British J Social Psychol - 2023 - Manzi - Multiple Social Identities and Well Being Insights From A Person Centred

Received: 7 March 2023 | Accepted: 17 November 2023
DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12704
ARTICLE
Multiple social identities and well-being: Insights

from a person-centred approach
Claudia Manzi1 | Fabio Paderi1 | Veronica Benet-Martinez2
1
Catholic University of Milan, Milano, Italy
2
ICREA and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Abstract
Bacelona, Spain Recent research on social identity and identity integration
suggests that individuals who have multiple identities and
Correspondence
Claudia Manzi, L.go Gemelli, 1, Milano 20123, who also successfully integrate them are better adjusted. We
Italy. combine predictions from these studies and examine how
Email: claudia.manzi@unicatt.it social identification, together with identity integration, are
Funding information related to psychological well-being using a person-centred
Valore D, Grant/Award Number: R1064400069 approach. A first study (N = 2705) showed that the identity
configuration characterized by high levels of identification
with organization and gender, as well as the perception that
these identities are well integrated, is associated with the
highest level of well-being. Conversely, the identity configu-
ration characterized by low scores on gender and organiza-
tion identifications and low levels of identity integration was
associated with the lowest levels of well-being. These find-
ings were replicated in a second study (N = 8987) where or-
ganization and age-g roup identification were analysed. We
discuss the implications of these findings for the literatures
on multiple social identities, identity integration and organi-
zational climate.
K EY WOR DS
identity integration, person-centred approach, social identity, well-being
BAC KGROU N D
Social identification (e.g. ‘I am a woman’ and ‘he is a professor’) is the basic cognitive mechanism that
humans use to sort out themselves and their fellows, individually and collectively. This ‘base-line’ sort-
ing is fundamental to the organization of the human world: It is how we know who is who and what is
what. Through social identification, individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership
and ascribe characteristics that are typical of the group to the self.
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2 | MANZI et al .
Identification with particular groups is at the basis of our social identities, as postulated by
Tajfel (1968). Social identity is that part of the self-concept that derives from one's knowledge of belong-
ing to a social group (or to several groups), together with the value and the emotional meaning attached
to that belonging. Social identity theory further postulates that our social identities are intrinsically
linked to adjustment. Specifically, Tajfel (1979) argued that positive and distinctive group identities
could feed individual's self-esteem and sense of personal value (Abrams & Hogg, 1990) and thus pro-
mote well-being.
People typically endorse multiple social identities, related to their different roles (e.g. mother and em-
ployee) and social-demographic groups (e.g. gender, age, religion, nationality and profession; Kang &
Bodenhausen, 2015). Furthermore, as the social world becomes increasingly more diverse and mobile,
the number and type of social identities individuals have access to seems to also increase (e.g. women
holding top managerial positions, ethnic and sexual minorities gaining access to visible political posts
and men holding caretaking roles).
A natural question for social psychologists is then: How does the experience of holding multiple (and
sometimes socially contested) identities relate to adjustment and mental health?
The available social psychological literature highlights the importance of this question, and yet the
answers are not unisonous. Some research, for example, posits that possessing multiple social identities
can complicate experiences of stigmatization, particularly when individuals happen to belong to more
than one socially devalued category (for a review, see Kang & Bodenhausen, 2015). Others, under the
social identity approach, highlight the beneficial effects of multiple identifications considered as a social
cure able to foster individual health ( Jetten et al., 2012).
The present study investigates the complex relationships between multiple social identifications and
well-being using a person-centred approach. We focus on individuals rather than on variables for a
better understanding of the differing ways in which people organize and experience their multiple iden-
tifications and of how these different identity configurations and experiences may be related to differing
levels of well-being. In the first study, we examine the different ways professional women integrate (or
not) their gender and work identities, whereas our second study focusses on the integration of age and
organizational identities among senior workers.
Multiple social identifications and well-being
An examination of the literature on multiple identification and well-being reveals two different and
yet complementary perspectives. One corpus of research, largely based on the social identity theory
perspective, focusses on identity plurality—defined as the number of distinctive social identifications
that make up a person's self-concept—and posits that the greater the number of social identifications
the higher well-being (Branscombe et al., 1999; Cameron, 1999; Jetten et al., 2001) and the better mental
health (Koch & Shepperd, 2004). Indeed, there is empirical evidence, showing that having a multiplicity
of social identifications may help in preventing negative psychological outcomes and promoting health
(Steffens et al., 2016), provides more ways for a person to self-protect (Benish-Weisman et al., 2015) and
is linked to lower depression (Haslam et al., 2014).
An alternative stream of research suggests that the relationship between identity plurality and well-
being might not be as straightforward. Individuals may sometimes endorse social identities that are
conflictual or even paradoxical (according to social or personal standards; e.g. being a female engineer,
gay and Christian, old and smart worker). Having multiple social identifications on itself thus might not
be enough to promote individual well-being (Brook et al., 2008). Indeed, one's multiple identification
may either facilitate or conflict with each other, and this may determine whether having more identities
increases or decreases well-being.
Recent theory and research highlight the cognitive and affective processes involved in managing
multiple social identifications and examine the perceptions and feelings associated with particular
MULTIPLE IDENTITIES AND WELL-BEING | 3
combinations of identities, as well as variations in how individuals integrate these identities into
their self-concept (Hirsh & Kang, 2016). More specifically, two dimensions seem to describe (at
least at its most basic level) how individuals perceive and feel towards the intersection between
their social identities: whether the individual experiences them as blend or blendable (vs. compart-
mentalized) and whether they are experienced as harmonious (vs. conflictual; Benet-M artínez &
Haritatos, 2005; Manzi & Benet-M artinez, 2022). There is also a great amount of evidence attesting
that how identities relate to each other, or their degree of integration, is consequential and linked
to positive and negative psychological and behavioural outcomes (Cheng et al., 2008; Koc et al.,
2022; Manzi et al., 2018, 2022; Saad et al., 2013; Settles, 2004; Wallen et al., 2014; for a review,
see Benet-M artínez et al., 2014). It is interesting to note that the identity integration perspective is
close to the conceptualization of the interrelationship between work and non-work identities given
