Personality and Individual Differences 172 (2021) 110588

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

The relationship between self-esteem and internet altruistic behavior: The

mediating effect of online social support and its gender differences
Xianliang Zheng *, Zeyi Wang, Huiping Chen, Fangwei Xie
School of Educational Science, Gannan Normal University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China

A B S T R A C T

This study aimed to test the relationship between self-esteem and Internet altruistic behavior (IAB) as well as the mediating effect of online social support (OSS) and
the associated gender differences. By using structural equation modeling (SEM), 383 Chinese undergraduates (aged from 17 to 22 years) completed a paper-and-
pencil questionnaire that assessed their IAB, OSS, and self-esteem. Results show a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and IAB. OSS plays a com­
plete mediating role between self-esteem and IAB. Such mediating role is mainly observed among males and is not significant among females. This study deepens our
understanding of how self-esteem affects IAB and provides important practical guidance for cultivating the IAB of individuals.

1. Introduction discouraging their prosocial behavior (Twenge, Baumeister, Dewall,

Internet altruistic behavior (IAB) refers to the voluntary behavior of
users on the Internet that benefits others and the society without
expecting anything in return, such as sharing online learning materials,
providing information on forums, and providing guidance (Zheng, Xie,
& Ding, 2018). This type of behavior has changed how people seek and
receive help in recent years (Meter, Birnbaum, Rizvi, & Kane, 2019).
Researchers suggest that online altruistic behavior does not differ from
offline altruistic behavior in nature (Wallace, 1999). However, in­
dividuals tend to give or receive help online owing to the openness and
convenience of the Internet (Jiang, Chen, & Wang, 2017). IAB research
plays a positive role in forming and maintaining a good relationship
among people in cyberspace and enhancing their trust on the Internet.
This study thus explores the relationship between self-esteem and IAB
and the underlying mechanism of such relationship.
1.1. Self-esteem and IAB
According to prosocial behavior theory (Eisenberg, 1986), the per­
sonality characteristics of an individual play an important role in
generating prosocial behavior. Self-esteem is an important part of per­
sonality that has been associated with prosocial behavior. Previous
studies have shown that individuals with higher self-esteem have a
stronger perception of external needs, thereby improving their ability to
notice the needs of others and facilitating the transformation of proso­
cial motivation into prosocial behavior (Zheng, 2013). However, people
with lower self-esteem are more vulnerable to social exclusion, thereby
Ciarocco, & Bartels, 2007). A longitudinal study shows that self-esteem
is associated with prosocial behavior toward strangers (Fu, Padilla-
Walker, & Brown, 2017). Afolabi (2014) found that self-esteem pre­
dicts prosocial behavior and is an important personality factor that af­
fects the prosocial behavior performance of individuals. Some empirical
studies have shown a significant positive correlation between self-
esteem and IAB and argued that the former can significantly positively
predict the latter (Jiang et al., 2017; Zheng & Gu, 2012). Therefore, self-
esteem can be viewed as an important predictive factor of prosocial
behavior that is closely related to IAB.
1.2. Mediating role of online social support (OSS)
OSS refers to the sense of identity and belonging that individuals feel
when they are understood and respected during a process of emotion,
information, and material exchange in online interpersonal interactions
(Liang, 2008). OSS represents an expansion of social support from the
real world to the cyberspace and can improve the physical and mental
health of individuals (Gilmour, Machin, Brownlow, & Jeffries, 2020).
According to social support theory (Caplan & Abrahams, 1976), the
social support of individuals is mainly affected by three factors, namely,
environmental, developmental, and personal factors. Self-esteem is a
very important individual factor that affects social support. Researchers
believe that people with higher self-esteem have higher self-evaluations
(Porter, Zelkowitz, Gist, & Cole, 2019), are more likely to be accepted by
others (Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995), and behave more
positively in online contexts (Nie, Li, & Zhou, 2018), thereby helping

