metals
Article
Compressive Properties and Failure Mechanisms of Gradient
Aluminum Foams Prepared by a Powder Metallurgy Method
Wenzhan Huang 1 , Guangming Liu 1, *, Huaying Li 1 , Fang Wang 1 and Yanli Wang 2






Citation: Huang, W.; Liu, G.; Li, H.;
Wang, F.; Wang, Y. Compressive
Properties and Failure Mechanisms of
Gradient Aluminum Foams Prepared
by a Powder Metallurgy Method.
Metals 2021, 11, 1337. https://
doi.org/10.3390/met11091337
Academic Editor:
Mieczyslaw Jurczyk
Received: 14 July 2021
Accepted: 20 August 2021
Published: 24 August 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Metals 2021, 11, 1337. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091337
1 School of Material Science and Technology, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024,
China; 2019063@tyust.edu.cn (W.H.); 2014246@tyust.edu.cn (H.L.); 2001044@tyust.edu.cn (F.W.)
2 School of Material Science and Technology, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China;
2012047@tyust.edu.cn
* Correspondence: 2011030@tyust.edu.cn
Abstract: A layered gradient aluminum foam was prepared by powder sintering with sodium
thiosulfate (Na2 S2 O3 ) particles as the cell-forming agent. By cutting, polishing and observing under
a microscope, it was found that the aluminum powder particles were not completely melted after
sintering but were only combined by surface melting. Based on the quasi-static compression test and
the macroscopic diagram of the sample during deformation, the mechanical properties of gradient
aluminum foam were studied, and their deformation characteristics and mechanism were analyzed
and discussed.
Keywords: gradient aluminum foam; compression properties; failure mechanisms; two-layered
structure; powder metallurgy method
1. Introduction
Foamed metallic materials (FMM) are materials that have a foam structure and contain
a large of number of cells in the base metal materials. Owing to the abundant cells, foamed
metallic materials possess unique functional properties, such as light weight, damping,
energy absorption, heat dissipation, colation, etc., therefore drawing significant attention
from the industrial field [1–8]. In particular, Al and Al alloys are typically used for foamed
metallic materials due to their excellent castability and industrial significance [6]. Extensive
studies have been conducted to investigate the mechanical property, energy absorption
capability and damping property of uniform Al foams [9–18]. To optimize the functional
properties of foams, functionally graded foams have been widely studied for higher
performance and effectiveness [4,6,19–23] instead of uniform foam. The graded foams
consist of a gradual change in their property from one location to another.
Introducing a gradient to foam materials may alter deformation modes and result
in various mechanical properties. Many methods for preparing uniform metal foams can
be used to prepare metal foams with a gradient structure. According to the cell structure,
gradient metal foams can be divided into open-cell structure metal foams [22,23], metal
matrix syntactic foams [6,24,25] and closed-cell structure metal foams [20,21,26–28]. At
present, a gradient is usually introduced to foam materials by changing the relative density
distribution. Therefore, the relative density of the gradient foam is not uniform. Cell size
and cell-wall thickness are two important parameters to adjust the relative density of foam
materials. Some researchers have changed the cell size distribution and cell-wall thickness
gradients to study the gradient effect on the mechanical properties of foams [21–23,26–29].
Changes in cell size and cell-wall thickness are mainly used to study the effect of density
gradient of foam materials on performance. Meanwhile, functionally graded Al foams with
both open-cell structures and closed-cell structures have also been prepared and researched.
However, there have been few studies on size gradient aluminum foams with open-cell
structures and uniform relative densities. Al foams with open-cell structures have good
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
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filtration characteristics and heat-release properties. Therefore, cell-size gradient Al foams

with open-cell structures and uniform relative densities are worth to study.
In this study, two-layered cell-size gradient Al foams (SGAF) with open-cell structures
and uniform porosity were prepared by the sintering dissolution method. Urea [30,31] and
salt (NaCl) [32] have often been selected as a spacer to prepare Al foam for a space holder.
However, these spacers have weak corrosion, which will corrode the Al base and reduce the
mechanical properties of Al foam. Moreover, the residual urea in the sintering process will
decompose to produce ammonia gas, which pollutes the environment. Sodium thiosulfate
(Na2 S2 O3 ) was selected as the spacer in this study. Its solution is non-toxic, soluble in
water and easily removed from aluminum foam. Meanwhile its solution is neutral, which
produces no corrosion on aluminum metal and little environmental pollution. In this
paper, the porosity of SGAF was fixed at 70%. The Al foams with cell-size gradients were
produced. In this paper, the cell sizes of gradient Al foams include 4 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm,
(i.e., 4-3, 4-2 and 3-2). 4-3, 4-2 and 3-2 refer to two-layered gradient Al foams with cell sizes
of 4 mm and 3 mm, 4 mm and 2 mm, 3 mm and 2 mm, respectively. The effects of cell size
on the quasi-static compressive behavior of SGAF have been investigated. After evaluation
of the compressive properties, deformation and failure mechanisms were also discussed.

