j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

Review on advances in porous Al composites and

the possible way forward

Bisma Parveez a, Nur Ayuni Jamal a,*, Abdul Maleque a, Farazila Yusof b,
Nashrah Hani Jamadon c, Sharifah Adzila d
a
Department of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre of Advanced Manufacturing & Material
Processing (AMMP Centre), Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, The
National University of Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
d
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Batu Pahat,
Johor, Malaysia

article info abstract

Article history: Porous aluminum (Al) composites are lightweight and high-strength materials composing
Received 17 February 2021 of Al as a matrix material with some strengthening reinforcements and pore-forming
Accepted 11 July 2021 agents that result in the formation of new material with superior physical properties
Available online 28 July 2021 and energy absorption capacities. This work gives an overview of the porous Al-foams
developed thus far, including the foaming agents and space holders, their properties,
Keywords: production techniques, and applications. First, it deliberates the foaming agents and space
Al-foams holders responsible for the foaming and formation of pores in the composites followed by
Ceramics the mechanical properties of the foams. Al has huge potential for applications that require
Foaming agents lightweight, high-strength, and high-energy absorption capacity materials, especially in
Space-holder technique structural construction and automobile manufacturing. Although Al-foams have been
Compressive strength successfully used in automobiles for crashworthiness, lightweight structure, and other
Energy absorption capacity functional applications, the development of Al foams with enhanced characteristics and
properties has limitations. This review discusses various reinforcements used for
improving the characteristics of Al-foams. This review also provides an overview of various
commercial foams and their contribution to several applications. Finally, it attempts to
reveal impediments in foam production with suggested solutions for overcoming the
problems in this area.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ayuni_jamal@iium.edu.my (N.A. Jamal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.07.055
2238-7854/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
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geometrically as well as mechanically anisotropic; the loading

1. Introduction
Lightweight, non-flammable, and recyclable metal foams
(open- and closed-cells) have been widely used as structural
and functional engineering applications [1e4]. Open-cell
metallic foams are mainly used as filters, heat exchangers,
electrodes, and shock absorbers because of their large specific
surface area and high electrical and thermal conductivities
[1,2], while closed-cell Al-foams in structural applications
(e.g., aerospace, automotive, building construction, and in-
dustrial equipment) because of their lightweight with a high
strength-to-weight ratio, high stiffness, high-impact energy
absorbing capacity, good noise, and vibration damping ability
[3e6]. In general, open-cell metallic foams serve as a filler, and
closed-cell Al foams are used as a core in thin-walled struc-
tures and sandwich panels [5,6]. In such composite structures,
thin metal sheets [7] and thin-walled structures (e.g., empty
tubes) [8e11] provide high mechanical strength, while the
foam filler or core mostly offers high crashworthiness with
low emission of greenhouse gases. Consequently, the fuel
economy would improve when they are used as an automo-
tive component [12,13].
However, the relatively low mechanical strength of these
open-cell [14] and closed-cell foams [15] did not constrain
their range of application. Numerous studies had been per-
formed to enhance the mechanical performance of existing
foams, developing a new class of high-strength foams to
widen their applications. In this respect, metallic [16], ceramic
[17], and carbonaceous [18] reinforcements were commonly
added to the porous Al composites to improve their perfor-
mance. Upon metallic reinforcements, the stabilizing inter-
metallic phases formed would strengthen the Al-foams [19].
Further addition of ceramic particles stabilize and improve the
strength of the Al-foams, thereby enhancing their properties
and microstructure [20]. In contrast, although carbonaceous
reinforcements had substantially impacted the properties of
porous Al, high wettability and bonding strength remained
unresolved [21]. The interfacial bonding would affect the
microstructure, and the deformation and fracture mechanism
of foams would depend upon the microstructure [22].
Several commercial Al-foams had been widely studied
[23e27]. Jang et al. [28], found that the microstructure and
mechanical properties of ALPORAS closed-cell Al-foams were
direction and relative density exerted the greatest effect on
their mechanical properties. Also, the macro- and micro-
collapse mechanism of CYMAT™ was dependent on the
thickness of cell walls and the topological non-uniformity of
foams [29]. Meanwhile, Sevostianov et al. [30] evaluated the
cross-property connections between electrical conductivity
and elastic modulus of Alulight foams, while Kovacik et al.
studied the compression properties of Alulight foams at
various temperatures [31]. These commercial foams showed
great potential when used in various applications [32e36].
This review deliberates recent studies on enhancing the
performance of porous Al composites, encompassing seven
sections. The first section introduces porous Al composites;
the second presents the foaming agents and space holders
used. The third one reviews the literature related to porous Al
composites; the fourth describes the production techniques,
and the fifth highlights their applications. The sixth proposes
the challenges and future perspectives, while the final section
summarizes this review work.
2. Foaming agents and space holders
Foaming agents facilitate the formation of foams in the metal
matrix materials, for eg. a blowing agent, which is a substance
that solidifies upon decomposition and capable of producing a
cellular structure via foaming. A blowing agent produces gas
chemically and this gas gives rise to the foam. The commonly
used blowing agents include titanium hydride (TiH2) [37],
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [38,39], zirconium hydride (ZrH2)
[40], etc (Table 1).
Foaming involves mixing elementary powders, alloy pow-
ders, or metal powder blends with a blowing agent using a
conventional tumbler mixer for a uniform dispersal of mate-
rials that release gas in the powder mixture [41,42]. Al-cast
alloys are often used because of their low melting point and
excellent foaming activities. Also, foaming can be stabilized
without ceramic additives; metallic, and non-metallic addi-
tives such as copper (Cu), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg), etc.,
could also form stabilized foams [43,44]. Besides pure Al, the
most commonly used Al alloys comprise wrought alloys, such
as Al 2XXX or 6XXX alloys, and casting alloys, including
AlSi7Mg (A356), AlSi12, and AlSi6Cu [45,46]. At high sintering