* Corresponding author at: School of Educational Science, Gannan Normal University, No. 1 Shiyuannan Road, Ganzhou 341000, Jiangxi Province, China.
E-mail address: zxl2004@sina.com (X. Zheng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110588
Received 27 August 2020; Received in revised form 3 December 2020; Accepted 7 December 2020
Available online 17 December 2020
0191-8869/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
X. Zheng et al.
them receive social support on the Internet. By contrast, people with
lower self-esteem tend to hold negative evaluations of themselves,
behave more negatively in cyberspace, and may receive less OSS
(Karaca, Yildirim, Cangur, Acikgoz, & D., & Akkus, N., 2019). Empirical
studies also reveal that self-esteem has a positive predictive effect on
OSS (Jin, Lu, Zhang, & Li, 2017).
According to the volunteer process model (Omoto & Snyder, 2002),
social support can promote the altruistic motivation of individuals and
subsequently generate more altruistic behaviors. Researchers point out
that individuals low on social support tend to interpret their surround­
ings with negatively and perceive their world as hostile, hence moti­
vating them to respond in the same way and reducing their altruistic
behavior (Twenge et al., 2007). By contrast, more social support in­
dicates more understanding, respect, and support in the society, thereby
increasing their sense of belonging, fostering their positive attitudes
toward the society, and promoting their altruistic behavior (Liu, Xu, Liu,
& Liu, 2016). Consistent with this theoretical framework, previous
empirical studies show that individuals with higher social support have
more altruistic behaviors in either real life or online contexts (Calvete,
Orue, & Padilla, 2010; Zheng, 2013). Therefore, OSS is closely related to
IAB.
Based on the above literature review, OSS may play a mediating role
between self-esteem and IAB. To the best of our knowledge, no previous
study has examined whether OSS mediates the relationship between
self-esteem and IAB. Therefore, this study aims to examine this medi­
ating effect.
1.3. Gender differences
Previous studies show significant gender differences in self-esteem,
OSS, and IAB. For instance, a meta-analysis reveals significant gender
differences in self-esteem from late adolescence to mid-adulthood across
48 countries and regions, with males having consistently higher self-
esteem than females (Bleidorn et al., 2016). Significant gender differ­
ences have also been observed in social support and OSS, with males
receiving more OSS than females (Sun, Zhao, Zhou, Xie, & Tong, 2015;
Van, Spruyt, & Keppens, 2018). In terms of IAB, some studies highlight a
significant gender difference, with males being more willing to provide
help online than females (Ma, Li, & Pow, 2011). In view of these gender
differences, we infer that some gender differences may also be observed
in the mediating effect of OSS on the relationship between self-esteem
and IAB.
1.4. Current study
Although many studies reveal that OSS is related to self-esteem and
IAB, how OSS is specifically associated with such relationship remains
unclear. In addition, although researchers have found significant gender
differences in self-esteem, OSS, and IAB, the gender differences in their
pathways remain unknown. Based on the above literature review, we
formulate the following hypotheses: (a) self-esteem significantly pre­
dicts IAB, (b) OSS mediates the relationship between self-esteem and
IAB, and (c) gender differences exist in the mediating effect of OSS.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
We recruited undergraduate students from a university in Jiangxi
Province, China as our participants. We distributed 410 questionnaires
in a classroom environment after receiving the informed consent of
these participants. A total of 27 questionnaires were excluded from the
analysis because of their incomplete or untrue answers, thereby result­
ing in 383 valid samples. The participants were aged from 17 to 22 years
(Mage = 19.49 years, SD = 1.21). Among them, 175 were male (45.69%)
and 208 were female (54.31%). All materials and procedures were
2
Personality and Individual Differences 172 (2021) 110588
approved by the Ethics in Human Research Committee of the author’s
university. The participants received a gift as a reward.
2.2. Measure
2.2.1. IAB
This study adopted the IAB scale of Zheng (2010), which includes the
four subscales: Internet support, Internet guidance, Internet sharing, and
Internet reminding. The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1
indicating “never” and 4 indicating “always.” High scores indicate high
IAB. This scale has been proven to have satisfying reliability and validity
(e.g., Jiang et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2018). The entire scale obtained a
Cronbach’s α of 0.92, whereas the subscales had Cronbach’s α values
ranging from 0.75 to 0.82.
2.2.2. OSS
We used the 23-item scale of Liang (2008), which shows relatively
acceptable reliability and validity (e.g., Sun et al., 2015; Zheng, 2013),
to assess OSS. This scale comprises four subscales, namely, information
support, peer support, affection support, and instrumental support. The
items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating “strongly
disagree” and 5 indicating “strongly agree.” High scores indicate high
OSS. The entire scale had a Cronbach’s α of 0.87, whereas the subscales
had Cronbach’s α values ranging from 0.68 to 0.87.
2.2.3. Self-esteem
We used the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965) to
evaluate self-esteem. This scale comprises 10 items rated on a 4-point
Likert scale, with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 4 indicating
“strongly agree.” High scores imply high self-esteem. This scale has been
translated to Chinese, demonstrates adequate psychometric properties
(Jiang et al., 2017; Nie et al., 2018), and obtained a Cronbach’s α of
0.83.
2.2.4. Data analysis strategy
First, we used SPSS 22.0 for the descriptive statistics, Pearson cor­
relation analysis, and gender difference tests in self-esteem, IAB, and
OSS. Second, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to
examine the mediating path among self-esteem, OSS, and IAB. We
treated self-esteem as an exogenous latent variable and both OSS and
IAB as endogenous latent variables. Given that the self-esteem scale
contains 10 items in a single dimension, we packaged this scale into
three parcels in a random combination to prevent expansion measure­
ment errors (Bian, Che, & Yang, 2007). Third, we used LISREL 8.80 to
estimate the model with the maximum likelihood method. We assessed
the SEM model based on the fit indices of the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normal of fit index
(NFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and chi-square. The model is deemed
acceptable when the fit indices meet the following criteria: GFI, NFI, and
CFI > 0.90, RMSEA < 0.08, and χ2/df < 3. Finally, we conducted a
multiple-group analysis for SEM and bootstrapping to determine
whether the mediating effect significantly differed between males and
females. The bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) determine whether the
effects are significant based on 5000 random samples. If the CIs do not
include zero, then the effect is considered significant.
2.2.5. Common method deviation
All data were self-reported by the participants, thereby giving rise to
a potential common method deviation in the measurement. We
controlled for such deviation as follows. First, the scales were answered
anonymously, and the participants were informed that their responses
would be kept confidential and used only for scientific research. Second,
we conducted Harman’s one factor test for statistical control, that is, we
analyzed the items of all variables via unrotated principal component
factor analysis. Results identify 13 factors with eigenvalues of greater
than 1 and show that the variance explained by the first factor is only
X. Zheng et al. Personality and Individual Differences 172 (2021) 110588