2. Experimental Procedure
2.1. Fabrication of Two-Layered Cell Size Gradient Al Foams (SGAF)
SGAF were prepared by the sintering dissolution process. Aluminum powders (techni-
cally pure 99.98%, 300 meshes) were used as base materials. Sodium thiosulfate (Na2 S2 O3 )
was chosen as the space support; the sizes included 4 mm, 3 mm and 2 mm. The cell
size and porosity of SGAF were precisely controlled by adjusting the mass and size of
sodium thiosulfate (Na2 S2 O3 ) and aluminum powders. The two powders needed to be
mixed evenly. Before stirring, a small amount of alcohol was added. This operation was
conducive to the better adhesion of aluminum powder to the surface of the space support
to improve the uniformity of cell distribution. The mixture was poured into a cold press
mold for 10 min under a pressure of 370 MPa. Then, a cold press block with a diameter of
40 mm and a height of 30 mm was obtained. Meanwhile, the cold press block was polished
to remove the edges and burrs. The specimens were immersed in a constant temperature
water bath at 60 ◦ C for over 5 h to ensure that the space bracket was completely dissolved.
After drying at 100 ◦ C for 30 min, the foamed aluminum samples were sintered in a furnace
at 620 ◦ C for 5 h and then cooled to room temperature in the furnace. The size of the
prepared aluminum foam sample was a cylinder with a diameter of 40 mm and a height of
30 mm, and the porosity was 70%. The diameter of the cells was the same as that of sodium
thiosulfate, i.e., 4 mm, 3 mm and 2 mm.

2.2. Structure Characterization

The specimens were cut into a semicircle with a diameter of 40 mm by using an electric
discharge machine (Longkai Technology Co., Ltd., Suzhou city, China). The specimen’s
density was determined by its weight and physical dimensions, in which the porosity of
the foam is defined as
ρ
P=1− (1)
ρs
where P is the porosity; ρ and ρs are the densities of the aluminum foam samples and the
cell wall material, respectively.
For observing the microstructural features, the samples were polished with sandpaper
and corroded with a 15% sodium hydroxide solution. Micrographs were taken under an
optical microscope (Keyence (China) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), and then the samples
were scanned under the printer LaserJet M1136 MFP (China Hewlett-Packard Co., Ltd.,
Beijing, China) with the resolution set at 1200 dpi to observe the macroscopic cells and
microstructure.
Metals 2021, 11, 1337 3 of 10

2.3. Quasi-Static Compressive Test

Quasi-static compressive tests of the specimens were conducted at room temperature
with a crosshead speed of 3 mm/min by an Electron Universal Material Testing Machine
(UTM 5305 × 300 kN) (Suns Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). Platform stress
is the average pressure within the range of 10–45% strain. Stress drop, a parameter to
describe cell-wall collapse when stress exceeds the yield stress and stress redistributes
during compressive process, is defined as:

S = (Su − Sl )/Su (2)