Table 1 e Blowing agents, their particle sizes, and gases in the decomposition.
Foaming agent (Blowing agent) Particle size (mm) Evolving Gas References
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 75 CO2 [57]
Titanium hydride TiH2 40 H2 [58]
Zirconium hydride ZrH2 74 H2 [59]
Magnesium hydroxide MgOH2 150 H2 [60]
Dolomite CaMg (CaCO3)2 44,76.97 CO2 [61]
Titanium hydride TiH2 14 H2 [62]
Lime and dolomite CaCO3 and CaMg (CaCO3)2 e CO2 [63]
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 38 CO2 [64]
Titanium hydride TiH2 40 H2 [65]
Titanium hydride TiH2 45 H2 [66]
Titanium hydride TiH2 14 H2 [67]
Titanium hydride TiH2 33 H2 [68]
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temperatures, these foaming agents are decomposed into
solid and gas components, causing the material matrix to
foam as shown in Fig. 1.
However, producing Al-foams at high sintering tempera-
tures causes mismatching of the Al melting point and the
decomposition temperature of the blowing agent TiH2; this
mismatch could yield an unsatisfactory foam expansion while
creating pore heterogeneity and consequential non-isotropic
and non-reproducible foaming characteristics [47,48]. It is
believed that reducing the temperature incongruity could
regulate the Al-foaming process yielding relatively more
consistent closed-cell foams [49]. The decomposition tem-
perature of foam agents approaching the melting point of Al
should reduce the temperature mismatch, leading to better
quality and reproducibility of the foaming process. Developing
new methods to improve the current powder metallurgy
foaming route is crucial for producing suitable high-scale in-
dustrial applications. The main factor modifying the hydrogen
desorption is a higher oxidation temperature, which leads to
the formation of a thicker oxide layer while enhancing the
decomposition temperature of TiH2. Consequently, less
hydrogen is available in TiH2 powder to create foam expan-
sion, thereby passivating the TiH2 powder surface and
decreasing the temperature discrepancy [49,50].
Increasing the oxidation temperature induces the thick-
ening of a surface oxide layer and the increment in the
decomposition temperature of TiH2 powders [51]. However, as
the oxide layer thickens [52], it forms a stabilized liquid Al-
foams [53]. Also, a low hydrogen content remains in TiH2
powders for the production of a foam expansion thereby
reducing the foaming process. Furthermore, under specific
foaming conditions, an oxide layer should be meticulously
developed; otherwise, it would break from the stress induced
by mixing, compacting, or extrusion activities, which are
necessary for the producing a foamable compact [53,54,55].
One of such methods for producing a hydrogen diffusion
barrier is the creation of a SiO2 coating using a solegel [56], in
which the hydrogen loss is removed. However, this process is
unsuitable for the powder metallurgy route because oxides
are inherently brittle. Another factor that modifies the
hydrogen desorption behaviour of TiH2 is the hydride's parti-
cle size. The problem of early decomposition and poor
dispersion of TiH2 was resolved by fabricating a TiH2eAlMg35
composite foaming agent through premixing the oxidizing
treated TiH2 into a low melting point matrix (AlMg35) that
resulted in the formation of small pores with uniform porous
structure and better control over the foaming process [38].
Fig. 1 e Preparation of Al-foams via a powder metallurgy
technique involving a blowing agent for foaming.
2019
Fortunately, the onset temperatures of hydrogen desorp-
tion could be lowered by reducing the particle size of TiH2 to a
nanometric scale [69,70]. Another solution is to use alternative
blowing agents listed in Table 1. In evaluating the effect of
different foaming agents on the Al-foams developed by pow-
der metallurgy (Fig. 1), Paulin [71] revealed that the expensive
foaming agent TiH2 could be substituted with CaCO3 and
dolomite and effectively used in the fabrication of Al-foams
because their high-temperature requirement was fulfilled by
the high-temperature compaction. Li et al. [72] developed Al
foams using CuSO4 as a foaming agent and compared it with
TiH2-foamed Al; the compressive stress and energy absorp-
tion of AleCuSO4 foam were higher than those of Al/TiH2 foam
due to the presence of Cu and Al2O3 from the decomposition of
the foaming agent, thereby showing that it was crucial to
improve the mechanical properties with uniform pore
dispersion in materials.
Another category of substances that forms porous struc-
ture is the space holders that hold spaces in the material
composites and are leached out via dissolution after the sin-
tering process [81]. Table 2 shows the space holders
commonly used for developing Al-foams. Typically, NaCl [82],
carbonate particles, carbamide (ammonium bicarbonate), and
polymer, such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), are used
as space-holder materials for manufacturing metal foams,
especially through powder sintering. When studying the ef-
fect of the space-holder (NaCl) size on the mechanical prop-
erties of Al-foams, Razali et al. [83] found that the compressive
strength decreased as size increased because of the presence
of thin walls, but the energy absorption capacity of Al-foams
increased as a result of increased porosities. However, NaCl
particles induced the formation of irregular pores, taking a
long time (>t min) in leaching out of a sintered composite
sample [84].
Besides, Bafti and Habibolahzadeh [85] successfully used
carbamide particles as a space holder to develop Al-foams.
They obtained better and controlled porosities (shape and
size) and enhanced compressive strength, which increased as
sintering temperature and time surged. Therefore, water-
soluble polymers could be considered promising materials
for developing porous materials. Also, using PMMA particles
as space holders in Al-foams developed via the powder met-
allurgy technique, Jamal et al. [86] revealed that the closed-cell
porous Al composites with varying porosities and densities
could be produced using different amounts of PMMA particles,
i.e., porosities could be efficiently regulated.
3. Porous Al composites
Substantial efforts such as annealing and heat treatments of
Al-foams have been devoted to improving the properties of
porous composites [87,88]. Besides, various reinforcing sub-
stances, such as metallic, ceramic, and carbonaceous mate-
rials have been incorporated into these porous composites to
enhance their properties. Table 3 shows the enhanced me-
chanical properties of porous Al composites due to re-
inforcements, while Table 4 lists the Al composites, foaming
agents used, production techniques employed for their fabri-
cation, and the research outcomes. Other composites and
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Table 2 e Space holders and their particle size.