by Ramarajan and Reid (2013). In analysing the interrelationships between work and non-work
identities, they identify two factors that may determine the cognitive state of separation vs blend-
edness: Individual personal preferences and organizational pressures. Moreover, they propose that
alignment vs. misalignment between these two factors may activate the affective state of conflict vs
harmony and lead to a series of different strategies to manage this conflict. Note that in our perspec-
tive affective and cognitive states of identity integration could derive not only from the alignment
between personal preferences and organizational pressures but also from cultural aspects such as
stereotypes (see Manzi et al., 2018; Von Hippel et al., 2011), family factors (see Reverberi et al., 2022)
and work and family loads (see Manzi et al. 2023, Study 1).
All in all, these social cure and identity integration perspectives propose different and yet comple-
mentary answers to the question on how having multiple identities relates to well-being. According to
the identity plurality perspective, the more important social identifications individuals hold, the higher
their levels of well-being (Haslam et al., 2012). Alternatively, the identity integration perspective (Benet-
Martínez & Haritatos, 2005) proposes that the more individuals experience their social identifications
as harmonious and compatible, the higher their levels of well-being.
It is noteworthy that these two perspectives on the psychology of multiple identities are not in op-
position, and in fact, some studies have successfully combined them. For instance, Manzi et al. (2014)
started from the premise that work examining the links between psychological adjustment and ethnic
and national identification shows inconsistent results (Castle et al., 2011). Thus, they proposed and
tested a mediational model in which both ethnic and national identifications were significant predictors
of bicultural identity integration (i.e. perceiving these two identifications as blended and in harmony),
which in turn predicted psychological well-being. It might be that dual social identifications promote
well-being because they facilitate a higher level of identity integration.
The two emerging perspectives on multiple identities were also combined by Brook et al. (2008),
who proposed a model in which the effect of number of identities on psychological well-being de-
pends on both the importance of and integration between those identities. Specifically, the model
predicts that when identities are highly important, having many versus few identities leads to greater
psychological well-being if the identities are also well integrated with each other. This is because
integrated identities pool more resources and involve similar behaviours. In contrast, conflictual
identities lead to lower psychological well-being because they compete for resources and involve in-
compatible behaviours. However, when identities are less important, neither the number of identities
nor identity integration should affect well-being. This model was tested in a sample of undergraduate
students and results confirmed that identity integration (measured here as identity harmony) and
strength of social identification jointly predicted greater psychological well-being (see also Settles
et al., 2002; Simon, 1995).
One question that remains is whether it is possible for an individual to perceive conflict between two
identities that are not perceived as important aspects of her/his self-concept, or alternatively, to strongly
endorse two identities that are in conflict.
4 | MANZI et al .
A person-centred approach to multiple identities
As mentioned earlier, one limitation of the literature examining the link between multiple identifica-
tions and well-being is its exclusive reliance on a variable-centred approach. As stated by Block (1971,
p. 13): ‘Variable-centred analyses are useful for understanding the differences between people and what
characteristics go with what characteristics in a group of individuals. But as well, and ultimately, psy-
chology will need to seek understanding of the configuration and systematic connection of personality
variables as these dynamically operate within a particular person’.
The variable-centred approach describes associations among variables, and it provides the least
amount of specificity (i.e. how precise are the results in describing the subjects), as the entire sample is
described together (Howard & Hoffman, 2018). In contrast, the person-centred approach is based on
the assumption that the population is heterogeneous with respect to how the predictors operate on the
outcomes. Person-centred analyses take several forms, although all have in common (1) a rejection of
the assumption that the entire population is homogeneous with respect to how variables influence each
other and (2) a search for categories of individuals characterized by patterns of association among vari-
ables that are similar within groups and different between groups (Galanaki & Sideridis, 2018).
As expressed by Howard and Hoffman (2018), variable and person-centred approaches should be
taken in consideration in relation to the different research questions they are useful for. In relation
to the topic of multiple identifications, research questions such as ‘do multiple social identifications
predict well-being?’ and ‘how do identity integration and social identification interact to predict indi-
vidual adjustment’ are better answered using a variable-centred approach. Previous studies have already
addressed these questions. Manzi et al. (2014) and Brook et al. (2008) successfully showed that iden-
tity facets, degree of identification and degree of integration are important in order to understand the
complex link between holding multiple identities and well-being. More recently, Manzi et al. (2022)
reported a study conducted on workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, showing that identity inte-
gration predicts adjustment above and beyond social identifications. Yet because these studies relied
on a variable-centred approach, we still do not know how exactly (i.e. in what form) individuals take
on, combine and integrate their different social identifications. Our aim here is to complement these
studies by addressing research questions such as ‘What are the emergent subgroups of individuals de-
fined by different patterns of multiple social identification and identity integration?’ ‘How do these
subgroups of individuals, characterized by different patterns of identity strength and integration differ
in their well-being?’. These research questions are better addressed by a person-centred approach (see
Howard & Hoffman, 2018, table 1). With these specific research questions in mind, the person-centred
approach is the most appropriate to follow. Indeed, a person-centred approach to multiple identities
(Kiang et al., 2008) focusses on identifying patterns expressed across multiple social identities within
a group of individuals (e.g. older workers). In person-centred methodology, such as cluster analysis and
latent profile analysis (LPA), the meaning of a variable's score is derived from the configuration of an
individual's scores on multiple measures. That is, in our case, an individual's score on a particular type
of social identification (e.g. strength of gender identification) is interpreted in conjunction with his/
her score on another (e.g. strength of organizational identification) and also on the identity integration
score between those two identities. In this context, reliable patterns that emerge among individuals are
of interest, rather than the linear relationships between the variables (Bergman, 2014).
Thus, the advantage of using a person-centred approach here is to determine whether reliable sub-
groups of similar individuals in terms of patterns of social identifications and identity integration exist
