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David B. Dooner
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Puerto Rico—Mayagüez,
Mayagüez, PR 00681-9045
e-mail: d – dooner@me.uprm.edu
On the Three Laws of Gearing
Three laws of gearing are presented in terms of a three link 1-dof spatial direct contact
mechanism. The first law of gearing defines the instantaneous relationship between an
infinitesimal displacement of an output body to an infinitesimal angular displacement of
an input body for a specified tooth contact normal. A system of cylindroidal coordinates
are introduced to facilitate a universal methodology to parameterize the kinematic geom-
etry of generalized motion transmission between skew axes. The second law of gearing
establishes a relation between the instantaneous gear ratio and the apparent radii of the
hyperboloidal pitch surface in contact as parameterized using a system of cylindroidal
coordinates. The third law of gearing establishes an instantaneous relationship for the
relative curvature of two conjugate surfaces in direct contact and shows that this relation
is independent of the tooth profile geometry. These three laws of gearing along with the
system of cylindroidal coordinates establish, in part, a generalized geometric theory com-
parable to the existing theory for planar kinematics. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1518501兴

Background Gleason Works, Klingelnberg-Sons, and Oerlikon-Bührle where

Direct contact mechanisms include cam systems, gear pumps,
and gear pairs. Three laws of gearing are presented in terms of
toothed bodies in mesh or gear pairs, however they are valid for
any direct contact mechanism. Cylindrical gearing is the simplest
of all gear types and is used more than any other gear type. Bevel,
hypoid, spiroid™, and worm gear manufacture require a deeper
understanding of kinematics than cylindrical gearing and conse-
quently the design and manufacture of such gear types are less
examined. At the dawn of the 20th century, the kinematic geom-
etry of hypoid gearing was a source of debate and Grant 关1兴 共p.
95兲 discusses the current art. In the course of his discussion he
makes the following comments:
The theory cannot even be considered as yet settled, for writers
upon theoretical mechanism do not agree upon it, and there are
points yet in controversy.
On the discourse of hypoid gears, Litvin 关2兴 共p. 614兲 expresses
The concept of axodes of hypoid gear has found a limited ap-
plication in the design, and is used merely for visualization of
relative velocity. The main reason for this is that the location of
axodes is out of the zone of meshing of hypoid gears.
The design of blanks of hypoid gears is oriented at the deter-
mination of operating pitch cones instead of hyperboloids of
revolution, the hypoid gears’ axodes.
Even for the special case of crossed cylindrical gears, Colbourne
关3兴 共p. 417兲 states
It is interesting to note that, for a crossed helical gear pair,
there is no relation between the pitch cylinder radii and the
center distance C
where similar comments abound in the gearing literature. The dif-
ficulties involved in the design and manufacture of hypoid gear
forms extend outside the gearing community and the search for
instantaneous invariants of axodes 共special ruled surfaces兲 has
been sought within the mechanism community. Specifically, Hunt
关4兴 共p. 89兲 along with Bottema and Roth 关5兴 共p. 161兲. Interest in
instantaneous invariants of ruled surfaces continues to receive the
attention of researchers 共e.g., see Sommer 关6兴, Chen 关7兴, Köse 关8兴,
Roth 关9兴, and Stachel 关10兴兲.
As evidenced above, the mathematical expressions necessary
for the design and manufacture of spatial gearing can be complex.
Present day design and manufacturing techniques make approxi-
mations to the ideal conditions necessary for motion transmission.
Within the past 100 years, the majority of hypoid and bevel gear
manufacture has been the focus of the following three companies:
Contributed by the Power Transmission and Gearing Committee for publication in
the JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL DESIGN. Manuscript received August 2000; revised
May 2002. Associate Editor: C. Gosselin.
their methods of design and manufacturing are highly focused and
rely on proprietary information. An overview of these methods
共viz., face cutting兲 of gear design and manufacture is provided by
Shtipelman 关11兴, Stadtfeld 关12–13兴, and Litvin 关2兴. Wang and
Ghosh 关14兴 use ‘‘third order contact’’ of gear teeth and determine
machine tools setting for a desired tooth surface geometry. A com-
puter simulation of current methods of gear manufacture is pro-
vided by Lunin 关15兴. A special form of spatial gearing is worm
gearing where Dudas 关16兴 presents an overview of literature not
amenable to the English speaking community. Regardless, inher-
ent in the design and manufacture of spatial gear forms are limi-
tations on the face width, minimum number of teeth, and spiral
angle. Preliminary investigations into the ‘‘ideal’’ kinematic ge-
ometry of spatial gearing have been recognized by Xiao and Yang
关17兴, Figliolini and Angeles 关18兴, as well as Phillips 关19兴. Honda
关20兴 and Ito 关21兴 introduce a tooth based theory for gear design
and manufacture. This approach is fundamentally different from
the following development where the ensuing material is an axode
based theory analogous to that used to parameterize planar mo-
tion. Dooner and Seireg 关22兴 recognized these limitations and
used the theory of screws to provide a universal methodology for
the integrated design and manufacture of generalized gears. Three
laws of gearing were presented as part of their original work. The
three laws formulated below are modified from their original pre-
sentation where it is believed that the following presentation bet-
ter discloses the significance of these three laws.
First Law of Gearing
The objective of a direct contact mechanism is to achieve a
desired motion relationship between two bodies. For gear pairs
this is achieved by two teeth or surfaces in direct contact. De-
picted in Fig. 1 are an input and output hyperboloidal gear body in
mesh and some nomenclature used to define the topology of these
bodies. Shown is the shaft center distance E between the two axes
of rotation $ i and $ o along with the included angle ⌺ between
these two axes. The relationship between the angular position ␯ i
of an input element and the corresponding angular position ␯ o of
an output element is defined as the transmission function. The
instantaneous gear ratio g is the ratio between the infinitesimal
displacement d ␯ o of the output and the corresponding infinitesi-
mal angular displacement d ␯ i of the input, thus
d␯o
g⫽ . (1)
d␯i
Here, a displacement d ␯ i refers to a change in position ␯ i . The
displacements d ␯ i and d ␯ o are angular displacements about the

Journal of Mechanical Design Copyright © 2002 by ASME DECEMBER 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 733

