A Model of Positive and Negative Learning

Learning Demands and Resources, Learning Engage-

ment, Critical Thinking, and Fake News Detection

Christian Dormann, Eva Demerouti, and Arnold Bakker

Abstract

This chapter proposes a model of positive and negative learning (PNL model).
We use the term negative learning when stress among students occurs, and
when knowledge and abilities are not properly developed. We use the term pos-
itive learning if motivation is high and active learning occurs. The PNL model
proposes that (a) learning-related demands and resources contribute to learn-
ing engagement and burnout, (b) that learning engagement improves critical
thinking, which (c) should enhance students’ abilities to detect fake news. Two
studies demonstrate the validity of the learning engagement and burnout con-
structs, and learning-related demands and resources as possible antecedents.
Also, critical thinking mediates the effect of learning engagement on fake news
detection. Still, 30.30% of the students believed more in fake news than in real
news. We discuss implications of the PNL model for the design of learning
conditions.

Keywords

Positive Learning; Negative Learning; Stress; Motivation; Critical Thinking;

Fake News; Learning Demands; Learning Resources.

315
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2018
O. Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia et al. (Eds.), Positive Learning in the Age
of Information, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-19567-0_19
316 Christian Dormann, Eva Demerouti, and Arnold Bakker

1 Positive and Negative Learning

The media frequently report on university students’ stress, decreasing motivation,

reduced performance, increased turnover, or diminishing competencies to transfer
to their jobs what they have learned (e.g., Forbes 2013). Whilst in most Western
countries there has been little debate that education is the key to future societal
development and economic success, these adverse developments are coupled with
tendencies of politicians to discredit research evidence (e.g., The Guardian 2017)
and prefer “alternative facts” (NBC News 2017), for example, misrepresenting the
scientific evidence that shows the atmosphere of the earth is warming (Weaver
2017). This is unfortunate because research delivers the evidence that constitutes
the core of curricular contents at universities, and if politicians question the va-
lidity of curricular contents, students possibly reduce their engagement in their
studies even more.
Media reports on students’ attitudes are substantiated by research evidence.
Students’ believes in the meaningfulness of their studies are indeed undermined,
cynicism could increase, and students feel frequently stressed (Herbst et al. 2016).
In their review and meta-analysis of stress interventions among students, Regehr,
Glancy and Pitts (2013, p. 7) concluded that “[…] that approximately half of the
university students report moderate levels of stress-related mental health con-
cerns, including anxiety and depression,” The prevalence of clinically relevant
levels of depression was estimated to be as high as 30.6% (Ibrahim et al. 2013).
Further, we shall expect graduates to know the most important research evidence,
but frequently they do not (e.g., Rynes et al. 2002), and evidence-based decisions
are rarely made in practice (e.g., Briner 2007).
When undesirable learning outcomes occur, we use the term negative learning
(see Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia et al. 2017). In particular, when negative states such
as exhaustion and cynicism occur, we use the term learning burnout. Positive an-
titheses to negative learning and learning burnout are being vigorous, dedicated,
and fully absorbed while studying. Such states constitute what we term learning
engagement, which is part of positive learning (cf. Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia et al. in
this volume). We propose a Positive and Negative Learning model (PNL model).
The PNL model describes a process according to which study-related demands
(e.g., time pressure, self-control demands) and resources (e.g., socially support-
ive teachers, self-efficacy) are antecedents of learning engagement and learning
burnout, which impact on students’ active learning (e.g., critical thinking). Critical
thinking, in turn, is proposed to impact on students’ media literacy (e.g., Trilling
and Fadel 2009), including the ability to distinguish between “fake news” and real
news.