where S is stress drop rate, and Su is the high yield point stress. Sl the low yield point
stress.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Morphology Observation
The cell structure of SGAF is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1a–c shows the transverse
direction sectional views of the aluminum foam samples with cell size of 4 mm, 3 mm
and 2 mm. The whole cell shape was round, similar to the shape of sodium thiosulfate
particles. At the same time, with the increase of cell diameter, the thickness of the cell wall
increased, which will have a certain impact on the mechanical properties of the material.
Figure 1e–f showed the longitudinal direction sectional views of gradient aluminum foams
with different cell size gradients (4-3, 4-2, 3-2). It can be seen that all the cells were deformed
to some extent in the pressure direction, forming an elliptical shape and that the degree
of deformation decreased with the increase of the cell size. The ellipse degree of the hole
also had a certain influence on its mechanical properties. At the same time, it can be
observed that the distribution of the aluminum matrix was not uniform, with obvious
aggregation at A and weakness at B. This may have some influence on the deformation
process. In addition, there was obvious connectivity between some cells. This was due to
the deformation and friction of sodium thiosulfate particles during the compression process,
which leads to the aggregation of aluminum powder. Meanwhile, it can be observed that
the larger the cell size of the sample, the thicker the cell wall. The thickness of the cell
wall has a great influence on the mechanical properties of the samples—thicker walls
are stronger. With the same porosity, the thicker the cell wall, the higher the mechanical
properties.
Figure 2 shows the microstructure of the cell wall of SGAF after polishing and cor-
rosion under metallographic microscope. In Figure 2a,b, the boundary line between
aluminum powder particles can be clearly observed at different scales. This proved that the
aluminum powder particles were not completely melted during the preparation process. In
Figure 2c,d, the boundary line between aluminum powder particles can be clearly observed
at A. It indicated that the bond between aluminum powder particles was not very tight.
When subjected to pressure, cracks are prone to occur at this place, leading to the fracture of
the cell wall, and then the strength of aluminum foam decreases. However, the combination
of particles at B was relatively good. This was caused by the fusion of the surface of some
aluminum powder particles during sintering and adhesion to each other.
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Figure 1.
Figure Macrostructure of
1. Macrostructure of two-layered
two-layered cell-size
cell-size gradient
gradient Al
Al foams
foams inin both
both orthogonal
orthogonal direction;
direction; transverse direction: Al
transverse direction:
direction: Al
foams with cell of (a) 2 mm,
mm, (b)
(b) 3
3 mm,
mm, (c)
(c) 44 mm,
mm, longitudinal
longitudinal direction:
direction: Al
Alfoams
foamswith
with cell of
cell (d)
of 3
(d) 3mm-2
mm-2mm,
foams with cell of (a) 2 mm, (b) 3 mm, (c) 4 mm, longitudinal direction: Al foams with cell of (d) 3 mm-2 mm, (e) 4 mm-2mm, (e) 4
(e) mm-2
4 mm-
2mm,
mm,
mm, (f)(f)
(f) 44 mm-3
4mm-3
mm-3 mm,
mm,
mm, A—aggregation
A—aggregation
A—aggregation ofof
of aluminum
aluminum
aluminum powders,
powders,
powders, B—weak
B—weak
B—weak connection ofofcells.
connectionof
connection cells.
cells.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. The
The microstructure
microstructure ofof aa two-layered
two-layered gradient
gradient aluminum
aluminum foamed
foamed cell
cell wall
wall under
under aa metallographic
metallographic microscope
microscope at
at
Figure The microstructure
2. scales
different with of (a)100 of
μm, a two-layered
(b) 40 μm, gradient
(c) and (d)aluminum
20 μm: foamed
A—clear cell wall line,
boundary under a metallographic
B—better boundary microscope at
combination.
different scales with of (a)100 μm, (b) 40 μm, (c) and (d) 20 μm: A—clear boundary line, B—better boundary combination.
different scales with of (a) 100 µm, (b) 40 µm, (c) and (d) 20 µm: A—clear boundary line, B—better boundary combination.
Metals 2021, 11, 1337 5 of 10
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Figure 33 shows
Figure shows the
the microstructure
microstructure of an aluminum
of an aluminum foamed
foamed cell wall under
cell wall under aa scanning
scanning
electron microscope. In Figure 3a, it can be clearly observed that
electron microscope. In Figure 3a, it can be clearly observed that aluminum powder aluminum powder
par-
particles deformed significantly after being compacted and formed.
ticles deformed significantly after being compacted and formed. Therefore, there were Therefore, there
no
were no gaps
obvious obvious gaps between
between particles,particles,
making itmaking it easier
easier for for to
particles particles
combine to in
combine in the
the sintering
sinteringItprocess.
process. It can be observed
can be observed from3bFigure
from Figure 3b that
that there wasthere was an obvious
an obvious gap between
gap between alumi-
aluminum powder particles at A. This indicated that it was not sufficient
num powder particles at A. This indicated that it was not sufficient to combine the melted to combine
the melted powder
aluminum aluminum powder
particles in particles in the
the sintering sintering
process. Thisprocess.
may beThisdue may beinsufficient
to the due to the
insufficient deformation of some aluminum powder particles in the deformation process,
deformation of some aluminum powder particles in the deformation process, which does
which does not fill up the gap. Thus, the result was insufficient melting and bonding
not fill up the gap. Thus, the result was insufficient melting and bonding between alumi-
between aluminum powder particles. The boundary at B was relatively good, and the
num powder particles. The boundary at B was relatively good, and the boundary was bent
boundary was bent and interlocked, which is beneficial to improving the bond strength.
and interlocked, which is beneficial to improving the bond strength.

Figure 3. The microstructure of a two-layered gradient aluminum foamed cell wall under a scanning electron microscope
Figure 3. The microstructure of a two-layered gradient aluminum foamed cell wall under a scanning electron microscope at
at different scales with of (a) 40 μm and (b) 20 μm: A—gaps between particles, B—bent and interlocked boundary.
different scales with of (a) 40 µm and (b) 20 µm: A—gaps between particles, B—bent and interlocked boundary.