18.75%, which is less than the critical value of 40%, thereby indicating
the absence of any serious common method deviation in this study.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive findings
The descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. The t-test results
show that the total IAB and OSS scores for males are significantly higher
than those for females, but no significant gender differences are
observed in self-esteem. Specifically, males show greater Internet
guidance, Internet sharing, Internet reminding, and instrumental sup­
port than females in the IAB and OSS subscales.
the mediating role of OSS.
We apply the bootstrapping method on 5000 samples, and the
standardized path coefficients of the male and female mediation models
are shown in Fig. 2. Results show that the direct effect of self-esteem on
IAB is not significant (β = 0.10, S.E. = 0.06, p > 0.05) and that the 95%
CI is (− 0.15, 0.21). The mediating effect of OSS is significant in the male
model (β = 0.17, S.E. = 0.06, p < 0.05), with a 95% CI of (0.06, 0.29).
Meanwhile, the mediating effect of OSS is not significant in the female
model (β = 0.07, S.E. = 0.04, p > 0.05), with a 95% CI of (− 0.02, 0.13).
These results indicate a significant gender difference in the mediating
effect of OSS on the relationship between self-esteem and IAB.
4. Discussion

3.2. Correlation analysis Previous studies have shown that self-esteem can effectively promote
IAB (Jiang et al., 2017). However, the underlying psychological mech­
The correlation analysis results are shown in Table 2. IAB, OSS, and anisms between them remain largely unknown. Based on the theoretical
self-esteem all have a significantly positive correlation, thereby meeting and empirical findings for self-esteem, OSS, and IAB, we hypothesize
the condition of mediation analysis. that OSS may mediate the relationship between self-esteem and IAB. We
also check for gender differences in such mediating role to broaden our
3.3. Mediation effect test of OSS understanding of the psychological mechanisms between self-esteem
and IAB.
We used LISREL 8.80 to confirm the mediation model, and we built
an initial model. Table 3 shows a good fit in the indices of this initial 4.1. Relationship between self-esteem and IAB
model, but the direct path of self-esteem on IAB is not significant.
Therefore, we modify our model to remove this path and then construct As hypothesized, self-esteem can positively predict IAB, which is
the self-esteem → OSS → IAB model (Fig. 1). Results show that the initial consistent with previous research (Jiang et al., 2017). Specifically,
and modified models have a satisfactory fit to the data (Table 3). Both of previous studies show that self-esteem is a subjective evaluation of one’s
these models belong to a nested model. Following the comparison own value and that individuals with high self-esteem consider them­
principle of this nested model, although the modified model deletes a selves valuable to others (Afolabi, 2014). Therefore, they are willing to
path and increases the degree of freedom by 1, its chi-square value does help others online to further prove their value. Moreover, people with
not significantly increase (△x2 (1) = 1.93, p > 0.05), thereby indicating higher self-esteem believe they are more capable of helping others in
that modifying the model is ideal. Fig. 1 shows that OSS plays a complete need (Brown, Collins, & Schmidt, 1988), thereby promoting their
mediating role between self-esteem and IAB. The value of the mediating altruistic motivation and increasing their tendency to produce IAB
