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Big Picture in Focus: ULO2d. show understanding of the concept of

engineered nanomaterials

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study
of nanomaterials to demonstrate ULO2d will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Bottom-up Approach includes the miniaturization of materials components (up to
atomic level) with further selfassembly process leading to the
formation of nanostructures
Buckminsterfullerene also known as buckyball, is a spherical close- caged structure
made of sixty sp2 carbons it has a highly symmetrical structure
which give it its electronic properties
Carbon nanotubes are tubes made of carbon with diameters typically measured
in nanometers; often refer to single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) with diameters in the range of a
nanometer.
Dendrimers are highly branched, star-shaped macromolecules with
nanometer-scale dimensions
Engineered materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
nanomaterials produced for specific product application
Fullerene an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon
atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a
closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube,
or many other shapes and sizes.
Graphene a carbon-based nanomaterial derived from graphite through
exfoliation
Nanocomposites are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix
of standard material. The result of the addition of nanoparticles
is a drastic improvement in properties that can include
mechanical strength, toughness and electrical or thermal
conductivity.
Nanomaterials materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension
Nanoparticles particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and
potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales
(~0.2 nm)
Nanotechnology the design, synthesis, and application of materials and devices
whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale
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Top-down Approach uses larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be

externally-controlled in the processing of nanostructures
Essential Knowledge

In our fast advancing technology, we are introduced to on-blink discoveries and

innovation. One of these is the introduction of the usage on nanomaterials in different
applications that make our lives more convenient and better. We will now discover
what nanomaterials are delving specifically to engineered ones. We will discuss its
four main types and some of their examples.

What are nanomaterials?

Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale
which ranges from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale
(IOS, 2015). Moreover, the European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as
any natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound
state or as an aggregate where 50% or more of the particles’ size extends from 1-100
nm.

Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical
processes that spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These
processes include electron and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and
complexes into nanophases. They can be understood by using thermodynamic,
kinetic, and transition-state theory to describe intermediate states along reaction
pathways on free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-by-ion
assembly to form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these
pathways involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small
nanomaterials that can transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals
by particle-based crystallization (Yoreo et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).

The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem

primarily from the comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior
ones. At times, these properties are best described using quantum mechanics.
Smaller particles have fewer atoms, which translates to fewer electron energy levels.
Therefore, electron energy bands become discrete electron energy states, of energies
that are sensitive to particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement.
Nevertheless, however “nano” is defined or considered, size and shape are essential
characteristics because they exert primary control over reactivity and transport
physics. Size and shape also determine the types and distributions of reactive surface
sites capable of chemical transformations and, at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials.
Owing to the high proportion of surface versus bulk atoms, even the smallest variations
in surface structures may control the fate and reactivity of nanomaterials in air, water,
soil, or biota. Through their influence on surface charging behavior, size and shape
also control the tendency for aggregation, a critically important aspect that can blend

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or obscure the characteristics of individual particles as they adopt new characteristics

in nanocomposites.

The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are

key aspects of nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can
result in the formation of larger particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But
because of the complexity of natural settings, most nanomaterials are found in
heteroaggregated composites of different inorganic and organic materials. These
aggregates can diverge markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly
branched or fractal structures, thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties
and reactivities. Rates of particle dissolution, although known or experimentally
measurable for many pure-phase nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et
al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf et al 2017), are challenging to predict for complex
nanomaterial aggregates that have substantial internal surface areas with limited
accessibility (Liu et al, 2008). Furthermore, these physical associations change as the
nanomaterials encounter and transition through different local environments. Only in
relatively simple systems can the evolution of particle size, shape, and aggregation
state, and thus the distribution of effective particle diameters, be predicted with
reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther, 2011).

Figure 1. Conceptual free-energy landscape for the formation and interactions that
define the typical state of nanomaterials in the environment.

Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes

to clusters and beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal
solid curve) that are more stable than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed
curve), which results in larger bulk crystals (represented here as a precipitated single
crystal or a crystal formed by oriented attachment of nanocrystals, OA) that have a
free energy represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving across the graphic
from left to right, as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad interactions of

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stable nanomaterials in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy

represented by the horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an
even lower free-energy state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and
compounds (green curve) tend to outcompete processes that could lead to single-
phase bulk crystals assembled by, for example, OA (green dashed curve), producing,
instead, long-lived composites of complex composition and structure.