3.2. Effects
Effects of
of Two-Layered
Two-Layered Structure of Samples on Mechanical Properties Properties
Figure 4 shows the the compressive
compressivecurves curvesofoftwo-layered
two-layeredstructure
structureAlAl foams
foams with
with dif-
differ-
ferent
ent cellcell
sizesize gradients
gradients (4-3,(4-3,
4-2, 4-2,
3-2).3-2). It shows
It shows threethree obvious
obvious stages, stages,
namely,namely, the elastic
the linear linear
elastic deformation
deformation zone, azone,
longaplateau
long plateau
of plasticof plastic deformation
deformation and the and the compaction
compaction zone.zone.Two
Two
obviousobvious deformation
deformation zoneszones
can becan seenbe inseen
thein the plateau
plateau area. These
area. These two deformation
two deformation zones
zones are closely
are closely relatedrelated
to the to the deformation
deformation of twooflayers
two layers of gradient
of gradient Al foamsAl foams
with with dif-
different
ferent cell In
cell sizes. sizes.
FigureIn Figure
4, it can4,be it observed
can be observed that there thatwas
there was fluctuation
a large a large fluctuation in the
in the plateau
plateau
area. This area.
wasThisdue was
to thedue to the
partial partial
melting and melting
bonding and bonding
between thebetween
aluminum thepowder
aluminum par-
ticles, which
powder is obviously
particles, which is different
obviously from the aluminum
different from the foam prepared
aluminum by the
foam melt foaming
prepared by the
method.
melt foaming When the size
method. of the
When thesample
size ofwas 4-3, 4-2,was
the sample 3-2,4-3,
the4-2,
compaction strain increased
3-2, the compaction strain
gradually.gradually.
increased This is because,
This iswith the same
because, withporosity,
the samethe smallerthe
porosity, thesmaller
cell diameter,
the cellthe thinner
diameter,
the cell wall,the
thinner and thewall,
cell crackedandcellthewall
crackedwas cell
easier
wallto be
wascompacted
easier to and deformed after
be compacted the
and de-
collapse, and there was more compaction
formed after the collapse, and there was more compaction space.space.
Table 1 shows the peak stress, plateau stress and stress drop ratio of the samples with
different cell
different cell sizes
sizes during
during compression.
compression. It It can
can bebe seen
seen from
from Table
Table 11 that,
that, when
when thethe sample
sample
sizes were
sizes were 4-3,
4-3, 4-2,
4-2,3-2,
3-2,the
thepeak
peakstress
stress was
was 6.26.2
MPa,
MPa, 5.25.2
MPa MPaandand3.5 MPa
3.5 MParespectively.
respectively.The
peakpeak
The stressstress
decreased by nearly
decreased 43.5% 43.5%
by nearly when the cellthe
when sizes
cellof sizes
the samples changed changed
of the samples from 4-3
to 3-2.4-3
from This is because
to 3-2. This isthe largerthe
because thelarger
cell sizethewas,
cell the
sizethicker
was, the thethicker
cell wall;
thethus, the harder
cell wall; thus,
it was to be damaged. Moreover, the corresponding plateau
the harder it was to be damaged. Moreover, the corresponding plateau stresses were stresses were 3.9 MPa, 3.5 MPa3.9
and 3.5
MPa, 3.5MPa,
MParespectively.
and 3.5 MPa, It respectively.
can be seen that thebe
It can stress
seenwas
thatrelatively
the stressclosewasinrelatively
the process of
close
collapse. The corresponding stress drop ratio was 55.2%,
in the process of collapse. The corresponding stress drop ratio was 55.2%, 40.4% and 40.4% and 20.3%, and the stress
drop ratio
20.3%, anddecreased
the stress gradually.
drop ratioThe stress drop
decreased ratio decreased
gradually. The stressbydrop nearly 63.2%
ratio when the
decreased by
cell sizes of the samples changed from 4-3 to 3-2. This is because,
nearly 63.2% when the cell sizes of the samples changed from 4-3 to 3-2. This is because, with the decrease of the
cell size
with the in the samples,
decrease the size
of the cell collapse
in thespace
samples,of each
thelayer of cells
collapse space is of
relatively
each layersmall in the
of cells is
failure process, and then the stress fluctuation caused by the collapse process is relatively
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relatively small in the failure process, and then the stress fluctuation caused by the col-
lapse process
small. is relatively
Therefore, small.and
the yield stress Therefore,
the stressthe yield stress
fluctuation and the
increase stress
with fluctuation
the increase in-
of the
crease
cell with the
diameter increase
of the of the cell diameter of the sample.
sample.

20
gradients Al foam with cell size of 3-2
gradients Al foam with cell size of 4-2
gradients Al foam with cell size of 4-3
16
Linear elastic deformation

The first plastic Compaction zone

Stress(S)/MPa

12 deformation plateau Compaction point

The second plastic
deformation plateau
8

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Strain(ε) .
Figure4.4.The
Figure Thecompressive
compressivecurves
curvesofof two-layered
two-layered structure
structure Al Al foams
foams with
with different
different cell-size
cell-size gradi-
gradients
ents (4-3, 4-2,
(4-3, 4-2, 3-2). 3-2).

Table1.1.The
Table Themechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesofofthe
thesamples
sampleswith
withdifferent
differentcell
cellsizes.
sizes.