Fig. 1 Nomenclature to define right-angle gear drive
twists $ i and $ o respectively. The angular speeds ␻ i and ␻ o are
respectively the angular displacements d ␯ i and d ␯ o per unit time
dt. The kinematic geometry of toothed bodies is independent of
time t and hence speed ␻ i of the input. In general, motion trans-
mission between two axes is not uniform and the angular position
␯ o of the output is a nonlinear function of the angular position ␯ i
of the input. Conjugate motion between two bodies exists when
the instantaneous gear ratio as defined above and the desired in-
stantaneous gear ratio are the same.
The theorem of three axes is very useful in the analysis and
synthesis of spatial gearing 共see Ball 关23兴, Beggs 关24兴, along with
Phillips and Hunt 关25兴兲. Its significance to gearing is presented by
Dooner and Seireg 关22兴 as follows1:
␻ i $ i ⫹ ␻ is$ is⫺ ␻ o $ o ⫽0 (2)
where
␻i — angular speed of input gear
␻ is — angular speed of output gear relative to input gear
␻o — angular speed of output gear
$i — homogeneous screw coordinates of input axis of rota-
tion
$ is — homogeneous screw coordinates of IS 共Instantaneous
Screw兲
$ o — homogeneous screw coordinates of output axis of ro-
tation.
Depicted in Fig. 2 are the input axis of rotation $ i , the output axis
of rotation $ o , and the corresponding ISA $ isa along with the
tooth contact normal $ l . Invoking the reciprocity condition be-
tween the line of action $ l ⫽(Sគ l ;Sគ ol ) and the vector loop equation
above yields
$ l 䉺 共 d ␯ i $ i ⫹d ␯ is$ is⫺d ␯ o $ o 兲 ⫽0. (3)
Provided that the screw dot product between the line of action $ l
and the instantaneous twist $ is is zero 共i.e., d ␯ is$ is䉺$ l ⫽0), the
above relationship is rearranged to
1
This notation deviates from established literature. Here the subscript ‘‘is’’ is used
to designate the Instantaneous Screw between two bodies whereas the subscript
‘‘isa’’ is reserved to identify the Instantaneous Screw Axis.
734 Õ Vol. 124, DECEMBER 2002
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$ l 䉺$ i
g⫽ (4)
$ l 䉺$ o
where
g — instantaneous gear ratio
$ l — homogeneous screw coordinates of tooth contact nor-
mal
$ i — homogeneous screw coordinates of input axis of rota-
tion
$ o — homogeneous screw coordinates of output axis of rota-
tion.
Gear tooth mesh where the tooth surface normal $ l is not recip-
rocal to the desired twist $ is is defined as non-conjugate action.
The above relation is independent of the contact position between
the two gear elements and depends only on the line of action $ l
and axes $ i and $ o . A first law of gearing can be stated as
For any given axes, the contact normal must be reciprocal to
the instantaneous twist in order to achieve the desired instan-
taneous gear ratio.
The above first law of gearing is a generalization of Euler’s origi-
nal ‘‘Law of Gearing’’ 共also refered to as the ‘‘Fundamental law of
gearing’’兲 where Euler stated that the common gear tooth normal
must intersect the line joining the centers of rotation in a fixed
point for continuous motion transmission with constant speed ra-
tio. The above law encompasses noncircular gears where the po-
sition of the pitch point varies as well as spatial gearing where the
common tooth normal does not intersect the common generator of
the axodes or the instantaneous screw axis.2 This difference
emerges as a result of the axial sliding inherent in spatial gear
forms. For planar gearing the pitch h is of the instantaneous screw
$ is is zero and all contact normals must intersect the instantaneous
screw axis $ isa or pitch point.
2
The general relation between the contact normal $ l and the instantaneous screw
axis $ is is
a⫽h cot ␰
where a is the perpendicular distance between $ l and $ is , h is the pitch of $ is , and
␰ is the angle between $ l and $ is . In the limiting case where either the shaft angle ⌺
or offset E are zero, the angle ␰ and pitch h reduces to zero and consequently the
distance a must simultaneously be zero. The contact normal intersects the pitch point
when a is zero.
Transactions of the ASME
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Fig. 2 Relation between input axis of rotation $ i , output axis of rotation $ o , instantaneous
screw axis $ isa , and contact normal $ l

Cylindroidal Coordinates cylindroidal coordinates that share a common cylindroid. Hyper-

Dooner and Seireg introduced a system of curvilinear coordi-
nates to parameterize the kinematic geometry of motion transmis-
sion between skew axes. These curvilinear coordinates are based
upon the cylindroid determined by the two axes of rotation $ i and
$ o and are referred to as cylindroidal coordinates. Cylindroidal
coordinates consist of families of pitch, transverse, and axial sur-
faces as formulated using a cylindroid 共a special ruled surface兲.
Cylindroidal coordinates can facilitate the specification of gear
teeth or surfaces in direct contact necessary to produce any de-
sired transmission function. Depicted in Fig. 3 are two systems of
boloidal or spatial gearing differs from cylindrical or planar gear-
ing in that the axodes and the pitch surfaces are, in general, not
the same. This difference results from the non-zero pitch of the
instantaneous screw $ is . Further, the two hyperboloidal pitch sur-
faces are always tangent to one another. At the instant two hyper-
boloidal pitch surfaces are tangent to one another, there are two
generators common to the two ruled surfaces. Although any line
may serve as a generator for hyperboloidal pitch surface, it is
important to recognize that candidate generators for the reference
pitch surfaces are not arbitrary. This restriction on candidate gen-

Fig. 3 Two systems of cylindroidal coordinates that share a common cylindroid

„note tangency between pitch surfaces…

Journal of Mechanical Design DECEMBER 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 735

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Fig. 4 Ruled hyperboloidal pitch surface with instantaneous generator $ pi and tangent to
tooth surface S ␺ i „also perpendicular to null plane…. The spiral angle ␺ is defined such that
the tooth surface normal is reciprocal to the ISA „regardless of pressure angle….