Space holder Particle size References
Sodium chloride particles NaCl 0.66e0.90 mm [73]
Carbohydrate particles Fytro 1.35, 0.70, and 0.35 mm [74]
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA 150 mm [75]
Sodium chloride particles NaCl 1 mm [76]
Carbamide particles CH4N2O 1e2 mm [77]
Carbamide particles CH4N2O 1.8 mm [78]
Sodium chloride particles NaCl 212e400 mm [79]
Sodium chloride particles NaCl 400 mm [80]

their properties are discussed in the subsequent three
subsections.
3.1. Composites of alloyed Al-foams
Ideas for developing Al-foams with enhanced strength are
mostly based on the fabrication of high-strength solid metal.
One strategy for strengthening Al-foams is to add alloying
elements (e.g. magnesium (Mg)nickel (Ni) that promote
intermetallic formation (e.g., precipitation hardening) [89].
High-strength Al alloy powders or ingots could be directly
used to fabricate high-strength Al-foams. In this respect, Mg,
iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), Si, cobalt (Co), and
scandium (Sc) are the alloying elements that are frequently
investigated for improving the existing foams’ mechanical
properties [92,93,94,95]. In general, the reinforced alloyed
foams, such as AlZn5Mg1, AlSc0.24 [88,89], and AlZn10Mg0.3
[90,91] are stronger than pure Al-foams prepared via a similar
foaming process. Various strengthening mechanisms have
been put forward; some authors suggested that the formation
of intermetallic phases was essential for foam stabilization,
while others proposed that oxide formation was crucial [96].
When studying the effect of adding various alloying ele-
ments (Mg, Co, Ni, Mn, and Ti) on the compression behavior
and energy absorption capability of Al-3 wt.% Sn alloy, Perales
et al. [102] found that the energy absorption of Al-foams
increased along with the contents of these alloying elements
due to the formation of intermetallic phases. Also, Xia et al.
[103] assessed the compressive properties of closed-cell Al
composites reinforced with varying percentages of Mn and

Table 3 e Mechanical properties of porous Al composites.

Composition Porosity Yield strength Plateau Energy (Year)
(%) (MPa) stress (MPa) absorption (MJ/m3) Reference
Al-foams (25
C) 60 8.5 19 28 (2017) [97]
Al/2 wt.%-CNT (25
C) 60 10.0 21 42
Al/2.5 wt.%-CNT (25
C) 60 14.0 29 48
Al/3 wt.%-CNT (25
C) 60 22.24 33 49
Al-foams (150
C) 60 5.75 9 15
Al/2 wt.%-CNT (150
C) 60 9.00 10 23
Al/2 wt.%-CNT (150
C) 60 11.00 15 25
Al/3.0 wt.%-CNT (150
C) 60 16.50 20 37
Al -foams (250
C) 60 4.50 8 10
Al/2 wt.%-CNT (250
C) 60 8.00 8 18
Al/2 wt.%-CNT (250
C) 60 8.50 9 26
Al/3.0 wt.%-CNT (250
C) 60 10.00 10 27
Al-foams 62.1 e 20.1 16.0 (2015) [98]
Al/1 vol.%nano-SiC 55.7 e 82.0 52.3
Al/1 vol.%nano-SiC 60.1 e 59.2 27.1
Al/1 vol.%nano-SiC 64.9 e 44.0 24.6
Al-foams 18.0 6.0 6.77 (2012) [99]
AleAl2O3 50 2.4 12.5 10.52
Al-foams 60 6.0 0.2 1.04
AleAl2O3 60 17.5 7.5 8.07
Al-foams 70 2.5 0.2 0.25
AleAl2O3 70 10.0 2.5 4.77
Al-foams 50 17.0 29.4 20.91 (2019) [100]
Al-foams 60 11.2 18.8 13.45
Al-foams 70 4.6 9.9 6.57
Al (4032) foam 75 2.3 3.0 1.76
Al (4032)/10 vol.% small 76.8 3.2 4.8 2.55 (2009) [101]
Microballoons
Al (4032)/10 vol.% large 77.2 4.0 4.0 2.74
Microballoons
Al (4032)/10 vol.% fly ash precipitators 76.4 5.2 5.0 3.10
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Table 4 e Various Al composites and their processing techniques.