Performance Performance Peak Plateau Stress Drop

Peak Stress/MPa Plateau Stress/MPa Stress Drop Rate/%
Samples Samples Stress/MPa Stress/MPa Rate/%
4-3 4-3 6.2 6.2 3.9 3.9 55.2
55.2
4-2 4-2 5.2 5.2 3.5 3.5 40.4
40.4
3-2 3-2 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 20.3
20.3

3.3. Analysis of Deformation Process of Two-Layered Sample

3.3. Analysis of Deformation Process of Two-Layered Sample
Figure 5 shows the macroscopic diagram of the deformation process of two-layered
Figure 5 shows the macroscopic diagram of the deformation process of two-layered
gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-3. Figure 5a shows the deformation of two-layered
gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-3. Figure 5a shows the deformation of two-layered
gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-3 in the elastic stage of the deformation process. It
gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-3 in the elastic stage of the deformation process. It
can be observed that the cell diameter of the upper part is 4 mm, and the cell diameter of
can be observed that the cell diameter of the upper part is 4 mm, and the cell diameter
the lower part is 3 mm, and there is no damage as a whole. From the deformation in Figure
of the lower part is 3 mm, and there is no damage as a whole. From the deformation
5b–d,
in Figureit can be observed
5b–d, that shearthat
it can be observed deformation occurred atoccurred
shear deformation the initial
atstage of collapse,
the initial stage ofas
shown inas
collapse, A.shown
In addition,
in A. Inan addition,
obvious brittle fracture
an obvious can be
brittle observed
fracture can in
bethe cells, which
observed in theis
different from the ductile fracture of aluminum foam prepared
cells, which is different from the ductile fracture of aluminum foam prepared by the melt by the melt foaming
method. method.
foaming Therefore,Therefore,
the compression curves had
the compression obvious
curves hadfluctuation. As the progress
obvious fluctuation. As the of
compression continued, obvious local regional collapse deformation
progress of compression continued, obvious local regional collapse deformation appeared appeared at both
ends
at bothofends
area of
A,areaas shown in areas
A, as shown inBareas
and BC and
in Figure 5c,d. Moreover,
C in Figure the damage
5c,d. Moreover, in this
the damage
area
in thisgradually extended
area gradually to othertoweak
extended otherareas,
weakasareas,
shown asinshown
area Dininarea
Figure 5c,d.
D in Figure
Figure 5e
5c,d.
shows the macroscopic deformation diagram of the cell structure
Figure 5e shows the macroscopic deformation diagram of the cell structure in the later in the later period of
compression. It can be seen that the cell structures with a diameter
period of compression. It can be seen that the cell structures with a diameter of 3 mm in of 3 mm in Zone E and
someEadjacent
Zone and some celladjacent
structures cellwith a diameter
structures withof 4 mm have
a diameter of both
4 mm obviously
have both collapsed.
obviously In
the area where the cell diameter is 4 mm in the F region, the overall
collapsed. In the area where the cell diameter is 4 mm in the F region, the overall cell shapecell shape was still
intact.
was stillBy comparing
intact. E and F,Eitand
By comparing can F,beitfound
can bethat the structure
found with cellwith
that the structure diameter of 4 mm
cell diameter
had
of 4 mmhigher
hadstrength than thatthan
higher strength withthatcellwith
diameter of 3 mm.of 3 mm.
cell diameter
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Figure 5. The macroscopic diagram of the deformation process of two-layered gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-3.
Figure
Figure 5.5.The
Themacroscopic
macroscopicdiagram
diagram of of the
the deformation
deformation process
process of
of two-layered
two-layered gradient
gradient Al
Al foams
foams with
with aa cell
cell size
size of
of 4-3.
4-3.
Deformation strain: (a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates shear deformation, B and C
Deformation
Deformation strain:
strain: (a) ε = 0.01,
(a) εcollapse
= 0.01, (b)(b) ε = 0.08, (c)
ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d)
= 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε
= 0.38, extended= 0.46;
(e) ε = 0.46; A indicates
A indicates shear deformation,
shearEdeformation, B and CC
B and