erators is defined as the theorem of conjugate pitch surfaces
共Dooner and Seireg兲
Second Law of Gearing
The use of axodes as reference surfaces for the specification of
gear teeth can result in nonpractical dimensions of gear teeth nec-
essary for power transmission 共e.g., hypoid, spiroid™, and worm
gearing兲. Further, the use of axodes limits the gear teeth to ‘‘spur’’
type gear teeth. The orientation of the gear tooth on the hyperbo-
loidal pitch surface must be specified to ensure reciprocity or that
the desired gear ratio is maintained. A relationship is developed
between the tooth surface normal 共i.e., the line of action兲 and the
displacements of the input and output gear elements as parameter-
ized using a system of cylindroidal coordinates. Shown in Fig. 4 is
a segment of a hyperboloidal pitch surface. Illustrated in Fig. 4 is
an instantaneous generator $ pi of the pitch surface, a tooth spiral,
and the corresponding spiral angle ␺. Fig. 5 provides an enlarged
view of a gear tooth relative to the hyperboloidal pitch surface.
The spiral angle at a given point between two hyperboloidal pitch
surfaces in mesh is obtained by specifying that the tooth contact
normal $ l is reciprocal to the instantaneous twist $ is for any pres-
sure angle. The independence of pressure angle from spiral angle
is explained in terms of the linear line complex defined by the
instantaneous twist $ is 共see 关22兴兲.
Specification of the spiral angle as defined by Dooner and
Seireg 关22兴 eliminates the manifestation of a ‘‘limit pressure
angle’’ as introduced by Wildhaber 关26兴. It is important to recog-
nize that the instantaneous spiral angle ␺ pi for the input gear and
that of the output gear are identical in magnitude 共i.e., ␺ pi⫽
⫺ ␺ po). The relation between the tooth tangency S␺ , the instanta-
⬘ to the
neous generator $ pi , the spiral angle ␺ p , and the tangent គt pi
transverse curve គt pi is given in Fig. 6 for F ␺ i ⫽0.
For generalized gear pairs 共viz., E⫽0 and ⌺⫽0) with a con-
stant I/O relationship g
冑គt pi⬘ • គt pi⬘ ⫽ 冑u pi2⫹w pi2 sin2 ␣ pi (5a)
冑គt po ⬘ ⫽ 冑u 2po⫹w 2po sin2 ␣ po
⬘ • គt po (5b)
where
⬘ — tangent to transverse curve គt pi of input pitch surface
គt pi
⬘ — tangent to transverse curve គt po of output pitch surface
គt po
u pi — radius of the input pitch surface 共at the throat兲
u po — radius of the output pitch surface 共at the throat兲
E — shaft center distance between the two axes of rotation
(u pi⫹u po⫽E)
w pi — axial position of tangent point on input pitch surface
w po — axial position of tangent point on output pitch surface
(w pi⫽⫺w po)

Fig. 5 Enlarged view of tooth on ruled hyperboloidal surface

736 Õ Vol. 124, DECEMBER 2002 Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 6 Enlarged view of hyperboloidal pitch surface

␣ pi — included angle between the common generator and the to define a conjugate pitch surface pair depends on the lead or
input axis of rotation spiral angle. Summarizing the theorem of conjugate pitch surfaces
␣ po — included angle between the common generator and the gives
output axis of rotation
⌺ — included shaft angle between the two axes of rotation • pitch surfaces are axodes if the gear teeth are spur or straight
( ␣ pi⫹ ␣ po⫽⌺) ( ␺ ⫽0), or
• pitch surfaces are NOT axodes if the gear teeth are curved
and the special case of parallel axis gearing with non-linear I/O ( ␺ ⫽0).
relationship yields
Exceptions to the above are for the special scenario of zero pitch
冑គt pi⬘ • គt pi⬘ ⫽ 冑共 u pi⬘ 兲 2 ⫹u pi2 (6a) h is of the instantaneous twist $ is . This occurs for cylindrical and
conical gearing.
冑គt po ⬘ ⫽ 冑共 u po
⬘ • គt po ⬘ 兲 2 ⫹u 2po (6b) The above second law of gearing is the general case where the
instantaneous gear ratio defined by the first law of gearing is ex-
⬘ is the derivative of the pitch radius u pi with respect to
where u pi pressed in terms of the reference pitch radii. One salient feature
⬘ and គt po
the angular position ␯ i . Projecting the tangencies គt pi ⬘ onto of hypoid and worm gears is that in general the ratio of pitch radii
a direction perpendicular to the gear tooth, apparent radii R i and is not directly proportional to the instantaneous gear ratio. This
R o are introduced; namely, difference emerges from the relative motion between the conju-
gate pitch surfaces in mesh.
R i ⫽ 冑គt pi
⬘ • គt pi
⬘ cos共 ␥ pi⫹ ␺ pi兲 (7a) One property of the second law of gearing is that it applies to
any point along the common generator between conjugate pitch
R o ⫽ 冑គt ⬘po• គt ⬘po cos共 ␥ po⫹ ␺ po兲 (7b) surfaces. Another invariant property of conjugate pitch surfaces is
that the relative axial motion between the two surfaces is constant
where ␥ p is the included angle between the pitch surface genera-
for any point along the common generator. Projecting the trans-
tor and the tangency គt ⬘p less 90 degrees and defined accordingly:
verse curve tangency គt p⬘ onto a direction parallel to the tooth spiral
u pi sin ␣ pi tangency, the axial movement between conjugate pitch surfaces is
tan ␥ pi⫽
␻ sih is⫽ 共 冑គt pi ⬘ sin共 ␥ pi⫹ ␺ pi兲 ⫹g 冑គt ⬘po• គt ⬘po sin共 ␥ po⫹ ␺ po兲兲 cos ␤
(8a)
冑 2
u pi cos2 ␣ pi⫹w pi
2
sin2 ␣ pi ⬘ • គt pi
(10)
u po sin ␣ po where ␤ is the angle between the unit spiral tangency Ŝ␺*i and the
tan ␥ po⫽ . (8b)
冑 u 2po cos2 ␣ po⫹w 2po sin2 ␣ po direction cosines of the ISA. The above relation is a function of
the differential properties of the two pitch surfaces. For motion
Now, the instantaneous gear ratio g presented in Eq. 共4兲 can also transmission between parallel and intersecting axes ␥ p⫽0, the
be expressed term in the parenthesis is zero, and the pitch h is is zero as ex-
pected. In general, pitch surfaces become axodes when ␤ ⫽ ␺ p
Ri
g⫽ (9) ⫽0 共exceptions include ‘‘cylindricial’’ and ‘‘conical’’ gearing兲.
Ro
and a second law of gearing can be stated as
For any given axes, a unique relationship exists between appar- Third Law of Gearing
ent radii of the hyperboloidal pitch surfaces and the instanta- The geometry 共up to second order兲 of a gear tooth surface at a
neous gear ratio in order for two gear teeth to provide conju- point can be specified in terms of the normal curvature and geo-
gate motion transmission for any pressure angle. desic torsion of two separate curves on the tooth surface. Here,
For spatial gearing, there are infinitely many conjugate pitch these separate curves are defined as the polar component and the
surface pairs. Choice of the phantom I/O relationship ḡ necessary spiral component. Associated with each candidate point or pole on

