeling has been
widely used to describe trends in trade in climate smart energy technologies, as well
as identifying opportunities for expanding trade and investment in climate smart
energy technologies. Furthermore, energy system modeling with the integration
of geographic information system (GIS) has been used to help identify the most
effective electrification strategy on a geospatial basis. In addition, liberalization and
facilitation of trade in climate smart energy technologies is also popularly examined
in order to ensure access by all countries as seen in UNESCAP (2011).
 Most of the previous studies have attempted to answer the question: “Is there
any trade opportunity for climate smart energy technologies to mitigate climate
change?” For example, the research work includes Anbumozhi et al. (2016); as well
as World Bank (2008). Haselip et al. (2011) aim to share different views about
enabling frameworks and best practices for technology transfer in the area of
climate change. Notable, quantitative analysis using gravity modeling has been
widely used to describe trends in trade in climate smart energy technologies, as well
as identifying opportunities for expanding trade and investment in climate smart
energy technologies. Furthermore, energy system modeling with the integration
of geographic information system (GIS) has been used to help identify the most
effective electrification strategy on a geospatial basis. In addition, liberalization and
facilitation of trade in climate smart energy technologies is also popularly examined
in order to ensure access by all countries as seen in UNESCAP (2011).

Among a number of Among

studiesa number
applyingofthestudies
gravity
applying
model intheinternational
gravity model trade,
in international trade,
many scholars focus many
on predicting
scholars focus
the trade
on predicting
potentialsthe
and
trade
examining
potentials
determinants
and examining determinants
affecting trade relations,
affecting
suchtrade
as Nguyen
relations,
andsuch
Kalirajan
as Nguyen
(2016).
andIn Kalirajan
addition,(2016).
the gravity
In addition, the gravity
model has been extensively
model hasused beentoextensively
analyze theused
effects
to analyze
of commonthe effects
Free Trade
of common
Areas Free Trade Areas
(FTAs) using the dummy(FTAs) using
variables
theondummy
common variables
borders.
on common
Noticeableborders.
studiesNoticeable
include studies include
Jafari et al. (2011); Jafari
as wellet al.
as Binh
(2011);
et al.
as (2011).
well as Binh et al. (2011).

Among a number of Among

studies
a number
applyingofthe
studies
electrification
applying planning
the electrification
methodologies,
planning methodologies,
drawing on geographic
drawing
information
on geographic
systeminformation
(GIS) tools,system
many scholars
(GIS) tools,
focus
many
on scholars focus on
categorizing zonescategorizing
into areas that
zones
are into
moreareas
appropriate
that are for
more
either
appropriate
conventional
for either conventional
or renewable technologies
or renewable
basedtechnologies
on techno-economic
based on criteria,
techno-economic
e.g. Amadorcriteria,
and e.g. Amador and
Domínguez (2005)Domínguez
and Szabó et al.
(2005)
(2011)
and Szabó
investigated
et al. (2011)
energyinvestigated
solutions inenergy
rural solutions in rural
Africa. Africa.
Date
state irrigation departments, the nongovernmental societies emphasize more on a
small-scale level. When government firms anchored on top-down approaches with
comprehensive infrastructure-based propositions like building of dams, reservoirs,
canal irrigations, urban and rural drinking water facilities, the nongovernmental
group focused more on the opposite issues. However, even though the NGOs are
operated at the private sector level, most of the funding and technical aids are
provided by the government; for example, the Pani Panchayats, a registered society
of farmers related to irrigation and groundwater recharge design (Wester, 2008).
Despite all these undertakings, on overall accountability India seems to be still
lacking strong policies to overcome the issues. A robust system is still expected in a
diverse country like India where sustainable goals based on social, environmental,
and economical policies are put in the front.
state irrigation departments, the nongovernmental societies emphasize more on a
small-scale level. When government firms anchored on top-down approaches with
comprehensive infrastructure-based propositions like building of dams, reservoirs,
canal irrigations, urban and rural drinking water facilities, the nongovernmental
group focused more on the opposite issues. However, even though the NGOs are
operated at the private sector level, most of the funding and technical aids are
provided by the government; for example, the Pani Panchayats, a registered society
of farmers related to irrigation and groundwater recharge design (Wester, 2008).
Despite all these undertakings, on overall accountability India seems to be still
lacking strong policies to overcome the issues. A robust system is still expected in a
diverse country like India where sustainable goals based on social, environmental,
and economical policies are put in the front.
Analysis of the marine carbon sink ca-
pacity in China
 Analysis of the marine carbon sink ca-
pacity in China
Malin Song, ... Xianyou
MalinPan,
Song,
in ...
Sustainable
Xianyou Pan,
Marine
in Sustainable
Resource Utilization
Marine Resource
in China,
Utilization in China,
2020 2020