indicate local regional deformation, D εindicates theεdamage to other weak areas, indicates obviously
indicate
indicate local regional
localarea,
regional collapse
collapse deformation, D indicates the damage extended to other weak areas, E indicates obviously
collapsed F indicates stilldeformation,
intact overallDcell
indicates
shape. the damage extended to other weak areas, E indicates obviously
collapsed area, F indicates still intact overall cell shape.
collapsed area, F indicates still intact overall cell shape.
Figure 6 shows a macroscopic view of the deformation process of two-layered gradi-
Figure66shows
ent Figure
Al foams
shows aamacroscopic
with cell
macroscopic
diameter ofview
viewFigure
4-2. of
of
thethe deformationdeformation
deformation
6a shows theprocess
process of two-layered
of two-layered gradi-
gradient
of two-layered
ent Al
Algradient foams
foams with with cell
cell diameter
Al foams diameter
with a cellof 4-2. of 4-2. Figure
Figureof6a4-2
diameter shows 6a
in thetheshows the
deformation
elastic deformation
stage during of two-layeredof two-layered
gradient
the deformation
gradient
Al foams Al
process. with
In foams
a cell
Figure with
6a, theacell
diameter celldiameter
diameter
of 4-2 inofthe of
the4-2 in the
elastic
upper elastic
stage
part 4stage
during
was mm, theduring thethe
celldeformation
deformation
and process.
diameter
process.
InofFigure In
the lower6a,Figure
the 6a,diameter
partcell
was the cell It
2 mm. diameter
of
can of thepart
thebeupper
observed upper waspart
that waswall
4 mm,
the cell 4 mm,
and and
thearea
in cellA the cellthinner
diameter
was diameter
of the
ofthan
lowerthethatlower
part inwaspart
area2B, was
mm.
which2Itmm.
can It can
be
belonged tobetheobserved
observed thatzone.
weak that
the the
cell
From cellin
wall
the wall
areainAarea
deformation wasinAthinner
was thinner
Figure 6b–than
that in area B, which belonged to the weak zone. From the deformation in Figure 6b–d,6b–
than
d, it that
can in
be area B,
observed which
that belonged
compression to the weak
collapse zone.
deformationFrom the deformation
occurred in region in
C, Figure
which it
d,was
can itbecan be observed
consistent
observed with thatweak
the compression
that compression areacollapse collapse
in Figure deformation
6a. Figure
deformation 6eoccurred
shows occurred
a in in region
macroscopic
region C, which
view
C, which of
was
was
cell consistent
consistentstructure with
withdeformation
the weakthe weak at the
area area
in lateincompression
Figure Figure 6a. Figure
6a. Figure stage. 6e can
As
6e shows shows
a be a macroscopic
seen
macroscopic from the view view
figure,
of cellof
cell
thestructure
structure deformation
sheardeformation
deformation atlate
occurred
at the theincompression
late compression
the area a cellstage.
withstage. size As4 be
of
As can canseen
mm. be
In seen
the
from Dfrom
area, the figure,
the cell
the figure, the
structure
the
shear shear with a celloccurred
deformation
deformation diameter
occurredinofthe
2inmmthe
areaand
area the
with aadjacent
with a cell
cell sizepart
of with
size of a cell
4 mm.
4 mm. InIndiameter
theDDarea,
the of 4the
area, mm
thecell
cell
have obviously
structure
structure withaacell
with collapsed.
cell diameter
diameter In of
the
of22Emmmmarea, thethe
and
and cell
the structure
adjacent
adjacent with
part
part a cell
with
with diameter
aacell
cell diameter
diameter of 4of
ofmm
44mm
mm
remained
have
have intactcollapsed.
obviously
obviously as a whole.InBythe
collapsed. comparing
the EE area,
area, thethecell
the D and
cell E regions,
structure
structure with
with the structure
aa cell
celldiameter withof
diameter a cell
of 44mm
mm
diameter intact
remained
remained of 4 mm
intact ashad
as higherBy
aawhole.
whole. Bystrength
comparing
comparing than thethestructure
the D and
D with
and EEregions, a cell
regions, diameter
the
the structure
structure of 2with
mm.aaItcell
with cell
can be
diameter of
diameter seen that
of44mm the
mmhad deformation
hadhigher
higherstrength and collapse
strengththan thanthe process
thestructure occurred
structurewith first
withaacell in the
celldiameterweak
diameterof link area
of22mm.mm.ItIt
with
can
can beaseen
be small
seen cellthe
that
that diameter.
the deformation
deformationand andcollapse
collapseprocess
processoccurred
occurredfirst firstin inthetheweak
weaklinklinkarea
area
with
withaasmall smallcellcelldiameter.
diameter.