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the common generator of the hyperboloidal pitch surfaces in mesh
is a polar plane. This polar plane is perpendicular to a helical
curve defined by the twist that parameterizes the relative motion
between these two bodies 关22兴. The spiral direction is perpendicu-
lar to the polar plane and defines the intersection between the gear
tooth surface and reference pitch surface. The polar direction is
perpendicular to the spiral direction and tangent to the gear tooth
surface. Curvature and torsion of the polar and spiral curves em-
bedded in the gear tooth surface are determined by first specifying Fig. 7 Inclination angle ␰ between tooth spiral tangency and
the displacement of a point on the gear tooth surface. An invariant line of contact
measure for the speed V p of the pitch point p on the pitch surfaces
for generalized gear pairs with constant instantaneous gear ratio g
is
Ri The two speed components V⬜ p and V 储 p are used to determine
V pi⫽ ␻ i (11a) relative curvatures ⌬ ␬⬜ and ⌬ ␬ 储 in the polar and spiral directions
cos ␺ pi respectively.
Ro Polar Component. The polar or transverse component of the
V po⫽ ␻ p . (11b)
cos ␺ po third law of gearing is the spatial equivalence of the planar Euler-
The two velocity components V pi and V po are perpendicular to the Savary equation for envelopes. Several attempts have been made
common generator $ p and tangent to the two hyperboloidal pitch to generalize the Euler-Savary equation for planar motion into an
surfaces. The speed V ␾ p of the pitch point p projected onto the analogous relationship for spatial motion 共most notably the work
plane perpendicular to the contact normal $ l gives of Disteli 关27兴; also see Veldkamp 关28兴, Roth 关9兴, and Stachel
关10兴兲. Each attempt provided results other than a relationship for
sin ␾ ti the curvature of two conjugate curves in space. The planar Euler-
V ␾ pi⫽ ␻ i R i (12a)
cos ␺ pi Savary Equation for envelopes can be expressed as

V ␾ po⫽ ␻ o R o
sin ␾ to
cos ␺ po
, (12b) 冉 1
共 r i ⫹q 兲
⫹
1
共 r o ⫺q 兲
冊冉
⫽
1
⫹
1
冊 1
u pi u po sin ␾ t
(16)

where ␾ t is the pressure angle in a direction perpendicular to the where

common generator. The speed V 储 p of the pitch point p in a direc- ri — radius of curvature of input gear tooth
tion parallel to the tooth spiral gives ro — radius of curvature of output gear tooth
q — distance of point of contact from instant center
1 u pi — radius of input centrode
V 储 pi⫽ ␻ i R i , (13a)
sin ␺ pi cos ␺ pi u po — radius of output centrode
␾t — transverse pressure angle.
1
V 储 po⫽ ␻ o R o . (13b) The above expression provides a unique relation between the cen-
sin ␺ po cos ␺ po trode pitch radii u pi and u po and the radii of tooth curvature r i and
r o . ␾ t is the angle between the pitch curve tangency and the
The resultant velocity V tot between the two components V ␾ p and
contact normal of the two conjugate curves in mesh. Regardless of
V 储 p determines the direction of the path of contact between the
the radii of curvature r i and r o , the distance q, and the transverse
two gear surfaces in mesh. Depicted in Fig. 7 is the inclination
pressure angle ␾ t , the right hand side of Eq. 共16兲 is a constant.
angle ␰ of the contact line relative to the pitch surface. This ve-
The above Euler-Savary equation depends on the instantaneous
locity depends on the instantaneous axial and polar displacements.
pitch radii u pi and u po and consequently can be considered un-
The inclination angle ␰ between the resultant velocity V tot and the
wieldy or computationally inefficient; however these radii are
tooth spiral tangency 共the intersection between the tooth surface
readily available for gearing. The polar component of the third
and the reference pitch surface兲 depends on the angle ␴ between
law of gearing establishes a relation between two geodesic curves
the two velocities V ␾ p and V 储 p . Recognizing that
respectively embedded within two surfaces in direct contact to the
cos ␴ ⫽⫺sin ␺ p sin ␾ t , instantaneous properties of the pitch surfaces. The torsions ␶ i and
␶ o associated with two conjugate curves in direct contact are zero
the law of sines gives for ‘‘planar’’ motion and the displacement of a point moving on a
V⬜pi planar curve can be expressed simply as a pure rotation about its
sin ␰ ⫽ sin ␴ (14a) center of curvature. In general, the torsions ␶ i and ␶ o associated
V tot with two arbitrary conjugate curves in direct contact are non-zero
where V tot is obtained via the law of cosines. Substituting the for ‘‘spatial’’ motion and consequently a twist is introduced for the
results from Eqs. 共12兲 and 共13兲 into the above and expanding,3 parameterization of a point moving on a surface.
The intersection between the polar plane and the input tooth
tan ␾ n surface and the output tooth surface results in the two curves ␭ i
sin ␰ ⫽sin ␺ p . (14b) and ␭ o respectively. Since the polar plane is perpendicular to the
冑cos ␺ p ⫹tan2 ␾ n
2
two gear teeth, ␭ i and ␭ o are geodesic curves. Associated with ␭ i
The component V⬜ p of the total velocity V tot in a direction per- is the normal curvature ␬ i and geodesic torsion ␶ i . Similarly,
pendicular to the spiral direction becomes there exists a normal curvature ␬ o and geodesic torsion ␶ o asso-
V⬜pi⫽V 储 pi tan ␰ ⫽V 储 pi tan ␺ p sin ␾ n . (15) ciated with the geodesic curve ␭ o . Dooner and Seireg demon-
strate that the geodesic displacement for a point on a surface can
3
Recognizing that
be parameterized by a twist $ perpendicular to the contact normal
cos ␺p tan ␾t⫽tan ␾n (a)
and located at a distance or radius r from the point on the surface
then as follows:
tan ␾n ␬
sin ␺t⫽ . (b) r⫽ 2 2
冑cos2 ␺p⫹tan2 ␾n ␬ ⫹␶