and explore whether these patterns are associated with different levels of well-being; whereas a variable-
centred approach would allow us to analyse the already studied relationship between the dimensions of
social identifications, identity integration and well-being.
Using a person-centred approach to study multiple social identities (e.g. family, religion and culture)
among bicultural young adults, White-Johnson et al. (2010) found four types of identity configurations
associated with different racial socialization experiences. Spiegler and colleagues (2022, Study 1) analysed
national and religious identification configurations. They found four identity configurations based on levels
of national and religious identifications: the ‘religiously oriented strong dual identifiers’ with strong but
significantly weaker national identities, the ‘equally strong dual identifiers’ with strong religious and slightly
weaker national identities, the ‘equally medium dual identifiers’ with equally strong, medium religious and
national identities and the ‘national identifiers’ with medium national and significantly weaker, religious
identities. In this study, it was also evidences that the first three groups displayed different levels of bicul-
tural identity separation and conflict. Moreover, multiple identity configurations have been differentially
associated with reaction to daily stressors, such as anxiety and positive mood scores (Yip et al., 2008).
The main difference between the above person-centred studies and ours is that in the present study
we will cluster social identifications and identity integration measures together, because what is central
to us is the relationship between important social identities and their integration into the self. This will
allow us to identify different combinations of identity integration and social identifications that we name
here identity configurations. For example, we can analyse whether it is possible for individuals to be
lowly identified with two social groups and yet perceive these two identities as incompatible, although
we will make no claims about what drives these associations (e.g. does seeing two social identities as
conflictual lead to lower endorsement of these identities?). Moreover, we will analyse the relationship
between the different identity configurations and well-being.
This is the first study to examine the relationship between social identification and identity integration
through LPA. The exploratory nature of this study thus precluded a priori hypotheses about the specific
number of identity profiles that might emerge. Nevertheless, following the results of Brook et al. (2008),
one prediction we have is that individuals with an identity configuration characterized by both higher level
of identification and identity integration will have higher levels of psychological well-being. In fact, higher
level of identity integration between two identities makes it possible for one group identification to facilitate
identification with the other group. Thus, these individuals take advantage of two important identifications,
benefit of a reciprocal enforcement between these two identifications and do not have to manage internal
conflict between them. Theoretically, we can speculate that other types of configurations could emerge: a
profile in which individuals score high in identification with both groups and low in identity integration.
These individuals should benefit from the strong belonging to social groups, but suffer from perceiving
those groups as incompatible, or may have activated a resisting strategy (see Ramarajan& Reid, 2013). A
second profile could be of those who score high in one of the two social identifications and low in identity
integration. These are the individuals that may have to ‘sacrifice’ one of their group's belonging in order to
cope with the identity conflict and have activated a complying or assenting strategy (see Reid & Ramarajan,
2013). Another possible profile is one of those high in only one social identification and high in identity
integration. In this case, the low social identification should be ascribed to motivational aspect rather than
explained by identity conflict. Another possible profile is those in which both social identifications are low
and identity integration is high. Again, in this case the low social identification should be ascribed to moti-
vational aspects (see Vignoles et al., 2006). And finally, a profile in which both social identifications are low
and identity integration is low. Those individuals could be those who cope the worst with identity conflict
and end up in a marginalized position without solving the perceived conflict. Based on Manzi et al. (2022)
we can also anticipate that identity configuration characterized by a high level of identity integration, what-
ever the level of social identification, should display higher levels of well-being compared with identity
configurations characterized by lower level of identity integration.
Of course, this is just a theoretical speculation since we cannot predict what clusters of identity con-
figurations will be displayed by our population. Note also that as shown by Spiegler and colleagues (2022,
Study 2) identity configurations are likely to change over time due to age, experience of discrimination and
exposure to negative stereotypes, and thus, individuals might move from one cluster to another.
The present research
The present study is the first to explore the relation between multiple identities, identity integration and
psychological well-being in a professional organizational context while also adopting a person-centred
6 | MANZI et al .
approach. Using this approach in a work setting has the potential to add new insight for organizational
intervention. Indeed, as suggested by Meyer et al. (2013), one immediate practical benefit of using a
person-centred approach is that managers have a natural inclination to think in terms of categories or
types of people (vs. dimensions and variables). An analytic strategy that identifies subgroups of employ-
ees is potentially more compatible with the information processing tendencies of managers, who often
are also the ones in charge of enacting intervention strategies in favour of workers.
The first study examines gender and work identities in a large sample of professional women, whereas
the second study focusses on age and work identities in a large sample of senior workers. Furthermore,
adopting a person-centred approach (see Kiang et al., 2008), both studies explore how different patterns
of identification and identity integration are associated with psychological well-being. As a measure
of well-being, we focus on the construct of flourishing, which represents a more general (and work-
relevant) conceptualization of psychological adjustment, characterized by an optimal range of human
functioning, generativity, performance and growth (Diener et al., 2010; Fredrickson & Losada, 2005;
Larsen & Prizmic, 2008). Research on flourishing has consistently demonstrated that a high level of
flourishing is positively related to psychological, social and cognitive well-being (Keyes, 2002), as well
as to emotional vitality (Michalec et al., 2009), positive emotions, life satisfaction, resiliency, auton-
omy, productivity, competency and personal adjustment and development (Diehl & Hay, 2011; Diener
et al., 2010; Keyes, 2002; Telef, 2011).
S T U DY 1
In this study, we explore the different identity configurations emerging from gender and organizational
identification and gender/organizational identity integration in a sample of women employees. Despite
the enormous changes in the gender composition of the global workforce, discrimination based on neg-
ative stereotypes about professional women is still a very present reality and one that clearly has a nega-
tive impact on psychological well-being of women workers (Brown & Moloney, 2019; Grogan, 2019).