Matrix/reinforcement Foaming agent Processing Technique Summary of findings Year
Reference
AleSieMg/SiC TiH2 Melt route - The foam stability did not depend on the 2018 [148]
particle size or vol.% but on the foaming
temperature alone.
- Cell soundness (absence of/low defects,
and collapse) varied with particle size
and content.
Al/GNFs TiH2 Melt route - Microstructure studies revealed the 2017 [149]
presence of most GNFs on the pore sur-
face, but only a few were observed in-
side the pore wall.
- A slight content of GNFs substantially
improved the pore structures.
Al/CNT Carbamide Powder metallurgy - The high inherent damping of CNTs 2017 [150]
improved the damping of reinforced
composites.
- A large number of well-bonded CNT-Al
interfaces form.
AleSi/SiC TiH2 Melt route - The compressive properties depended 2015 [151]
on the density but not on the SiC size
and vol.%.
AleSieMg/SiC TiH2 Melt route - Foams with high expansions and uni- 2014 [152]
form cell morphology were achieved up
to10 vol.% SiC.
- Foam collapse occurred at 5 vol.% SiC.
- SiC alone could lead to good foaming but
was unstable prior to solidification.
AlSi9Mg/SiC NaCl Direct foaming - The energy absorption capacities and 2010 [153]
yield stress of the foam with SiC
increased as the relative density
increased.
AlSi9Mg/SiC CaCO3 Melt route - The compressive stressestrain curve of 2008 [154]
AlSi9Mg/SiC foams was smoother than
that of AlSi9Mg foams.
- The collapse stress and yield stress of
composite foams increased as SiC
(vol.%) increased.
Al/TiB2 TiH2 Powder metallurgy - The addition of TiB2 particles substan- 2004 [155]
tially increased foam expansion.
- Stresses and energy absorption of com-
posite foams were higher than those of
pure Al-foams.
Al/SiC TiH2 Melt foaming - SiC particulate increased the linear 2003 [127]
expansion and reduced the liquid metal
drainage and cell coarsening.
- The compressive stresses of reinforced
foams were higher than those of Al-
foams.
AleSieMg/20SiC TiH2 Melt Foaming route - The composite foams exhibited the 2000 [156]
characteristics of brittle foam.
- Relative density substantially influ-
enced damping capacity but had the
least influence on dynamic modulus.

concluded that Mn particles were evenly distributed in the
form of oxides and intermetallic materials; as a result,
microhardness, compressive strength, and energy absorption
capacities were improved compared to commercially pure Al-
foams.
Meanwhile, Hwang et al. [105] investigated the effect of Mn
on the microstructure and mechanical properties of AleSieCu
casting alloys and found that the percentage of elongation and
ultimate tensile strength increased along with the Mn content
up to an Mn/Fe ratio of ~ 1.2; beyond this concentration, the
mechanical properties deteriorated. In general, the mechani-
cal properties of metal foams depend on the morphological
characteristics of the intermetallic phase, and good morpho-
logical characteristics could be attained by transforming the
brittle intermetallic phase (b-Al5FeSi) to a Chinese script a-
Al15(Fe, Mn)3Si2 phase. It was suggested that the mechanical
properties could further be enhanced by converting the Chi-
nese script to a polygonal shape using a suitable master alloy
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Fig. 2 e The compressive properties of nanocomposite AleSiO2 foams [104]. (a) Plateau strength (MPa), (b) Energy absorption
(MJ/m3), (c) Microhardness (HV), and (d) Relative density.