effect is 0.27 × 0.63 = 0.17. (Zheng, 2013). By contrast, people with lower self-esteem always think
that they are facing more difficulties (Lee, Morrell, Marini, & Smith,
3.4. Multiple-group comparison analysis 2010), hence discouraging them from helping others and preventing
them from showing IAB. Previous studies also show that low self-esteem
To check for gender differences in the pathways, we used SEM to is associated with social exclusion (Twenge et al., 2007). Therefore,
establish models for both males and females. These models have satis­ individuals with lower self-esteem are more likely to feel rejection from
factory fit indices, thereby highlighting the possibility of multiple-group others in online interpersonal communication, thereby reducing their
comparison. We initially set the unrestricted model 1 (M1) for the enthusiasm and motivation for interpersonal interaction and their IAB.
multiple-group comparison and then freely estimate two groups of males Our findings also show that enhancing the self-esteem of individuals is
and females. Afterward, we set model 2 (M2) with an equal path coef­ one of the main strategies for improving IAB.
ficient. The fit indices of these two models are shown in Table 4. Both of
these models have satisfactory fit indices. Compared with M1, M2 has 4.2. Mediation effect of OSS
△x2 = 53.18, △df = 8, and p < 0.001, thereby indicating a significant
difference between these models and a significant gender difference in OSS completely mediates the relationship between self-esteem and
IAB. These findings are consistent with the arguments of sociometer
Table 1 theory (Leary et al., 1995), which posits that self-esteem has a significant
Descriptive statistics and gender difference test of each variable. positive correlation with perceived acceptance by society and others.
Individuals with high self-esteem usually feel that they are valued (Tice,
Variables M ± SD Male Female t
1991), thereby encouraging them to communicate online more posi­
IAB 2.18 ± 0.48 2.39 ± 0.47 2.12 ± 0.46 5.23*** tively, receive greater affirmation and praise from others, and be
Internet support 2.47 ± 0.54 2.56 ± 0.53 2.44 ± 0.55 1.84
Internet guidance 1.94 ± 0.58 2.27 ± 0.61 1.83 ± 0.52 6.72***
accepted in the online society, all of which increase their OSS. By
Internet sharing 1.99 ± 0.53 2.22 ± 0.49 1.92 ± 0.52 4.99*** contrast, individuals with low self-esteem develop a negative evaluation
Internet reminding 2.16 ± 0.61 2.45 ± 0.61 2.06 ± 0.58 5.68*** of themselves (Zhang, Guan, Qi, & Yang, 2013), thereby leading to
OSS 3.31 ± 0.47 3.40 ± 0.46 3.28 ± 0.46 2.22* relatively negative online interpersonal interactions and preventing
Information support 3.91 ± 0.53 3.86 ± 0.63 3.93 ± 0.49 − 1.08
these people from easily receiving acceptance from online societies and
peer support 3.31 ± 0.71 3.40 ± 0.68 3.29 ± 0.73 1.34
affection support 3.20 ± 0.58 3.24 ± 0.59 3.19 ± 0.57 0.71 developing sufficient OSS (Forest & Wood, 2012). OSS and IAB also
Instrumental support 2.68 ± 0.83 3.04 ± 0.81 2.56 ± 0.80 5.09*** show a close relationship. Social exchange theory (Homans, 1961) posits
Self-esteem 2.97 ± 0.38 2.97 ± 0.43 2.97 ± 0.37 0.04 that interpersonal communication follows the principle of “social eco­
Note: IAB = Internet altruistic behavior; OSS = online social support (IAB and nomics”. An individual becomes willing to help others only when the
OSS have the same meaning in next tables and figures). benefits of an interpersonal interaction outweigh the associated costs
*
p < 0.05. (Lu, Guo, & Li, 2014). Those individuals with higher OSS can receive
***
p < 0.001. more benefits from online interpersonal communications, hence driving