Figure 6. A macroscopic diagram of the deformation process of two-layered gradient Al foams with a cell size of 4-2.
Deformation strain: (a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates the area with thin cell wall, B
Figure 6.6. A
Figure Athe
indicates macroscopic diagram of
area with relatively
macroscopic diagram of the
thickthecell
deformation process
wall, C indicates
deformation process of two-layered
local
of two-layered gradient
regional collapse Al foams
foams
deformation,
gradient Al D with
aa cell
indicates
with cellobviously
size of
size of 4-2.
4-2.
collapsed area,
Deformation E indicates
strain: still intact
(a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε =overall cellε shape.
0.08, (c) = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates the area with thin cell wall, B
Deformation strain: (a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates the area with thin cell wall,
indicates the area with relatively thick cell wall, C indicates local regional collapse deformation, D indicates obviously
B indicates the area with relativelyFigure
thick cell wall, C
7 shows indicates localview
a macroscopic regional collapse
of the deformation,
deformation processD of
indicates obviously
two-layered gradi-
collapsed area, E indicates still intact overall cell shape.
collapsed area, E indicates stillent
intact overall cell shape.
Al foams with a cell diameter of 3-2. Figure 7a shows the deformation of two-layered
gradient
Figure Al7foams
showswith a cell diameter
a macroscopic view ofof3-2thein deformation
the elastic stage during
process of the deformation
two-layered gradi-
Figure 7 shows a macroscopic view of the deformation process of two-layered gradient
process. It can be observed that the upper part of the cell
ent Al foams with a cell diameter of 3-2. Figure 7a shows the deformation of two-layereddiameter was 3 mm, and the
Al foams with a cell diameter of 3-2. Figure 7a shows the deformation of two-layered
lower part
gradient Al was
foams 2 mm.
withFroma cellthe deformation
diameter of 3-2 in in Figure 6b–d,
the elastic the compression
stage collapse
during the deformation
gradient Al foams
deformation first
with a cell
appeared in
diameter
area A,
ofthe
i.e.,
3-2areain the
with
elastic
a cell
stage
diameter
during
of 2
the
mm,
deformation
and then the
process. It
process.
It can
can be be observed
observed that that the
the upper
upper part part of of the
the cell
cell diameter
diameter was was 33mm,mm,and and the
extended
lower part to
part was the area
was 22mm. with
mm. From a cell
From the diameter
the deformationof 4
deformation in mm in the
in Figureform
Figure6b–d, of shear
6b–d,the deformation.
thecompression Figure
compressioncollapsecollapse
lower
6e shows a macroscopic diagram ofA,
cell structure deformation at the later
deformation
deformation first appeared
first appeared in
in area
area A, i.e.,
i.e.,thethearea
area with
with a cell
a diameter
cell diameter ofstage
2of
mm,
2
ofand
mm,
com-then
and
pression. to
extended In the
zone A, the
area with cell structure
a cell diameterwithofa 4cellmm diameter
inmm
the in of 2 mm
form of and some
shear adjacent cell
deformation. Figure
then extended to the area with a cell diameter of 4 the
structures with a cell diameter of 4 mm have undergone obvious collapse. In the area with form of shear deformation.
6e shows
Figure a macroscopic
6e shows a 4macroscopicdiagram of cellof structure deformation at the later stage of com-
a cell diameter of mm, the celldiagramwas still intact cellas structure
a whole.deformation at the later stage of
pression.
compression. In zone
In zoneA, the cell structure with a cell diameter of 2ofmm andandsome adjacent cell
Combined with A, thethe cell structure
analysis in Figures with a cell
5–7, the diameter
layered gradient 2 mm some
aluminum adjacent
foams
structures
cell with
structures a cell diameter of 4 mm have undergone obvious collapse. In the area with
prepared by awith powdera cellsintering
diameter of 4 mm
method hadhave undergone
obvious obvious collapse.
brittle deformation. WhenIn thethe area
cell
a celladiameter
with cell diameter of 4 mm,
of 4 the cell
mm, the was
cell still intact
was still as a as
intact whole.
a whole.
diameter was 4-2 and 3-2, obvious deformation first appeared in the weak area with a cell
Combined
diameter 2 mm, withand then the it
analysis
extended in into
Figures
the area5–7,with
the alayered gradient
cell diameter of 4 aluminum
mm and 3 mm foams
prepared by a powder sintering method had obvious brittle deformation. When the cell
diameter was 4-2 and 3-2, obvious deformation first appeared in the weak area with a cell
diameter 2 mm, and then it extended into the area with a cell diameter of 4 mm and 3 mm
 structure. Therefore, it can be concluded that the collapse deformation process of two-
layered gradient Al foams firstly occurs in the relatively weak area of small cell size. Then
this induces the deformation of the relatively weak area of large cell size to extend to the
large cell-size area. In addition, the strength of the large cell-size area is generally greater
than that of the small cell size area. The results show that the aluminum powder particles
Metals 2021, 11, 1337 8 of 10
in the layered gradient Al foams prepared by powder metallurgy are easier to aggregate
in the large cell-diameter area. This makes the cell wall thicker in the large cell-diameter
area, and the cell wall in the area with a cell diameter of 2 mm is too thin.