Gender identification has been found to be an important factor in moderating stereotype threat effects
(Schmader, 2002), and organizational identity has been associated with higher work motivation and
well-being (Wegge et al., 2006). In this context, identity integration, or the degree to which gender and
organizational social identities are perceived as compatible, has also been proven to be a key factor in
promoting employees' well-being (Von Hippel et al., 2011).
Participants
Data were collected from an Italian national project called ‘Talenti senza età’ (Ageless Talents) promoted
by ‘Valore D’, an association of companies that promotes diversity, talent and female leadership for the
growth of Italian economy. The research was born to provide a first insight into the older adult female
workforce and identify intervention strategies to support the presence of women in this age group.
Data were collected from 18 companies representing many different business sectors (e.g. chemical,
energy, retail and insurance). Companies involved in the project varied in their magnitude, from small
companies (with employees between 50 and 250) to very large companies (more than 50,000 employ-
ees). Companies also varied in their number of woman and senior workers employed. Participants were
contacted by email through the Human Resources Offices of the companies involved in the study. The
email presented the study ‘Talenti senza età’ and contained a link to an anonymous online survey.
Participants were 2705 women employees aged between 50 and 69 years (M = 56.4, SD = 3.4) and
who were residents in different areas of Italy. In comparing our sample with the socio-demographical
characteristics of Italian working women over 50, results show that our sample adequately represents
the job status and the geographical distribution of the reference population. Most of the participants
had full time (91%) and permanent position (92%), and 3% were manual workers, 53% clerks, 40%
supervisors and 4.2% managers. Regarding their seniority, participants declared to have worked
for an average of 33.5 years (SD = 4.9) and to have worked in the same company for an average of
28.9 years (SD = 8.7).
The study received the approval of the Ethical Committee of Università Cattolica di Milano, and all
methods were performed following the relevant ethical guidelines and regulations for the participants'
informed consent.
Measures
Gender identification
We adapted the importance subscale of the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (Laumann & Sandefur, 1998)
to assess the perceived importance of gender identity to self-definition. Participants rated four items
on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree); e.g. ‘Being a woman is an important
reflection of who I am’ and ‘Being a woman is unimportant to my sense of what kind of person I am’
(reverse coded). Cronbach's alpha for this scale was .75.
Organizational identification
Participants rated the three items from the Organizational Involvement subscale of the Organizational
Commitment Scale (Cook & Wall, 1980) on 5-point response options (‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disa-
gree’) (e.g. ‘I'm not willing to put myself out just to help the organization’, and ‘To know that my own
work had made a contribution to the good of the organization would please me’.). Cronbach's alpha
coefficient for this subscale was .73.
Identity integration
Integration between organizational and gender identities was measured with an 8-item scale adapted
from the Bicultural Identity Integration Scale–Version 1 (BIIS-1; Benet-M artínez & Haritatos, 2005).
This measure included items tapping the degree of overlap versus distance experienced between the
two identities (e.g. ‘I keep being a woman and a being member of my organization separate’, reverse
code), and the degree of harmony versus conflict (e.g. ‘I feel that there's no conflict between being
a woman and being part of my organization’). Participants rated each statement on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Following Manzi et al. (2018) and
Manzi et al.'s (2014) method, an overall work–gender identity integration score was obtained using
the product of scores on these two subscales. A low level of work–gender identity integration index
indicated high conflict and high distance between these two identities, while a high level indicated
high harmony and high overlap. The Pearson's correlation coefficient between the two components
was .55, p < .001.
Psychological well-being
Psychological well-being has been measured with the 8-item Flourishing Scale developed by Diener
et al. (2010). A high score on this scale indicates a high level of psychological well-being and optimal
human functioning. Example items are ‘I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of oth-
ers’, and ‘I lead a purposeful and meaningful life’. Items were scored on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Cronbach's alpha was = .89.
8 | MANZI et al .
Procedure and results
Following a person-centred approach, we first run LPA to identify different homogeneous subgroups
based on the identification and identity integration scores, then we explore how psychological well-
being is distributed across the different profiles.
LPA is a model-based clustering technique that provides a precise framework for choosing a relevant
number of clusters/profiles with the most appropriate covariance matrix. LPA is a variant of latent class
analysis (LCA) based on observed continuous rather than categorical variables. This technique is used
to identify homogeneous subgroups within a sample through maximum likelihood (ML) estimation.
To decide the number of latent classes, we used both the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) and
modified likelihood ratio tests (LRTs; Nylund et al., 2007). For the BIC (Schwarz, 1978), a minimal
value would indicate the best model fit in terms of the optimal trade-off between model parsimony and
residuals. Reductions in BIC value of less than 3 are considered negligible (Kass & Raftery, 1995).
Once different identity configurations were identified, a linear model was used to analyse the rela-
tionship between these different configurations and level of flourishing. The R software was used to
perform all the analysis. Mean, standard deviations and bivariate correlations between the variables are
shown in Table 1.
Latent profile analysis
Models of up to five profiles were tested in this study. LPA models were estimated with an incremental
number of profiles to identify the best model fit.
As in Ahlborg et al. (2019, see also Tein et al., 2013), log-l ikelihood (LL), Bayesian information crite-
ria (BIC), bootstrapped likelihood ratio test (BLRT) and Lo–Mendell–Rubin adjusted likelihood ratio
test (LMR) were used to assess models fit. Lower values of LL and BIC indicate better model fit. LMR
and BLRT show how well the number of profiles fit the data compared with a solution with one less
profile (K-1). The tests provided indicate whether the current number of profiles fit the data better than
K-1 ( p < .05). Models were investigated on the basis of goodness of fit, parsimony and interpretability
of results (standardized scores for identification and identity integration). Goodness-of-f it indices and
model comparison results are shown in Table 2.
TA BL E 1 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and bivariate correlations between variables.
Variable 1 2 3 4 M (SD)
1. Flourishing – 5.60 (.82)
2. Org/gender identity Integration .24** – 3.78 (.85)
3. Organizational identification .25** .37** – 3.08 (.92)
4. Gender identification .18** .21** .07** – 3.61 (.81)
Note: N = 2705. **p < .01.
T A B L E 2 Goodness-of-f it indices and model comparisons for latent profile models. Grey shade highlights the best
solution adopted in the study.
Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