3
X. Zheng et al. Personality and Individual Differences 172 (2021) 110588

Table 2
Inter-correlations between IAB, OSS and self-esteem.
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 IAB 1
2 OSS 0.47*** 1
3 Self-esteem 0.16** 0.18*** 1
4 Internet support 0.89*** 0.39*** 0.16* 1
5 Internet guidance 0.86*** 0.41*** 0.10* 0.64*** 1
6 Internet sharing 0.81*** 0.42*** 0.17* 0.59*** 0.66*** 1
7 Internet reminding 0.84*** 0.37*** 0.10* 0.66*** 0.67*** 0.57*** 1
8 Information support 0.18*** 0.50*** 0.19*** 0.21*** 0.11* 0.11* 0.15* 1
9 Peer support 0.38*** 0.84*** 0.04 0.33*** 0.35*** 0.33*** 0.29*** 0.24*** 1
10 Affection support 0.37*** 0.69*** 0.25*** 0.33*** 0.31*** 0.34*** 0.29*** 0.20*** 0.42*** 1
11 Instrumental support 0.32*** 0.65*** 0.09 0.17* 0.32*** 0.35*** 0.28*** 0.17* 0.36*** 0.31*** 1
*
p < 0.05.
**
p < 0.01.
***
p < 0.001.