Figure
Figure 7. A
7. A macroscopicdiagram
macroscopic diagramofofthethedeformation
deformation process
process ofof two-layered
two-layeredgradient
gradientAlAlfoams with
foams a cell
with sizesize
a cell of 3-2.
of 3-2.
Deformation strain: (a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates the obvious collapse area.
Deformation strain: (a) ε = 0.01, (b) ε = 0.08, (c) ε = 0.21, (d) ε = 0.38, (e) ε = 0.46; A indicates the obvious collapse area.
4. Conclusions
Combined with the analysis in Figures 5–7, the layered gradient aluminum foams
preparedThe byeffects of cell sintering
a powder size on themethodquasi-static compressive
had obvious brittle behavior of SGAFWhen
deformation. have been
the cell
investigated. Meanwhile, deformation and failure mechanisms
diameter was 4-2 and 3-2, obvious deformation first appeared in the weak area with for the compressive test a
were also discussed. The conclusions were drawn as follows.
cell diameter 2 mm, and then it extended into the area with a cell diameter of 4 mm and
3 1.
mmGradient
in the form Al foams (i.e., the When
of shearing. cell sizethe
of 4-3,
cell 4-2, 3-2) were
diameter wassuccessfully
4-3, the shearprepared by
deformation
occurredthe powder
first, and metallurgy
then the method using environmentally
local collapse began at both ends friendly,
of thenon-toxic and
shear deformation.
Whenharmless
entering sodium
the laterthiosulfate particles.
stage of deformation, the gradient Al foams collapsed obviously
in2.the In the layered
relatively small gradient
cell-sizeAl foams prepared
area, while the by the powder
relatively largemetallurgy method,
cell size area alu- the
still kept
minum powder particles are easier to aggregate in the large
complete structure. Therefore, it can be concluded that the collapse deformation process cell-diameter area. This of
makes the cell wall with the large cell-diameter thicker, while
two-layered gradient Al foams firstly occurs in the relatively weak area of small cell the cell wall with thesize.
small cell-diameter is relatively thinner. This makes for better
Then this induces the deformation of the relatively weak area of large cell size to extend mechanical proper-
to the ties of cell-size
large the layered gradient
area. Al foams
In addition, thewith a largeofcell
strength thediameter. When area
large cell-size the cell sizes
is generally
of the samples were 4 mm-3 mm, 4 mm-2 mm, 3 mm-2 mm,
greater than that of the small cell size area. The results show that the aluminum powder the peak stress was 6.2
MPa, 5.2 MPa and 3.5 MPa respectively.
particles in the layered gradient Al foams prepared by powder metallurgy are easier to
3. Gradient
aggregate in theAl large
foamscell-diameter
prepared by powder area. Thismetallurgy
makes show the cellobvious brittle defor-
wall thicker in the large
mation. This is caused by the melting and bonding characteristics
cell-diameter area, and the cell wall in the area with a cell diameter of 2 mm is too thin. of aluminum
powder particles during sintering. When the cell sizes of the samples were 4 mm-3
mm, 4 mm-2 mm, 3 mm-2 mm, the corresponding stress drop ratio was 55.2%,
4. Conclusions
40.4%, 20.3%.
The effects of cell size on the quasi-static compressive behavior of SGAF have been
4. In the process of deformation, the weak area with a relatively smaller cell diameter
investigated. Meanwhile, deformation and failure mechanisms for the compressive test
is more likely to collapse and deform. Then, this leads to the deformation of the
were also discussed. The conclusions were drawn as follows.
weak area with a relatively thin cell wall in the large cell-diameter area. At the later
1. Gradient Al foams (i.e.,
stage of deformation, the cell
when size of
the area 4-3,a 4-2,
with 3-2)cell
smaller were successfully
diameter prepared
collapsed com- by the
pletely, metallurgy
powder the area withmethod
larger cell diameter
using still kept a relatively
environmentally complete cell
friendly, non-toxic andstruc-
harmless
ture. thiosulfate particles.
sodium
2. In the layered gradient Al foams prepared by the powder metallurgy method, alu-
Author
minumContributions: W.H. and are
powder particles Y.W.easier
are in to
charge of data in
aggregate curation. G.L.cell-diameter
the large is in charge of area.
fundingThis
acquisition. W.H. wrote the original draft. H.L. and F.W. reviewed and edited the manuscript. All
makes the cell wall with the large cell-diameter thicker, while the cell wall with the
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
small cell-diameter is relatively thinner. This makes for better mechanical properties
of the layered gradient Al foams with a large cell diameter. When the cell sizes of the
samples were 4 mm-3 mm, 4 mm-2 mm, 3 mm-2 mm, the peak stress was 6.2 MPa,
5.2 MPa and 3.5 MPa respectively.
3. Gradient Al foams prepared by powder metallurgy show obvious brittle deformation.
This is caused by the melting and bonding characteristics of aluminum powder
particles during sintering. When the cell sizes of the samples were 4 mm-3 mm,
4 mm-2 mm, 3 mm-2 mm, the corresponding stress drop ratio was 55.2%, 40.4%,
20.3%.
4. In the process of deformation, the weak area with a relatively smaller cell diameter is
more likely to collapse and deform. Then, this leads to the deformation of the weak
area with a relatively thin cell wall in the large cell-diameter area. At the later stage of
deformation, when the area with a smaller cell diameter collapsed completely, the
area with larger cell diameter still kept a relatively complete cell structure.
Metals 2021, 11, 1337 9 of 10

Author Contributions: W.H. and Y.W. are in charge of data curation. G.L. is in charge of funding
acquisition. W.H. wrote the original draft. H.L. and F.W. reviewed and edited the manuscript. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by Science and Technology Innovation Fund of Higher
Education in Shanxi Province, China (No. 2020L0342), Doctoral Foundation of Taiyuan University
of Science and Technology (No. 20192066), Research Funding for Doctors in Shanxi Province (No.
20202021), Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi Province (No. 201901D111241, 201901D111270),
Open project of EPM Laboratory, Northeastern University (No. NEU-EPM-014).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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