738 Õ Vol. 124, DECEMBER 2002 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 8 Relative displacements for pitch point p and of contact c
and the pitch h of the twist $ is
␶ the tooth contact normal $ l along with the two velocity compo-
h⫽ 2 2 .
␬ ⫹␶
It is this parameterization for the geodesic displacement of a point
on a surface in terms of a single twist that enables the establish-
ment of a relation for the normal curvature and geodesic torsion
between two geodesic curves on two conjugates surfaces in direct
contact. The above relations illustrate the ‘‘physical’’ significance
of torsion and its relation to radius r of a spatial curve. The radius
of curvature r defined above is in general a 3rd order property.
Only for the special case of planar curvature where ␶ ⫽0 does the
radius of curvature r reduce to a second order property. Dooner
and Seireg use the axis of the twist $ along with the radius r to
define a cylinder of osculation to a spatial curve.4 Associated with
each geodesic curve at a point on a surface is a cylinder of oscu-
lation. A cylindroid is defined by the loci of central axes of these
cylinders of osculation.
4
The axis of the twist to parameterize the instantaneous displacement of a point on
the striction curve 共of a ruled surface兲 is the well know Disteli axis.
Journal of Mechanical Design
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Depicted in Fig. 8 are two twists $⬜i and $⬜o 5 perpendicular to
nents V⬜pi and V⬜po . The twist $⬜i is fixed in the input body and
is used to parameterize the displacement of the pitch point p in the
polar direction in terms of the displacement of the tooth surface
normal $ l . Similarly, the twist $⬜o is embedded in the output
body and parameterizes the displacement of the pitch point p in
the polar direction in terms of the displacement of the tooth sur-
face normal $ l . r⬜i is the distance between the point p and the
twist $⬜i and r⬜o is the distance between the point p and the twist
$⬜o . The relation between the angular speed ␻ l of the tooth sur-
face normal $ l and the speed V⬜ p of the pitch point p is as
follows:
␻ l 冑共 r⬜i ⫹q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜2 ⫽V⬜pi (17a)
␻ l 冑共 r⬜o ⫺q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜o
2
⫽V⬜po . (17b)
5
The twists $⬜i and $⬜o here define the displacement of the line of action $ l and
are not to be confused with the twists $ i and $ o used to define the displacement of
the input and output gear body as presented in Eq. 共2兲.
DECEMBER 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 739
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where h⬜i and h⬜i are the pitches of the twists $⬜i and $⬜o re-
spectively. The speed V⬜c of the point of contact c located at a
distance q from the pitch point p is
冑r⬜i
2
⫹h⬜i
2
V⬜ci⫽ V , (18a)
冑共 r⬜i ⫹q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜i
2 ⬜pi

冑r⬜o
2
⫹h⬜o 2
V⬜co⫽ V⬜po . (18b)
冑共 r⬜o ⫺q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜o
2

Recognizing that V⬜po⫽V⬜pi , Eq. 共18b兲 can also be expressed

冑r⬜o
2
⫹h⬜o
2
V⬜co⫽ V⬜pi . (18c)
冑共 r⬜o ⫺q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜o
2

The law of cosines is used to obtain the following speed relation

for the point of contact c:
共 q ␻ is兲 2 ⫽V⬜ci
2
⫹V⬜co
2
⫺2V⬜ciV⬜co cos ␩⬜ , (19)
where
␻ is⫽ ␻ i 冑1⫹g 2 ⫺2g cos ⌺⬜
␩⬜ ⫽⌬ ␰⬜i ⫹⌬ ␰⬜o Fig. 9 Curvature in directions perpendicular to tooth surface
and pitch surface
and

⌬ ␰⬜i ⫽tan⫺1 冉 冊
h⬜i
r⬜i 冉 冊
⫺tan⫺1
h⬜i
r⬜i ⫹q Similar to Eq. 共16兲, Eq. 共23兲 is independent of the angular speed

⌬ ␰⬜o ⫽tan⫺1 冉 冊
h⬜o
r⬜o 冉 冊
⫺tan⫺1
h⬜o
r⬜o ⫺q
␻ i and the right-hand side of Eq. 共23兲 is a constant regardless of
r⬜i , r⬜o , h⬜i , h⬜o , and q. For motion transmission between
parallel axes, ⌺⫽0 deg, ␩ ⫽0 deg, and h⬜i ⫽h⬜o ⫽0, and the

⌺⬜ ⫽⫺tan⫺1 冉 h⬜i
r⬜i ⫹q 冊 冉 冊
⫺tan⫺1
h⬜o
r⬜o ⫺q
.
above relation reduces to the planar Euler-Savary equation for
envelopes.
Spiral Component. The tooth spiral is a curve ␮ defined by
The instantaneous relation between the input twist $⬜i and output
the intersection between the tooth surface and the hyperboloidal
twist $⬜o 共see Eq. 共2兲兲 is
pitch surface. The tooth spiral angle is determined by requiring
␻ is$⬜is⫽⫺ 共 ␻ i $⬜i ⫺ ␻ o $⬜o 兲 . (20) that the tooth contact normal satisfy the reciprocity relation for
any normal pressure angle. The tooth spiral tangency is in the
The twist $⬜is defined above and the twist $ is in Eq. 共2兲 are not the direction perpendicular to the polar plane defined by the point of
same; however the gear or speed ratio g is the same. The pitch interest. Associated with each point on the hyperboloidal pitch
h⬜is of the instantaneous twist $⬜is⫽(Sគ is ;Sគ ois) can be expressed surface is a single null or polar plane, thus the intersection be-
Sគ is•Sគ ois g 2 h⬜o ⫹h⬜i ⫺g 共 h⬜i ⫹h⬜o 兲 cos ⌺⬜ ⫹gE⬜ sin ⌺⬜ tween the gear tooth and the hyperboloidal pitch surface results in
h⬜is⫽ ⫽ a unique curve on the pitch surface for a given axial contact ratio
Sគ is•Sគ is 1⫹g 2 ⫺2g cos ⌺⬜ and that this curve is independent of gear tooth profile. As indi-
(21)
cated earlier, these reference pitch surfaces are, in general, not
where E⬜ ⫽r⬜i ⫹r⬜o . A relation between the pitch h and the gear axodes and depend on the axial contact ratio.
ratio g is obtained by realizing that h is⫽0 when g⫽ ␻ o / ␻ i , thus The curve ␮ i is defined by the intersection between the input
gear tooth surface and the input pitch surface. Another curve ␮ o is
0⫽g 2 h⬜o ⫹h⬜i ⫺g 共 h⬜i ⫹h⬜o 兲 cos ⌺⬜ ⫹gE⬜ sin ⌺⬜ . (22) defined by the intersection between the output gear tooth surface
Note that when g⫽0 that h⫽h⬜i and when g⫽⬁ that h⫽h⬜o . and the output pitch surface. Inherent with each point on the curve
Substituting Eq. 共18兲 in Eq. 共19兲 and rearranging yields ␮ i is the total curvature ␬ i and torsion ␶ i . This ( ␬ i , ␶ i ) pair can