[106]. Miyoshi et al. [107] developed a closed-cell foam rein-
forced with 5 % Zn and 1 % Mg and found that the compressive
strength was twice strong as that of the conventional foams.
The addition of alloying elements also affects the foaming
process. When A-242 alloy foam was fabricated with Ni and
Cu as alloying elements and TiH2 as the foaming agent, Ca was
added to improve the viscosity of alloy during the foaming,
yielding closed porosities of 88 % order [108]. When Ca was
replaced by Mg in the direct foaming method [109], the pore
size became non-uniformly distributed with increasing Mg
content. This deleterious effect on the strengthening effi-
ciency of metallic foam [110] may be due to higher affinities of
Mg towards oxygen as compared to Ca, thereby forming MgO
or MgO-phases [111], which might cause foaming problems.
3.2. Ceramic particle-reinforced Al composites
Another strategy of strengthening porous Al composites is to
incorporate micro- or nano-sized reinforcement into a metal
matrix to improve the properties of ductile metal [112]. For
example, ceramic particles, such as silicon carbide (SiC)
[111e115], alumina (Al2O3) [116], TiB2 [117], and ceramic
nanoparticles [118], are some of the most studied reinforcing
materials. Salehi et al. [104] examined the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Al/SiO2 composite foam and found
that the plateau stress and energy absorption increased with
the addition of SiO2 up to a certain limit, beyond which it
decreased, but the SiO2 content increased along with the
hardness (Fig. 2). This finding was attributable to the ability of
nanoparticles in preventing dislocation while strengthening
the matrix by creating high-density dislocations; however, the
plateau stress and energy absorption followed the density and
degree of the oscillation of stress in the plateau region.
Also, Daoud et al. [119] studied the microstructure and the
mechanical properties of an Al2O3 particle-reinforced A359
alloy matrix developed via direct foaming (Fig. 3). The devel-
oped foams consisted of roughly equiaxed polyhedral cell
structures, which were more uniform in A359 with Al2O3
reinforcement than pure A359 foam. The uniformly distrib-
uted alumina particles resulted in increments of plateau
stress, yield stress, plastic stress, young's modulus, and en-
ergy absorption along with the alumina content.
Guden et al. [120] developed SiC-reinforced Al composite
foams via a powder metallurgy technique (Fig. 4) and exam-
ined the brittle compression behavior of fabricated compos-
ites. The collapse stresses were intermediate between those of
open- and closed-cell foams. Yu et al. [121] fabricated SiC-
reinforced AlSi9Mg composite foams (Fig. 5), exhibiting a
uniform cell structure, and the influence of the strain rate on
compressive properties revealed an increase in the yield
stress along with the relative density, strain rate, and SiC
content. Besides, Moradi et al. [122] studied the microstructure
and compressive properties of B4C-reinforced Al-foams with
porosity of 52 % developed through powder metallurgy-space
holder technique; the yield strength and energy absorption
increased with the addition of B4C reinforcement (Fig. 6).
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Fig. 3 e Optical images showing macrostructure: (a) A359, (b) A359/5vol%Al2O3, (c) A359/10vol%Al2O3, and (d) A359/15vol%
Al2O3 composite foams [119].