1 profile 12,164.48 24,360.79 <.001 <.001
2 profiles 11,953.76 23,975.75 <.001 <.001
3 profiles 11,815.57 23,726.57 <.001 <.001
4 profiles 11,798.74 23,619.51 <.001 <.001
5 profiles 11,701.63 23,562.40 <.001 <.001
Based on fit indices, parsimony and interpretability of results, we selected a final solution for four
groups based on the levels of identification and identity integration.
As shown in Figure 1, the first identity configuration (N = 580) shows women with low levels of gen-
der and organizational identification and low identity integration. The second configuration (N = 329)
includes women who have a strong gender identity but are low in organizational identity and identity
integration. The third configuration (N = 1369), which is the largest, includes women with high levels
of organizational identity, low gender identification and slightly below-average levels of identity inte-
gration. Finally, the fourth group (N = 580) is made up of women with optimal levels of gender and
organizational identification and high levels of identity integration.
Analysis of variance
Once identified latent profiles, we conducted a one-way ANOVA test with identity configuration as
factor variable and the level of flourishing as dependent variable. Results showed a significant effect of
groupings on flourishing F(3, 2854) = 80.42, p < .001 with a medium effect size η2 = .08. Post-hoc tests,
conducted using the Tukey method (results are summarized in Table 3), suggest that the differences
F I G U R E 1 (a) Standardized scores on the three clustered measures in the four identity configurations. (b) Standardized
flourishing scores between profiles.
10 | MANZI et al .
TA BL E 3 Post-hoc comparisons among clusters in levels of flourishing.
95% confidence interval
Clusters (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