冉 冊
be further resolved into a normal curvature ␬ ni and geodesic tor-
1 1 2
cos4 ␺ pi sion ␶ gi uniquely associated with the input gear tooth surface in
A⬜2 ⫹B⬜2 ⫽ ⫹ (23)
Ri Ro sin2 ␾ ni the direction tangent to the tooth spiral. Uniquely associated with
the output gear tooth surface in the direction tangent to the tooth
where
spiral are the normal curvature ␬ no and geodesic torsion ␶ go . Such
1 a phenomenon determines the effective tooth curvature in the spi-
A⬜2 ⫽ 共 a⬜2 ⫹b⬜2 ⫺2a⬜ b⬜ cos ␩⬜ 兲 ral direction.
q2
The two twists $⬜i and $⬜o were introduced earlier to param-

B⬜2 ⫽2
cos4 ␺ pi 1 1
冉 冊
sin2 ␾ ni R i R o
共 1⫹cos ⌺⬜ 兲
eterize the geodesic displacement of a point on the gear tooth
surface in a direction perpendicular to the tooth spiral. Two more
twists $ 储 i and $ 储 o are introduced to parameterize the geodesic
and displacement of a point on the gear tooth surface in a direction
parallel to the tooth spiral. Prior to defining $ 储 i and $ 储 o , it is
冑r⬜i
2
⫹h⬜i
2
necessary to introduce r 储 i and h 储 i along with r 储 o and h 储 o in terms
a⬜ ⫽
冑共 r⬜i ⫹q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜i
2 of the normal curvatures ␬ ni and ␬ no as well as geodesic torsions
␶ gi and ␶ go where
冑r⬜o
2
⫹h⬜o
2
␬ ni
b⬜ ⫽ . r 储i⫽ 2
冑共 r⬜o ⫺q 兲 2 ⫹h⬜o
2
␬ gi⫹ ␶ gi
2

740 Õ Vol. 124, DECEMBER 2002 Transactions of the ASME

 ded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/mechanicaldesign/article-pdf/124/4/733/5797675/733_1.pdf?casa_token=HdHxOymVKagAAAAA:o5UH3APCTCx95F18gTlwk5cH4ow59CyeTh1y-Zb4YEz2XzhxwZSQ56PyWbiQRRgUHpVRstH8 by Universita Di Modena Reggio Emilia user on 13 Decem
Fig. 10 Relative parabolic curvature between mating gear teeth

r 储o⫽
␬ no
␬ 2no⫹ ␶ 2go
A 2储 ⫹B 2储 ⫽ 冉 1
⫹
1
Ri Ro 冊 2
sin2 ␺ pi cos2 ␺ pi (25)
and where
␶ gi
h 储i⫽ 2 1
␬ ni⫹ ␶ gi
2
A 2储 ⫽ 共 a 2储 ⫹b 2储 ⫺2a 储 b 储 cos ␩ 储 兲
q2

冉 冊
␶ go
h 储o⫽ . 1 1
␬ 2no⫹ ␶ 2go B 2储 ⫽2 sin2 ␺ pi cos2 ␺ pi 共 1⫹cos ⌺ 储 兲
Ri Ro
Although the tooth spiral is expressed in terms of the pitch
surface and the above relations depend on the curvature and tor- and
sion of the tooth surface, it is essential to remember that the above 冑r 2i ⫹h 2i
储 储
normal curvatures and geodesic torsions are defined relative to the a 储⫽
tooth surface and not the pitch surface. The relation between pitch 冑共 r i ⫹q 兲 2 ⫹h 2i
储 储

surface curvature and tooth curvature is obtained via Meusnier’s

theorem for non-asymptotic directions as depicted in Fig. 9.
The two twists $ 储 i and $ 储 o along with the two velocity compo-
nents V 储 pi and V 储 po are perpendicular to the tooth contact normal
$ l . Like the polar direction where V⬜pi⫽V⬜po , here V 储 pi⫽V 储 po .
This equivalence of velocities does not imply that there is no
relative motion between the two gear teeth in mesh. The twist $ 储 i
is used to parameterize the displacement of the pitch point p rela-
tive to the input gear tooth surface in terms of the displacement of
the tooth surface normal $ l and in a direction tangent to the tooth
spiral. Introducing the two velocities V 储 ci and V 储 co and continuing
as outlined in Eqs. 共17兲 and 共18兲 yields the following speed rela-
tion for the point of contact c:
共 q ␻ is兲 2 ⫽V 2储 ci⫹V 2储 co⫺2V 储 ciV 储 co cos ␩ 储 , (24)
where
␻ is⫽ ␻ i 冑1⫹g 2 ⫺2g cos ⌺ 储
␩ 储 ⫽⌬ ␰ 储 i ⫹⌬ ␰ 储 o
and
冑 r 2储 o ⫹h 2储 o
b 储⫽ .
冑共 r o ⫺q 兲 2 ⫹h 2o
储 储
Equation 共25兲 is independent of the speed ␻ i and the right-hand
side is a constant apart from r 储 i , r 储 o , h 储 i , h 储 o , and q.
Relative Curvature. Much attention has been directed to the
relative curvature between two surfaces in direct contact outside
the context of gearing. The significance of relative tooth curvature
is indispensible in the study of tribology where relative curvature
influences contact stress, the entrainment of lubricant into the
mesh zone, and pitting. The contact between two gear surfaces is
either point-contact or line-contact. In general, the transverse con-
tact ratio m t for two gears in mesh is greater than zero and ‘‘line-
contact’’ exists between the two gear teeth in mesh. Line-contact
experiences both axial and transverse displacement during mesh
for non-zero spiral angles 共i.e., ␺ ⫽0). Such conditions are inher-
ent for any tooth profile type 共viz., involute or cycloid兲. Point-
contact is the alternative scenario for two conjugate surfaces in
mesh. This condition occurs when the transverse contact ratio m t
is zero. This type of contact applies to circular-arc type profiles

⌬ ␰ 储 i ⫽tan⫺1 冉 冊
冉 冊
h 储i
r 储i
⫺tan⫺1
h 储i
r 储 i ⫹q
共viz., Novikov-Wildhaber or BBC兲. The term ‘‘semi-conjugate’’ is
introduced to identify conjugate surfaces in point contact 共i.e.,
m t ⫽0) where ‘‘fully conjugate’’ refers to conditions between gear

⌬ ␰ 储 o ⫽tan⫺1 冉 冊
冉 冊
h 储o
r 储o
⫺tan⫺1
h 储o
r 储 o ⫺q
teeth in line-contact. The foregoing analysis is applicable only to
fully conjugate surfaces and there is no definite relation for the
relative curvature of semi-conjugate surfaces in mesh.