The wettability of ceramic particles is often a challenging
issue in such composites, Mg was found to improve the
microstructure and compression properties of Al-foams for
preventing wettability [123]. When studying the effect of
adding Mg to AlSi7-based alloys reinforced with Al2O3, Guo
et al. [124], showed that the Mg reacted with Al2O3 phase and
Si element, forming MgAl2O4 phase with good wettability in Al
melt and Mg2Si phase. Also, Alfonso et al. [125] characterized
Ale6Sie3Cu-xMg (x ¼ 7, 9, and 11wt.%) foams developed by in-
situ process. The results showed a strong dependence of mi-
crostructures of the foams (pores and second phases) on the
over-solution temperature and the Mg content.
Micro-sized ceramic particles such as SiC and Al2O3 in the
liquid foaming processes could improve the viscosity of the
melt and its foaming properties since it is difficult to foam
liquid metals by air bubbling [126]. In a study examining the
effect of SiC particles (8.6 % by volume) on the foaming
behavior of Al composite powder compacted with TiH2
foaming agent, it was found that the addition of SiC particles
reduced the metal melt drainage of Al compacts and increased
linear expansion, thereby forming coarse cells. Additionally,
such composite foams exhibited higher compression stresses
but more brittle behavior than the Al-foams [127]. Similar re-
sults were obtained in another study where CaCO3 was
employed as the foaming agent [128].
Meanwhile, adding 3 vol.% Al2O3, SiC, and TiB2 particles
into the Al-foams increased the foam expansion but with a
reduction in critical cell wall thickness before the foam
ruptured [129]. Besides, the wall thickness and cell size could
be increased by increasing the content of Al2O3 and SiC and
their particle size [130]. Also, the expansion and number of
pores were increased while the collapse and drainage were
reduced by the addition of Al2O3 and SiC in AlSi11 matrix
foams [131]. Overall, the nano-sized reinforcements, due to
their higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, were more effective
than the micro-sized reinforcements when added to the Al
foams. As the uniformly distributed Al2O3 nanoparticles
effectively stabilized the Al-foams by influencing the viscosity
and surface tension between melted Al particles and CO2
bubbles, the growth of cells became impeded throughout the
composite foam structure [132].
3.3. CNT reinforced porous Al composites
For carbonaceous materials as reinforcements, investigations
focused mainly on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as re-
inforcements in Al alloys [133]. CNTs are high in mechanical
strength, elastic modulus, aspect ratio (i.e., length-to-
thickness or length-to-diameter ratios), and excellent ther-
mal and electrical conductivities [134]. They are regarded as