2-1 .53 .03 <.001 .36 .70
3-1 .48 .03 <.001 .35 .60
4-1 .87 .03 <.001 .73 1.01
3-2 −.05 .03 .80 −.20 .10
4-2 .34 .03 <.001 .17 .51
4-3 .39 .03 <.001 .27 .52
between profiles are all significant, with the exception of the difference between second and third pro-
files. As expected, women in the first profile have the lowest level of flourishing (M = 5.03, SD = .80).
Women in the fourth profile are those with the highest level of flourishing (M = 5.68, SD = .67). No
differences were found between women in the second profile (M = 5.39, SD = .70) and women in the
third profile (M = 5.43, SD = .70).
Discussion
Results from this first study support both the social identity and identity integration approaches. As
expected, and confirming findings from Brook et al. (2008), women with strong gender and organiza-
tional identities, and who also perceive these identities as compatible and harmonious, display the high-
est levels of psychological well-being. It is interesting to note that a profile comprising low gender and
organizational identification and high identity integration did not emerge. A profile comprising strong
gender and organizational identification and low identity integration did not emerge either. It is possible
that women who fail to integrate their gender and work identities disengage from one or both identities
(see configurations 1, 2 and 3) and that this leads to lower level of psychological well-being. We could
speculate that women in the second configuration, who may not be able to integrate their being part of
the organization with their being a woman, may have renounced to organizational identity in order to
keep their being a woman central to the self.
On the contrary, a different mechanism could explain the third profile, that is not being able to fully
reconcile gender and organizational identities may have led them to partially put aside their gender
identity in favour of organizational identity. However, both the second and third profiles show levels
of well-being that are higher than those of women in the first profile, who appear to be disengaged by
both social identities, which are also perceived as conflicting and separate. This provide also evidence in
support of the social cure hypothesis: at least one identification—regardless of which identity—is better
in terms of well-being than no identification.
S T U DY 2
In this study, apply the approach used in Study 1 to explore the relationship between age and organi-
zational identities, and we do so in a large sample of male and female senior employees. Although a
number of perspectives have examined the implications of one's age for identity, they have almost
exclusively focussed on personal aspects of age, that is the extent to which people feel young or old (see
Barrett, 2003; Sherman, 1994; Westerhof & Barrett, 2005). Here, age identity is intended as that sense of
collective identity that individuals develop with respect to their age group (Garstka et al., 2004). To the
best of our knowledge, only one study has examined the integration of age and organizational identities
(see Manzi et al., 2018), showing that, like the integration of gender and organizational identities, work
and age identity integration is a factor that facilitates psychological well-being and positive organiza-
tional outcomes (e.g. organizational involvement and future time perspective). By considering both age
and work identification and the integration of these two identities, the present study contributes to the
literatures on ageism and organizational identity.
Participants
Using a similar procedure to the one in Study 1, data were collected from the second release of ‘Talenti
senza età’ project, which occurred in 2018. In this occasion, participants were both women and men,
allowing for an even larger sample. Data were collected from 33 companies representing different busi-
ness sectors. Companies involved in the project varied in their magnitude from small companies (with
employees between 50 and 250) to very large companies (more than employees 50,000). As in the first
release, participants were contacted by email through the Human Resources Offices of the compa-
nies involved in the study. The total sample comprised 8987 employees aged between 50 and 69 years
(M = 56.4, SD = 3.4) and who were residents in different areas of Italy.
The study received the approval of the Ethical Committee of Università Cattolica di Milano, and all
methods were performed following the relevant ethical guidelines and regulations for the participants'
informed consent.
Measures
Age identity
Participants rated the extent to which they identified with their age group with the five-item scale from
Garstka et al. (1997). Example items are as follows: ‘I am proud to be a member of my age group’, and
‘My age group membership is central to who I am’. Participants rated the five items on a scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach's alpha was = .92.
Organizational identification
As in Study 1, the relation between self and the organization we used the Organizational Involvement
subscale of the Organizational Commitment Scale (Cook & Wall, 1980). Cronbach's alpha was = .74.
Identity integration
Like in Study 1, integration between organizational and age identities was measured with the BIIS-1,
also used by Manzi et al. (2018). This measure included items relating to two different components of
identity integration: the degree of overlap versus distance experienced between the age and organi-
zational identities (e.g. ‘I keep being part of my organization and my age separate’, reverse code), and
the degree of harmony versus conflict (e.g. ‘I feel that there's no conflict between being part of my
organization and my age’). Participants rated each statement on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Like in Study 1, an overall work–age identity integration score
was obtained using the product of these two components' scores. A low level of work–age identity
integration index indicated high conflict and high distance between these two identities, while a high
level indicated high harmony and high overlap. The Pearson's correlation coefficient between the two
components was .57, p < .001.
12 | MANZI et al .
Psychological well-being
As in Study 1, psychological well-being was been measured with the 8-item Flourishing Scale developed
by Diener et al. (2010). Cronbach's alpha was = .89.
Results
Mean, standard deviations and bivariate correlations between the variables are shown in Table 4.
As in Study 1, we first run LPA to identify different homogeneous subgroups based on identifica-
tion and identity integration scores and then we examined the levels of psychological well-being across
the different profiles. In this study, LPA was conducted on three scores: identification with age group,
identification with the organization and identity integration between age and organizational identities.
Before conducting LPA, all scores were standardized. Fit indices and model comparison are shown in
Table 5.
As in Study 1, we selected a four-profile solution based on fit indices, model comparison and inter-
pretability of results. Standardized scores in age identification, organizational identification and identity
integration are depicted in Figure 2.
A first profile (N = 1705) was characterized by individuals with scores below the average on all three
identity domains: organizational identity, age-g roup identity and identity integration. A second profile
(N = 2167) included those having strong organizational identity and average level of identity integration,
but low scores on age-g roup identity. The third profile (N = 1597) included individuals who reported a
strong age-g roup identity and lower scores on both gender identity and identity integration. Such as in
Study 1, individuals in the fourth profile (N = 2178) reported high scores on both identity domains and
identity integration. We controlled if age varied significantly in these four groups. Even if the ANOVA
was significant [F(3, 7898) = 9.78, p < .001], the effect size was irrelevant [η2 = .004], attesting that there
are no significant age differences in these four profiles.
An ANOVA test showed significant differences on levels flourishing among these identity con-
figurations F(3, 7643) = 622, p < .001 with an effect size η2 = .20. Post-hoc comparisons conducted
using the Tukey method indicated that all configurations differed from each other in levels of flour-
ishing. Results are summarized in Table 6. As in Study 1, the first profile shows the lowest level of
TA BL E 4 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and bivariate correlations between variables.
Variable 1 2 3 4 M (SD)
1. Flourishing – 5.57 (.80)
2. Org/age identity integration .24** – 3.39 (.83)
3. Organizational identification .33** .44** – 3.92 (.81)
4. Age-g roup identification .37** .20** .19** – 4.81 (1.43)
Note: N = 8987. **p < .01.
T A B L E 5 Goodness-of-f it indices and model comparisons for latent profile models. Grey shade highlights the best
solution adopted in the study.
Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