4.3.1.1 Net marine

4.3.1.1carbon
Net marine
sink carbon sink
In the United Nations
In the
Framework
United Nations
Convention
Framework
on Climate
Convention
Change, onthe Climate
process
Change,
of the process of
releasing greenhousereleasing
gases into
greenhouse
the atmosphere
gases intois defined
the atmosphere
as the “source”
is defined
of green-
as the “source” of green-
house gases, whilehouse
the process
gases,ofwhile
removing
the process
greenhouse
of removing
gases from
greenhouse
the atmosphere
gases from the atmosphere
is defined as the “sink”
is defined
of greenhouse
as the “sink”
gases.
of greenhouse
For the whole gases.
marine
For ecosystem,
the whole marine
the ecosystem, the
ability to absorb and
ability
release
to absorb
CO2 is compared.
and releaseTheCO2seais compared.
area that canThe absorb
sea area
COthat
2 from
can absorb CO2 from
the atmosphere is the
termed
atmosphere
the “net is
carbon
termed sink,”
the and
“netthecarbon
sea area
sink,”that
andcan
therelease
sea area that can release
CO2 into the atmosphere
CO2 into is the
termed
atmosphere
the “net is
carbon
termed source”
the “net
(Fig.
carbon
4.1). source” (Fig. 4.1).

Figure 4.1. Net marine

Figure
carbon
4.1. Net
source
marine
andcarbon
sink. source and sink.

Two concepts, namely

Two the
concepts,
“Apparent
namely
source
theand
“Apparent
sink” and
source
the “Realistic
and sink”source
and theand
“Realistic source and
sink,” should be distinguished
sink,” shouldhere.
be distinguished
The “Apparent here.
source
Theand“Apparent
sink” issource
derivedand
from
sink” is derived from
the positive and negative
the positive
CO2 fluxes
and negative
at the air–sea
CO2 fluxes
interface
at theand
air–sea
is determined
interface and
by is determined by
measuring the partial
measuring
pressurethe
of partial
CO2 inpressure
the surface
of CO
seawater
2 in theand
surface
atmosphere.
seawaterTheand atmosphere. The
formula is as follows:
formula is as follows:

(4.3) (4.3)

where is the carbon where

flux atis the
the air–sea
carbon interface
flux at the(g/m
air–sea
2 a); interface
is the gas(g/m
exchange
2 a); is the gas exchange

coefficient; is the partial

coefficient;
pressureis the
of partial
CO2 inpressure
surface seawater
of CO2 in(Pa),
surface
and seawater
is the (Pa), and is the
partial pressure of partial
CO2 in pressure
the atmosphere
of CO2 in
(Pa).
theThe
atmosphere
“Realistic (Pa).
source
Theand
“Realistic
sink” refers
source and sink” refers
to the source and sink
to the
obtained
source andby comparing
sink obtained
totalbyCOcomparing
2 in currenttotal
seawater
CO2 inwith
current seawater with
that in seawater before
that in
theseawater
Industrial before
Revolution.
the Industrial
The “Apparent
Revolution.
source
Theand
“Apparent
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usually suitable forusually
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for small-scale
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with spatial
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and temporal Theheterogeneity. The
“Realistic source and sink” is generally applicable to the acquisition of marine carbon
sources and sinks on an Ocean scale, which can reflect the carbon storage capacity
of the middle and deep seas. As the middle and deep seas are relatively stable, the
long-term and large-scale relationship between ocean and atmospheric CO2 can be
reflected, and trends in the intensity and variation of marine carbon sources and
sinks can be forecast through model inversion.
“Realistic source and sink” is generally applicable to the acquisition of marine carbon
sources and sinks on an Ocean scale, which can reflect the carbon storage capacity
of the middle and deep seas. As the middle and deep seas are relatively stable, the
long-term and large-scale relationship between ocean and atmospheric CO2 can be
reflected, and trends in the intensity and variation of marine carbon sources and
sinks can be forecast through model inversion.