⌺ 储 ⫽⫺tan⫺1 冉 冊 冉 冊
h 储i
r 储 i ⫹q
⫺tan⫺1
h 储o
r 储 o ⫺q
.
The relative curvature between two gear teeth in mesh depends
on the relations presented in Eqs. 共23兲 and 共25兲. Manufacturing
conditions are defined by a gear and cutter rather than an input
Expanding Eq. 共24兲 in terms V 储 ci and V 储 co yields and output gear and Eqs. 共23兲 and 共25兲 must be modified to de-

Journal of Mechanical Design DECEMBER 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 741

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␬/␶ of curvature ␬ to torsion ␶ of the tooth spiral is constant and
the spiral is a ‘‘helix’’ 共see Struik 关29兴兲. Further, the ratio ␬/␶ is
also equal to the ratio r/h of radius of curvature r and pitch h.6
Since the ratio ␬/␶ is independent of axial position w i , it is con-
venient to examine this ratio for the special case w i ⫽0 共i.e., at the
‘‘throat’’ of the hyperboloidal pitch surface兲. When w i ⫽0, the
ratio r 储 /h 储 ⫽tan⫺1关␲/2⫺( ␣ p ⫹ ␺ p ) 兴 and ⌺ 储 ⫽⌺ (⌺⫽ ␣ pi⫹ ␣ po and
␺ pi⫽⫺ ␺ po). For parabolic line contact, r⬜ /h⬜ ⫽tan⫺1(␣p⫹␺p)7
and ⌺⬜ ⫽⌺, thus B 储 and B⬜ simplify to

B 2储 ⫽⫺2 sin2 ␺ pi cos2 ␺ pi 冉 冊 1 1

Ri Ro
cos ⌺ (27a)

Fig. 11 Relation between envelope of moving body and enve-

B⬜2 ⫽⫺2
cos4 ␺ pi 1 1
sin2 ␾ n R i R o 冉 冊
cos ⌺. (27b)
lope of envelopes
Substituting the above relations for A 储 and B 储 as well as A⬜ and
B⬜ into Eqs. 共23兲 and 共25兲 respectively and rearranging results in
the following expressions for relative gear tooth curvature:

冑冋 册
termine gear tooth curvature in terms of cutter geometry. Principle
or extreme curvatures for both the input and output gear along 1 2 cos ⌺ 1
⌬ ␬ 储⫽ ⫹ ⫹ 2 sin2 ␺ pi sin ␾ n (28a)
with the included angle between the principle directions associ- R i2 R iR o Ro

冑冋 册
ated with these extreme curvatures are necessary to determine the
relative gear tooth curvature. The principle curvatures b ␬ i and d ␬ i 1 2 cos ⌺ 1 cos2 ␺ pi
⌬ ␬⬜ ⫽ ⫹ ⫹ 2 . (28b)
for the input gear tooth are determined by introducing a curvature R i2 R iR o R o sin ␾ n
cylindroid. An input curvature cylindroid is defined by the two
twists $⬜i and $ 储 i 共see Fig. 8兲 whereas an output cylindroid is For the special case of motion transmission between parallel
defined by the two twists $⬜o and $ 储 o . Corresponding to b ␬ i and axes with spur teeth, ⌺⫽ ␺ pi⫽0 and ⌬ ␬ 储 is also zero whereas
⌬ ␬⬜ reduces to the planar Euler-Savary Equation for envelopes.8
d ␬ i are the pitches b h i ⫽ d h i ⫽0. A similar procedure is repeated for
the output gear element in order to obtain the extreme curvatures Finally, combining the above expressions for curvature yields the
following expressions for extreme relative curvature:
b ␬ o and d ␬ o . The two curvature cylindroids ($⬜i ;$ 储 i ) and
($⬜o ;$ 储 o ) are different than the two cylindroids ($⬜i ;$⬜o ) and ⌬ ␬ min⫽0 (29a)
($ 储 i ;$ 储 o ). The two cylindroids ($⬜i ;$ 储 i ) and ($⬜o ;$ 储 o ) interest
along the twist $ ␰ that parameterizes the displacement of a point
on the gear tooth surface 共either input or output兲 in the direction
the ‘line of contact’ 共i.e., ␶ ␰ i ⫽ ␶ ␰ o and r ␰ i ⫽r ␰ o and hence ␬ ␰ i
⌬ ␬ max⫽ 冑冋 1
R 2⫹
2 cos ⌺
R iR o
⫹ 2
Ro sin ␾ n 册
1 共 cos2 ␺ pi⫹sin2 ␾ n sin2 ␺ pi兲