Engineered Nanoparticles

Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and

are intentionally produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess
different chemical and physical properties from those larger forms of the same material
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2018).

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there

are four main types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based,
Metal-Based, Dendrimers, and Nanocomposites.

❖ Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)

From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon
which may form hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon
nanomaterials are generally called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called
nanotubes. These particles are best used in improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials and electronics application.

Some examples of Carbon- Based Nanomaterials

Carbon Nanotubes

It is referred as the most widely used CBN. It is known for its tunable physical
properties such as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is
produced through arc discharge or chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon
nanotubes have cylindrical carbon structure and wide range of electrical and optical
properties (Saito, et al, 1998).

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Figure 2. Carbon nanotube

Graphene

Graphene is the latest CBN to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite
through exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition,
graphene is extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known
and tested. It is supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321,
385 and Changu, 2008).

Figure 3. Graphene

Fullerenes

Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was

named after Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C 60
variant which resembles a typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand,
cylindrical ones are called buckytubes (Science Daily, 2018).

Buckminsterfullerene

Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2

carbons. It has a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties
(Kroto, et al, 1985).

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Figure 4. Buckyball

❖ Metal- Based Nanomaterials

These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They

have very interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties
(Stephenson and Hubler, 2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum
dots, nanogold, nanosilvers and metal oxides.

Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles

Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic
and is paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking,
detection of cancer, diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are
known for their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron
oxide nanoparticles are used in biomedical applications such as for enhanced
resolution content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (Morales, et al,
2003)

Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)

Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of

nanomaterial particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have
either intense red color or dirty yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link,
et al. (1999), the properties and applications of gold nanoparticles depend upon its
shape.

❖ Dendrimers

Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces
have numerous chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function.

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Moreover, this is also the reason for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used
for drug delivery due to its interior cavities which other molecules could be placed. This
is particular for three-dimensional dendrimers.

Some types of Dendrimers

Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)

Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core,

commonly ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another
ethylenediamine is reacted to make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive
reactions create higher generations (Hermanson, 2008).

Figure 5. PAMAM dendrimer

Peptide Dendrimers

These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units.
Diagnostic purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et
al, 2008).

Multilingual Dendrimers

Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface

(Pushkar, et al, 2006).

❖ Nanocomposites

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These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a

standard material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and
electrical and thermal conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer
chips, solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers
and many more (AzoNano, 2015)

Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)

Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite

In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a

chemical compound from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic-
matrix nanocomposites have metal as the second component. The two components
are finely dispersed in each other to create a particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis,
et a, 1998).

Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites

Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the

primary component. The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix
composite (Janas and Liszka, 2007). Other examples are boron nitride reinforced
metal matrix nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix nanocomposites
(Bakshi, et al, 2010).

Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites

This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a

polymer matrix to enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are
sometimes called nanofilled polymer composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such
as carbon nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum, disulfide and tungsten disulfide are
usually used as reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).

Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well

as their applications. They were categorized according to composition and those
categories were further divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of
engineered nanomaterials, namely, Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based
Nanomaterials, Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some of the types and examples
are recognized in this section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and wider concept
of engineered nanomaterials.

Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials Production – How nanomaterials are made?

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Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years. It is
used in a broad variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the
production of nanomaterials. Its production rate continues to immerse that almost all
materials were made after it. It has been compromising many products and is used in
various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black, has been used in tires since
1930 and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires. Moreover,
most nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that
inhabits a precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain
a result.
The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles,
coatings, dispersions or composites that are needed to make an engineered
nanomaterial. This production involves a thorough defined production and reaction
conditions for obtaining such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical
composition, crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value,
concentration, chemical composition, surface modifications and process control.

• Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials

There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:
1. Top-Down Approach
It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of
Microsystems technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the process
is done from top (bigger) up to its base (lesser). Its production is done through the
mechanical crushing of the source material using a milling process or a chemical
technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired particles. This approach
also seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to address the making
of the particles. Examples of this approach are the High Energy Ball Milling, Laser
Ablation, and Lithography (Zabara, 2016).
2. Bottom-Up Approach
This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or
atomic self-organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific
material by chemical processes based on its alteration in different mediums such as a
solution medium or gaseous medium (Zabara, 2016). This kind of synthesis
manufactured selected and more complex structures from atoms or molecules, better
controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange smaller
components into more complex groups.
This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up with
the desired designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This includes the
Gas (Vapor) Phase Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid Phase Fabrication
such as Solvothermal Reaction and Sol-Gel.
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach

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A. High Energy Ball Milling

It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that is

subjected to have high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined by
Benjamin and his co-workers at the International Nickel Company on 1960. They found
out that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully produce fine,
uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in nickel-based
superalloys that the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t do. With this kind
of production, the Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for its production are not
easy to produce for its unique size. This had changed the traditional method in which
production of materials is carried out by high temperature. (Cao, 2007).

This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such production

such as attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle of this procedure
is merely to establish the nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is the most frequently used
system for mechanical alloying since only a very small amount of powder is required.
Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for research purposes in the laboratory.
The ball mill system consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two or four bowls. The
turn disc rotates in one direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The
centrifugal forces, created by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with
the rotation of the turn disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the
bowl. The powder mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact.
(Cao, 2007).

B. Laser Ablation

Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963 but
has been employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser ablation
means the removal of materials from a surface by means of laser irradiation. The word
“Laser ablation” is used to emphasize the non-equilibrium vapor or plasma conditions
that is created at the surface by laser pulse, to distinguish from “laser evaporation,”
which is heating and evaporation of material in condition of thermodynamic
equilibrium. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation device: a pulsed
laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an
ablation chamber. The high power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on
the surface of target, which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase
rapidly.

As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In
some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any
chemical reaction. In some other cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced
reactants to form new materials. The condensed particle will be either deposited on a
substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of a glass fiber mesh. Then,
the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate through drop-coating or
screen-printing process. (Cao, 2007).

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Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach

Pyrolysis

A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the

production of the nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses
chemical reactions to obtain its specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles to
produce nanomaterials. The routes of this synthesis are: the Nanomaterial starts
abruptly when a sufficient degree of supersaturation of condensable products is
reached in the vapour phase. When the nucleation occurs, fast particle growth takes
place by coalescence/coagulation rather than further nucleation. At sufficiently high
temperatures, particle coalescence (sintering) is faster than coagulation and spherical
particles are formed. At lower temperatures, coalescence slows down and partially
sintered, non-spherical particles and/or loose agglomerates of particles are formed.

It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create a

high degree of supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of nuclei
and then quickly quench the particle growth either by removing the source of
supersaturation or by slowing down the kinetics. The products that resulted from this
process are done thoroughly to achieve the best engineered nanomaterials we’re
aiming for (Zabara, 2016).

• Solvothermal Reaction
Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered nanomaterials such as
nanobots and nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that involves the use of solvent
under moderate to high pressure typically between 1 atm and 10,000 atm and
temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that is responsible for the
interaction of precursors during synthesis. The formation of nanocrystal is controlled
by manipulating the solvent supersaturation, chemical of interest concentration, and
kinetic control. This method can be used to prepare thermodynamically stable and
metastable states including novel materials that cannot be easily formed from other
synthetic routes. Over the last decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning
solvothermal synthesis has focused on nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent,
the method is called “hydrothermal synthesis.” The synthesis under hydrothermal
conditions is usually performed below the supercritical temperature of water (374 °C).
The process can be used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk powders,
single crystals, and nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials (Zabara,
2016).
• Sol-Gel
A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility to
produce variety of nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a simple
process at a low cost. The term “sol” originated from the name of a colloidal solution
made of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter, suspended in a liquid phase, while
the gel refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a solvent. Sol-gel process
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consists in the chemical transformation of a liquid (the sol) into a gel state and with
subsequent post-treatment and transition into solid oxide material. The main benefits
of sol–gel processing are the high purity and uniform nanostructure achievable at low
temperatures (Zabara, 2016).

Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial

Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial

Graphene, Nanodiamonds, Nanofiber, Fullerenes and Nanotube

Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and developed
to be used in manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be charged very
quickly. Also it can be able to store a large amount of electricity. Graphene – enhanced
lithium ion batteries could be used in much higher energy usage application such as
electricity powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops, and tablets PCs but at significant
lower level of size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).

The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their excellent

physical performance have rendered them attractive candidates for biomedical
applications. Nanodiamonds have great potential in drug nano formulations because
of its small size compared with any carbon-based nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are
nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption properties that can be formulated into
skin care products. Other application of nanodiamond is for skin care meditation and
wound healing.

Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen,

polykaprolakton and etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support of the
wound healing process. Also, it is possible to add antibacterial material and drugs to
the nanofiber structure that can be used in contaminated wounds.

Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide availability
due to their small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is hydrophobic and
the functional group is attached to its core. By attaching hydrophilic moieties, fullerene
become water-soluble and capable of carrying drugs and gene for the cellular delivery.
Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell membrane and bind to the mitochondria
(Folley, 2002).

Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in

materials used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously high
surface area that’s good for electrical conductivity, their linear geometry makes their
surface highly accessible to the electrolyte. Aside from good electrical conductivity,
they also have good mechanical properties which lead to wealth application including
advanced components.

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Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial

Quantum Dots, Nanogold and Nanosilver

Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is
used to evaluate the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce
miniature laser to be used in communication devices. The advantage of this laser is
its high speed data transfer with low power consumption. Quantum dots can be used
in computer or TV displays. Using quantum dot display should be thinner, lower than
current displays as well as able to be flexible.

The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve the

pharmacokinetics of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that makes it an
attractive tool for drug delivery and gene delivery.

Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their surface
to be coated with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting agents, and
anti-fouling polymers. Also, in DNA combined assembly, gold particles are used as
efficient gene transfection tools.

Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For antibacterial

application, nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances and cosmetics. For
conductive application, they are used as conductive inks and integrated into
composites to enhance thermal and electrical conductivity (Oldenburg, n.d.).

Dendrimers

The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform

controlled and specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One
of the most fundamental problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve
pharmacokinetic properties of drug for cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).

There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of

dendrimer system may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier
dendritic polymer used in the purification of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari,
2008).

PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and

biomedical fields. It has also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic
agents. PAMAM dendrimers are nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess
terminal functional groups for binding various targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et
al, 2018). Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer, containing variety of
molecules, such as drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the interior
space and also in the surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of
these agents into the body.
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Types of Composites

Ceramic Matrix and Metal Matrix Nanocomposite

Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites.

Ceramic matrix nanocomposites are good in applications that require good thermal
and electrical properties. They are used as medical devices and implants, automotive,
aerospace and power generation, tool and die material (Soutter, 2013).

The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon
nanotube, they can be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton, tennis
racket and light weight bicycle; aerospace: landing gears and aircraft brakes;
automobile: gears, break shoes, piston rings and cylinder liners.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson.

Kumar, N., & Kumbhat, S. (2016). Essentials in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135420731/2FD5DC110D374426PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Introduction pp xlv-lxxiii

Let’s Check

1. What is nanotechnology?
2. What are engineered nanomaterials? Give examples and discuss each.
3. What analytical techniques are used to characterize nanomaterials?

Let’s Analyze

1. Compare nanomaterials with microplastics.

2. What active ingredient/s in sunscreen is/are considered nanomaterial? Why
does sunscreen contain nanomaterials in the first place?
3. Can nanomaterials used in sunscreen cross the skin barrier and enter the
body?

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4. Is the UV-protection in nanomaterial-containing sunscreens only effective if

the nanomaterials enter the skin and how are they excreted later?

In a Nutshell

1. What are the environmental implications of nanotechnology?

2. How can you ascertain the release of nanomaterials from products into the
environment?
3. How can you differentiate between natural and engineered nanoparticles in
the environment?
4. Is it possible to specifically recycle nanomaterials from products?

Keywords Index
Bottom-up Buckminsterfullerene
Approach
Fullerene Graphene
Engineered Nanocomposites
nanomaterials
Nanoparticles Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotechnology
nanotubes
Dendrimers Top-down Approach

References

A. E. S. Van Driessche, T. M. Stawski, L. G. Benning, M. Kellermeier, in New

Perspectives on Mineral Nucleation and Growth: From Solution Precursors to
Solid Materials, A. E. S. Van Driessche, M. Kellermeier, L. G. Benning, D.
Gebauer, Eds. (Springer, 2017), pp. 227–256.

Araújo, R., Santos, S., Igne Ferreira, E., & Giarolla, J. (2018). New Advances in
General Biomedical Applications of PAMAM Dendrimers. Molecules, 23(11),
2849. doi:10.3390/molecules23112849

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