1 profile 30,169.32 60,392.45 <.001 <.001
2 profiles 29,475.53 59,039.21 <.001 <.001
3 profiles 29,381.48 58,888.90 <.001 <.001
4 profiles 29,244.28 58,649.32 <.001 <.001
5 profiles 29,153.73 58,502.18 <.001 <.001
F I G U R E 2 (a) Standardized scores on the three clustered measures in the four identity configurations. (b) Standardized
flourishing scores between profiles.
TA BL E 6 Post-hoc comparisons among profiles in levels of flourishing.
95% confidence interval
Profile (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

2-1 .29 .03 <.001 .25 .34
3-1 .44 .03 <.001 .39 .49
4-1 .77 .03 <.001 .72 .81
3-2 .14 .03 <.001 .10 .19
4-2 .47 .03 <.001 .43 .52
4-3 .33 .03 <.001 .28 .38
flourishing (M = 4.59, SD = .61), while the fourth shows the highest (M = 5.35, SD = .54). The second
profile (M = 4.88, SD = .56) shows a level of flourishing slightly below the average, while the third pro-
file (M = 5.02, SD = .56) shows a level of flourishing slightly above the average.
14 | MANZI et al .
We also examined whether gender moderated these differences in flourishing. Results from factorial
ANOVA show that, although the main effect of gender yielded an F ratio of F(1, 7643) = 36.6, p < .001,
η2 = .02, indicating that the mean flourishing was significantly greater for women (M = 5.06, SD = .62)
than men (M = 4.93, SD = .63), the interaction between profiles and gender yielded a non-significant
effect F(3, 7580) = 1.70, p > .05.
Discussion
Results from this second study largely confirm those from Study 1. Workers who strongly identify with
their age group and their organization, and also see these two identities as compatible, display the high-
est levels of psychological well-being. Moreover, like in Study 1, an identity configuration characterized
by low scores on identity integration and on both types of social identifications was also identified. This
profile again shows the lowest level of well-being giving evidence to the importance of social identifica-
tions for well-being. The lack of an identity configuration capturing high identification with both the
age group and the organization and low levels of identity integration is also consistent with Study 1.
Unlike Study 1, however, the identity configuration with higher level of organizational identity and
lower level of age group identity shows a slightly above the average score on identity integration (in
Study 1, this profile showed slightly below the average scores on identity integration). It is noteworthy
that this profile shows the worst adaptation after the third profile. This is probably due to the high cor-
relation between age-g roup identification and flourishing (see Table 3).
Finally, the third profile, even if low in identity integration, shows a level of flourishing slightly above
the average. Again, probably age-g roup identification protects individuals that have this particular iden-
tity configuration against the negative effects of a low identity integration. Interestingly, these patterns
did not vary across gender. This pattern is consistent with Zacher et al. (2019) model, which postulates a
positive association between age identification and well-being but not completely consistent with other
findings in the literature (see Armenta et al., 2017).
GE N ER A L DIS C US SION
This study is the first one to examine the relationship between multiple identities, identity integration
and their links to psychological adaptation through a person-centred approach and also the first to con-
sider both strength of identification and degree of identity integration in analysing identity processes
in an organizational context. The fact that these issues are examined in very large samples of workers
and across very diverse types of organizations is also a strength of the work. Moreover, as suggested by
Kang and Bodenhausen (2015) in their review, research about the challenges and opportunities derived
from having multiple identities has mainly focussed on multiple racial identities, or the interaction
between racial identities and some other identity such as age, gender, sexual orientation or social class.
This study examines the relationship between organizational, gender and age-g roup identities, giving
new insights on how these identities relate and produce positive outcomes.
Our two studies reveal three main pattern of results. First, in both studies, LPA identified an identity
configuration characterized by strong identification with the workplace and one's gender or age group
as well as the perception that these identities are well integrated and compatible with each other. In
both studies, this profile of individuals shows the highest level of psychological well-being. This pattern
supports both the identity plurality perspective (Haslam et al., 2012), which posits that the more im-
portant social identifications individuals hold, the higher their levels of well-being, as well as the identity
integration perspective (Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005; Manzi et al., 2018), which proposes that the
more individuals experience their social identifications as harmonious and compatible, the higher their
levels of well-being. This result is also consistent with Brook et al. (2008) proposal that the integration
of social identities that are important to the self and involve similar behaviours (e.g. a woman who sees
her strong identification with the organization and with being a woman as compatible does not have to
develop completely different behavioural repertories when being at work vs. when just being with other
females) is related to better adjustment.
A second pattern revealed by both studies is that the identity configuration characterized by both,
low levels of social identification (with work, and with either gender or age group) and low levels of
identity integration, is linked to the lowest levels of well-being. According to Brook et al. (2008), iden-
tity integration should not impact on well-being if identification with the relevant social groups is low.
This could be because it is not possible for individuals in this profile to benefit from the different
consequences of identification with a social group (e.g. higher self-esteem, sense of control, belonging
and social support) and experience of feeling that these social identities are incompatible adds further
strain. On the contrary, this identity configuration confirms the idea, proposed by the identity integra-
tion approach (Lee et al., 2008; Manzi et al., 2014, 2022), that low identity integration leads to lower
adjustment, whatever the level of social identification. That is, seeing our identities as incompatible is
problematic, even if we do not see these discordant identities (i.e. gender, age group and organization)
as very important to the self. We can also speculate that individuals in this cluster are overwhelmed by
the inability to reconcile and pacify identity elements that for some reason (organizational pressures, ste-
reotypes, relational/familial factors, etc.) are irreconcilable. In this case, the cognitive strategy pursued
(which was not identified in Reid and Ramarajan's model) is that of abandonment on all fronts, with an
obvious loss in terms of well-being as hypothesized within the social cure perspective.
The third common pattern seen in our studies is that an identity configuration characterized by
strong social identification (with gender or age group, with work) and low identity integration does not
exist. In Study 1, women who failed to integrate their gender and organizational identities were also
disengaged from one or both of these identities. Similarly, in Study 2, individuals who did not integrate
their age and organizational identities also disengaged from one or both. Perhaps individuals low in
identity integration may be ‘switching off’ their conflicting identities and identity-related resources,
which undermines their ability to take advantage of the social and cognitive benefits afforded by socially
diverse contexts (Pronin et al., 2004). This cluster can be also reconducted to the assenting and com-
plying identity management strategy described by Ramarajan and Reid (2013). All in all, both studies
reveal that a focus on number and strength of social identifications, without also considering the role of
identity integration, is not sufficient to understand the link between identity processes and well-being.
These findings also have important implications for the social identity literature, as they confirm
the key role of identity integration in explaining the relationship between identity processes and well-
being. Our results suggest that not only do individuals with low levels of identity have lower levels of
well-being but also individuals with lower levels of identity integration are likely to lose or relinquish the
high levels of identification with at least one identity that is in conflict with another. Furthermore, our
findings suggest the idea that work to promote positive social identification may be questionable when
that social identification conflicts with another identity. Lower levels of identity integration are likely
to hinder social identification with one or more social identifications or even provoke the loss of group
membership. Thus, when analysing multiple social identifications, researchers should also measure the
perceived compatibility between them.
When developing interventions aimed at promoting positive organizational identification, it will be
fundamental to create conditions through which workers' work and non-work identities are perceived
as close and compatible. In this regard, organizations will need to monitor not only the presence of
negative stereotypes towards certain groups and social categories but also to their internal and external
communication processes in order to promote a broad and inclusive prototypical image of its member,
which embodies all the social categories.
For example, in external and internal communication, organizations could present the prototypical
employee drawing a more inclusive image that blends gender and other diversity traits. Organizations
could also invest on monitoring the presence of ageism and sexist discrimination in the work environ-
ment and implementing diversity and inclusion programmes focussed on the promotion of the compat-
ibility of different age group and gender with organizational identity.
16 | MANZI et al .
Although identification with the organization is positively correlated with psychological well-being
(Harris & Cameron, 2005; Wegge et al., 2006), it is promoting the synergy between aspects of the self
that organizations will get the greatest benefits in terms of positive outcomes for their employees.
Notwithstanding, this study focusses on gender, age and organizational identities only, thus other social
identities that are also important components of self-concept (e.g. ethnic, family and sexual orientation)
should be considered in future research adopting a person-centred approach.
By way of conclusion, some limitation of the present study should be highlighted. Our findings are based
on two studies with different samples, and this provides some support for the generalizability of the results.
Still, Study 1 is conducted on a sample of women over 50, and it is possible that gender identity can act differ-
ently and acquire a different meaning at earlier stages of life. Furthermore, even if our data comes from two
very large samples, our findings are limited to the Italian context, and thus, we do not know whether similar
pattern of results would emerge in other cultural contexts. Another obvious limitation is the correlational
nature of this study. Since identification with one's social groups, identity integration and psychological
well-being may evolve over time and influence each other recursively, it is important that future research
examine these processes using longitudinal data. It could be that psychologically well-adjusted workers are
more resilient and also ruminate less about possible identity challenges, thus finding it easier to embrace
their organizational and gender/age social identities and ultimately integrate them into their self-concept.
Relatedly, our data do not reveal the mechanism explaining the different identity configurations and why
some individuals fall into one or the other profile. Future studies should examine the organizational and
individual factors that drive the different identity configurations identified in our studies. Finally, in both
studies, only membership in two social categories is examined. So, ‘more complex’ configurations of multi-
ple social identities should be examined in future.
Despite these limitations, this research takes a first step in demonstrating how a person-centred
approach can lead to a better understanding of the joint role played by social identification and identity
integration in predicting well-being.
Our self is composed of multiple social identities that interact with each other and contribute to
defining who we are and our way of being in the world. Our studies reveal that in the case of female
and older workers, these processes have consequences for their psychological well-being. In this sense,
it is of fundamental importance for organizations to support their workers in navigating their multiple
(given and chosen) identities by communicating, explicitly and implicitly, that this complexity can be
an opportunity, rather than a challenge. Through inclusive and diversity-affirming policies, organiza-
tions can allow employees' multiple identities to fit together and thus foster personal and professional
adjustment.
AU T HOR C ON T R I BU T ION S
Claudia Manzi: Conceptualization; funding acquisition; writing – original draft; writing – review and
editing; supervision; investigation. Fabio Paderi: Writing – original draft; methodology; formal analy-
sis. Veronica Benet-Martinez: Conceptualization; writing – review and editing; supervision.
AC K NOW L ED G EM E N T S