4.4. Limitations and implications

Table 3
Fit indices of initial model and modified model.
This study has several limitations. First, all of our variables were
x2 df x2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA assessed through self-reported measures. Although the results of the
Initial model 104.70 41 2.53 0.95 0.97 0.95 0.063 common method bias test indicate that the effect was not significant,
Modified model 106.67 42 2.47 0.95 0.97 0.95 0.058 future studies may benefit from using multiple informants (e.g., peers

them to provide help when others are in need. In conclusion, individuals Table 4
with higher self-esteem can receive more OSS, thereby generating more Multiple-group comparison analysis of mediation model.
IAB. Model x2 df x2/df GFI NFI CFI RMSEA

Mmales 65.55 42 1.56 0.90 0.90 0.95 0.078

Mfemales 122 42 2.90 0.93 0.92 0.95 0.076
4.3. Gender difference in mediation effects M1 175.87 82 2.14 0.93 0.92 0.95 0.073
M2 229.05 90 2.55 0.93 0.90 0.93 0.077
By analyzing the path coefficient of the mediating model, we find
significant gender differences in the mediating effect of OSS. In other
words, the path of self-esteem on OSS is significant in the male group,
but not in the female group. Such gender difference may be attributed to
the fact that males have a more positive attitude toward the Internet and
a higher confidence in using computers compared with females
(Sobieraj & Krämer, 2020). In addition, males have a better exploration
spirit on the Internet compared with females (Tsai & Tsai, 2010), and the
Internet can also bring more positive energy to males than to females
(Zhou, 2014). Therefore, males have a stronger sense of belonging and
identity in an online society compared with females, thereby enhancing
the predictive effect of self-esteem on OSS. By contrast, females have a
lower sense of computer self-efficacy compared with males (Scherer &
Siddiq, 2015), thereby reducing their confidence in performing actions Fig. 2. Multiple-group comparison analysis (N = 383). Note: females are inside
the parentheses, outside the parentheses are males.
related to computer skills and increasing their anxiety when performing
*p < 0.05.
computer-related tasks (Sobieraj & Krämer, 2020), thereby reducing the
***p < 0.001.
influence of self-esteem on OSS.

Fig. 1. The mediation model (N = 383). Note: SE-1 to SE-3

are three parcels of self-esteem; OSS-1 = information sup­
port, OSS-2 = peer support, OSS-3 = affection support, OSS-
4 = instrumental support; IAB-1 = Internet support, IAB-2
= Internet guidance, IAB-3 = Internet sharing, IAB-4 =
Internet reminding. Standardized path coefficients and
standardized factor loading are presented.
***p < 0.001.

4
X. Zheng et al.
and school counselors) when collecting their data. Second, given that
IAB is formed in an online context, although the IAB scale has been
validated in many studies, experimental methods should be adopted to
measure IAB in future research. Third, given that we adopt convenient
sampling, all participants were recruited from the same university,
thereby limiting the representativeness of our sample. Therefore, future
studies should observe extreme caution when generalizing our findings.
Despite these limitations, this study offers several theoretical and
practical contributions. First, this study reveals the mediating effect of
OSS on the relationship between self-esteem and IAB and the associated
gender differences, thereby deepening our understanding of how self-
esteem affects IAB and which gender is affected more. Second, we find
that self-esteem has a positive predictive effect on IAB. Therefore, we
can make good use of the particularity of the online context to improve
the self-esteem and IAB of undergraduates. Third, given that OSS plays a
mediating role in the relationship between self-esteem and IAB,
increasing IAB can benefit the OSS of undergraduates. Therefore, par­
ents and teachers should take the necessary actions to enhance the OSS
of undergraduates. Fourth, to promote the level of IAB, educators and
school counselors should pay attention to gender differences in guiding
and training the IAB of undergraduates and accurately grasp the
different effects of OSS on the IAB of male and female students.
Funding
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China (31760286) and Graduate Student Innovation Founda­
tion of Gannan Normal University (YCX19A010).
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants
were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or
national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and
its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants
included in the study.
Credit author statement
Xianliang Zheng: Conceptualization, Methodology, Editing and
Revision.
Zeyi Wang: Writing.
Huiping Chen: Data collation and analysis.
Fangwei Xie: Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
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