(29b)
⫽ ␬ ␰ o ). The geodesic torsion of two such surfaces is the same in
the direction of the line of contact. This equivalence of torsion is where
analogous to the equivalence of the parameter of distribution for
ruled surfaces in first order contact. In general two gear surfaces 6
Solving for the curvature ␬ and torsion ␶ in terms of radius r and pitch h results
are in line-contact and that the relative curvature between two in
gear surfaces is a parabolic point as depicted in Fig. 10. r
␬⫽ (a)
r2⫹h2
Nominal pitch contact „qÄ0…. Expressions for relative cur- ␶⫽ 2 2 .
h
(b)
vature are simplified for the special case where the nominal con- r ⫹h
7
tact is restricted to coincide with the reference pitch surface. This Euler’s formula for normal curvature
scenario occurs when the distance q between the point of contact ␬⫽␬max cos2 ␪⫹␬min sin2 ␪ (a)
and Bertrand’s formula for geodesic torsion
c and the point p where the tooth contact normal $ l intersects the
␶⫽共␬max⫺␬min兲sin ␪ cos ␪ (b)
reference pitch surface is zero 共see Fig. 8兲. ⌬ ␬⬜ and ⌬ ␬ 储 define are combined for the special case ␬ min⫽0 to give ( ␪⬜ ⫽ ␪ 储 ⫹ ␲ /2)
the relative curvatures in the polar and spiral directions respec- ␬⬜ /␶⬜⫽⫺␬储 /␶储 (c)
tively. For the special case q⫽0, ␩ ⫽0 and A 储 reduces to and as a result, r 储 /h 储 ⫽tan关␲/2⫺( ␣ p ⫹ ␺ p ) 兴 ⫽⫺h⬜ /r⬜ ⫽⫺tan(␣p⫹␺p).
1 8
Additional investigation into Eq. 共36b兲 reveals that the radical term is an impor-
A 储 ⫽ 共 a 储 i ⫺b 储 o 兲 . tant property between the two conjugate hyperboloidal pitch surfaces. Rearranging
q Eq. 共36b兲 produces
l1;-3qIn the limit as q approaches zero, A 储 reduces to 0/0 and
hence A 储 is indeterminate. Applying L’Hospital’s rule to deter-
sin ␾n
⌬␬⬜ 2
cos ␺pi
⫽ 冑冋 1
R i2
⫹
2 cos ⌺
Ri Ro
⫹
1
R2o
册
. (a)
mine A 储 for q⫽0 produces
One such important relation between ruled surfaces is
r 储i r 储o ␻isa
limitA 储 ⫽ 2 2⫺ 2 2 ⫽ ␬ 储i⫺ ␬ 储o . (26a) (b)
q→0 r 储 i ⫹h 储 i r 储 o ⫹h 储 o vp
where ␻ isa is the relative angular speed between the two ruled surfaces and v p is the
The normal curvatures ␬ 储 i and ␬ 储 o for the tooth surface are speed of the pitch point p projected onto the polar plane coincident with the pitch
evaluated in terms of the tooth spiral and projected onto the con- point p. The speed v p is independent of the position along the common generator for
tact normal $ l . Thus, A 储 ⫽⌬ ␬ 储 /tan ␺p sin ␾n for the special case cylindrical ruled surfaces 共i.e., parameter of distribution is infinite兲 and consequently
this special relation is defined as an instantaneous invariant. Recognizing that
q⫽0. Continuing in a similar manner for the polar direction yields
␻isa⫽ ␻ i 冑1⫹g 2 ⫺2g cos ⌺ (c)
r⬜i r⬜o and (g⫽R i /R o )
limitA⬜ ⫽ 2 2 ⫺ 2 2 ⫽ ␬⬜i ⫺ ␬⬜o (26b)
q→0 r⬜i ⫹h⬜i r⬜o ⫹h⬜o v p ⫽ ␻i R i (d)
reveals Eq. 共a兲 can also be written
and A⬜ ⫽⌬ ␬⬜ for q⫽0. The terms B 储 and B⬜ also simplify for the sin ␾n ␻ isa
⌬␬⬜ 2 ⫽ . (e)
special case q⫽0. The included angle between the tooth spiral cos ␺pi vp
tangency and a fixed line is a constant and consequently the ratio This relation is another form of the generalized Euler-Savary equation.

742 Õ Vol. 124, DECEMBER 2002 Transactions of the ASME


⌬ ␬ min — minimum relative curvature between gear teeth
⌬ ␬ max — maximum relative curvature between gear teeth
R i — apparent radius of the input hyperboloidal pitch surface
R o — apparent radius of the output hyperboloidal pitch sur-
face
␺ pi — instantaneous spiral angle of the input gear ( ␺ pi⫽
⫺ ␺ po)
␾ n — normal pressure angle ( ␾ ni⫽ ␾ no)
⌺ — included shaft angle.
The above expressions for extreme relative curvature are derived
for contact along the common generator of pitch surfaces 共i.e., q
⫽0 in Eq. 共23兲 and Eq. 共25兲兲. These expressions establish a char-
acteristic or fundamental relation for the relative curvature of two
conjugate surfaces in direct contact, thus a third law of gearing
can be stated accordingly:
For any two generally disposed axes, a unique relation exists
for the relative curvature between two gear surfaces in mesh
that is independent of the gear tooth geometries.
This relation is independent of the tooth type 共e.g., involute or
cycloid兲 and depends solely on the differential properties of the
two pitch surface. Although the relative curvatures are unique the
extreme curvatures of the mating surfaces are not. In practice,
lead crown and profile relief are added to a tooth profile to accom-
modate inaccurate gear assembly and material deformation, and
consequently, gears teeth in mesh result in point contact and the
above conditions are easily modified to account for any lead
crown and profile relief 共Dooner 关30兴兲. Dooner presents four dif-
ferent numerical examples to demonstrate the determination of
relative curvature. Two gear surfaces in direct contact that produce
conjugate motion are defined as conjugate gear surfaces.
The manufacture of gear elements often involve a process
where the geometry of one body 共viz., the gear兲 depends on the
geometry or another body 共the cutter兲 along with the relative mo-
tion between the gear and cutter. The geometry 共and curvature兲 of
the resulting gear is often obtained using the theory of envelopes.
The relation between a moving body A, the family of generated
surfaces defined by the moving body A 共single infinity of charac-
teristic curves兲, and the envelope of the family of generated sur-
faces is depicted in Fig. 11. The third law of gearing differs from
the theory of envelopes in that the theory of envelopes can be used
to obtain extreme curvatures and subsequently the relative curva-
ture between a generating surface and its generated surface or
envelope 共i.e., loci of characteristic curves兲 whereas the third law
of gearing establishes a relation for the relative curvature of two
gear tooth surfaces that is independent of the gear tooth geometry.
Grill 关31兴 uses an ‘‘equation of meshing’’ to establish a relation
between the curvature of one body 共i.e., the generating surface兲 to
that of another body 共the generated surface兲 and he applies his
results in the context of gearing. Further, he warrants that the first
and second fundamental forms 共e.g., see 关29兴兲 depend only on the
first derivative of the general equations of meshing and the com-
ponents of the velocity of the moving space. Additionally, Dyson
关32兴, Wu and Luo 关33兴, along with Litvin 关2兴 each provide an
in-depth investigation of conjugate surfaces yet there is no known
literature that reveals that the relative gear tooth curvature is tooth
type independent.
Summary
Presented are three separate relations that define the kinematic
geometry of generalized motion transmission between two arbi-
trary axes in space via surfaces in direct contact. These three
relationship are defined as the three laws of gearing. A system of
curvilinear coordinates is introduced to facilitate the development
of these three laws. This system of curvilinear coordinates is
based upon the cylindroid defined by the two axes of rotation. The
first law of gearing defines the motion relationship between two
axes of rotation for a given line of action. The second law of
gearing expresses the instantaneous motion relationship between
Journal of Mechanical Design
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two axes of rotation in terms of the apparent radii of conjugate
hyperboloidal pitch surfaces. The third law of gearing defines the
relative curvature between two conjugate gear surfaces in mesh
and shows that the relative tooth curvature depends solely on the
properties of the two hyperboloidal pitch surfaces and is indepen-
dent of the tooth profile type. These three laws of gearing along
with a system of cylindroidal coordinates establish a generalized
geometric theory where the well know relations for planar motion
are a special scenario of this generalized case.
Acknowledgment
The author acknowledges Dr. Michael Griffis for his many dis-
cussions on screw theory, without which, this work would not
exist.
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