This study is part of the Italian national project ‘Talenti senza età’ (Ageless Talents) founded by ‘Valore
D’ https://valored.it/ (R1064400069).
C ON F L IC T OF I N T E R E S T S TAT E M E N T
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
DATA AVA I L A BI L I T Y S TAT E M E N T

The data that support the findings of this study are available from Valore D (https://valored.it/).
Restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for this study. Data
are available from the corresponding authors with the permission of Valore D.
ORC I D
Claudia Manzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0742-731X
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How to cite this article: Manzi, C., Paderi, F., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2023). Multiple social
identities and well-being: Insights from a person-centred approach. British Journal of Social
Psycholog y, 00, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12704

British J Social Psychol - 2023 - Manzi - Multiple Social Identities and Well Being Insights From A Person Centred

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Received: 7 March 2023 | Accepted: 17 November 2023

Multiple social identities and well-being: Insights

Claudia Manzi1 | Fabio Paderi1 | Veronica Benet-Martinez2

Br J Soc Psychol. 2023;00:1–19. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bjso | 1

Multiple social identifications and well-being

A person-centred approach to multiple identities

The present research

Procedure and results

Latent profile analysis

Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

TA BL E 3 Post-hoc comparisons among clusters in levels of flourishing.

95% confidence interval

Clusters (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

TA BL E 6 Post-hoc comparisons among profiles in levels of flourishing.

95% confidence interval

Profile (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

AC K NOW L ED G EM E N T S

DATA AVA I L A BI L I T Y S TAT E M E N T

You might also like

British J Social Psychol - 2023 - Manzi - Multiple Social Identities and Well Being Insights From A Person Centred

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

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Did you find this document useful?

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Copyright:

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British J Social Psychol - 2023 - Manzi - Multiple Social Identities and Well Being Insights From A Person Centred

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Received: 7 March 2023 | Accepted: 17 November 2023

Multiple social identities and well-­being: Insights

Claudia Manzi1 | Fabio Paderi1 | Veronica Benet-­Martinez2

Br J Soc Psychol. 2023;00:1–19. ﻿ wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bjso | 1

Multiple social identifications and well-­being

A person-­centred approach to multiple identities

The present research

Procedure and results

Latent profile analysis

Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

TA BL E 3 Post-­hoc comparisons among clusters in levels of flourishing.

95% confidence interval

Clusters (I-­J ) Mean difference (I-­J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

Model LL BIC LMR BLRT

TA BL E 6 Post-­hoc comparisons among profiles in levels of flourishing.

95% confidence interval

Profile (I-­J ) Mean difference (I-­J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

AC K NO​W L E​D G E​M E N T S

DATA AVA I L A BI L I T Y S TAT E M E N T

You might also like

Multiple social identities and well-being: Insights

Claudia Manzi1 | Fabio Paderi1 | Veronica Benet-Martinez2

Br J Soc Psychol. 2023;00:1–19. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bjso | 1

Multiple social identifications and well-being

A person-centred approach to multiple identities

TA BL E 3 Post-hoc comparisons among clusters in levels of flourishing.

Clusters (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

TA BL E 6 Post-hoc comparisons among profiles in levels of flourishing.

Profile (I-J ) Mean difference (I-J ) SE p Lower bound Upper bound

AC K NOW L ED G EM E N T S