Fig. 4 e Optical micrographs showing the morphological characteristics: (a) Al-foams and (b) 10 % SiCp/Al-foams [120].
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Fig. 5 e Optical microscopy showing the cell structure of
AlSi9Mg/SiCp composite foams [121].
the most efficient reinforcing materials for developing com-
posite materials for functional and structural engineering
applications with promising outcomes [135].
However, incorporating CNTs into metallic matrices has
several inherent problems, namely, a high tendency to
agglomerate, poor dispersion, and poor wettability in a molten
metal matrix. These problems could be resolved using ultra-
sonic treatment for processing the melt, which would enable
grain refinement while dispersing the nanoparticles re-
inforcements over the structure of materials [[136],[137],[138]].
Also, their wettability could be enhanced using coated CNT's as
reinforcement. The coating would envelop the carbon fibers,
thereby decreasing the particle agglomeration while increasing
the wettability between the liquid phase and particles. Conse-
quently, the mechanical properties improved [139].
Another problem associated with carbonaceous materials
as reinforcing agents is the formation of brittle and low-
strength interfacial reaction products (Al4C3) [141]. However,
this problem can be controlled by coating carbonaceous re-
inforcements to prevent the formation of interfacial reaction
products (Al4C3) while enhancing the interfacial bonding
strength between the carbonaceous particles and Al matrix
Fig. 6 e The compressive properties of nanocomposite AleB4C foams with porosity of 52 %: (a) Yield strength (MPa) and (b)
Energy absorption (MJ/m3) [122].
[142]. Mu et al. [140] developed a Cu-coated carbon-fiber-
reinforced Al foam via the melt route, and the fabricated
composites showed good wettability and uniform distribution
of coated CNT particles (Fig. 7) with improved collapse stress
values. Also, Damanik et al. [143] fabricated the Ni-coated
carbon-fiber-reinforced Al foams via powder metallurgy
technique and found an effective distribution of the coated
CNT in the Al matrix with enhanced wettability at their
interfaces.
The effect of CNT's as reinforcements on the foaming was
also investigated. In a study where Al-CNT foams were
developed using the space-holder technique with NaCl par-
ticles as space holders [142], it was observed that the adja-
cent pores were connected by the holes in the cell walls
(originally NaCleNaCl contact points) to form an open-cell
structure. Such open-cell structures are typically formed by
the sintering followed by the dissolution process [144]. Thus,
CNTs presence followed the spark plasma sintering and NaCl
dissolution [145]. A similar effect was observed by another
study for Al-CNT open-cell foams [146]. Also, the addition of
CNTs would reduce the pore size in the Al-foams to a certain
extent [147].
3.4. Commercial Al-foams composite
Several foams have been developed commercially and used in
various applications and are still in the phase of improve-
ment. Table 5 summarizes the studies on such composites
and their applications in different working conditions. These
foams include ALPORAS [157], M-PORE, Duocel [158,159],
CYMAT [160e162], SCHUNK [163], Foamtech [164], IFAM [165],
Alulight [166,167], etc. The ALPORAS foam (patented by the
USA in 1987 [168]) was developed by adding Ca to the Al melt
during the stirring to produce oxides and increase its viscos-
ity. Then TiH2 powder was added into the melt to form gases,
thereby causing the metallic mix to foam in the crucible or the
mold, and upon cooling, the mold was cut into plates. In
addition, Shen et al. [169] investigated the effect of strain rate
and foam density on the compressive properties and energy
dissipation capacity of such foam (Fig. 8) experimentally and
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8 2025

Fig. 7 e Scanning Electron Microscopy images of Cu-coated carbon fibers in the composites: (a) carbon fibers dispersed in the
Al matrix, (b), and (c) interface between carbon and Al matrix [140].

presented an empirical constitutive model for it. These
models enabled to develop empirical formula for compressive
plateau stress at various loads.
Veyhl et al. [176] studied the macroscopic mechanical
properties of open-cell M-PORE® sponge of porosity of
91e93 % and closed-cell ALPORAS® foam of porosity
(80e86 %). In both cases, strong anisotropy was observed for
young's modulus, and the relative density was linearly related
to the mechanical properties. In contrast, the commercial
metallic foam known as CYMAT was prepared by including
ceramic particles in the range of 5e20 vol.% into the Al melt
and bubbles were imparted into the mix via a rotating
impeller. The bubbles rose at the top; they were collected in
the liquid foam and solidified when drawn continuously out of
the conveyor [177].
Also, Ruan et al. [178] studied the compressive behavior of
CYMAT Al-foams with relative densities ranging from 5 % to
20 % and found that the plateau stress was related to the
relative density and insensitive to the strain rate. Besides, the
strain rate sensitivity and energy absorption capability of
commercially available metal foams (M-PORE, CYMAT, and
SCHUNK) were compared (Fig. 8) to correlate the mechanical
behavior and the physical and geometrical properties of the
foam. This study revealed that the specific energy dissipation
of foams with similar density was different for the same vol-
ume of foam. Impact tests showed that the plateau stress
depended on the strain rate only in SCHUNK foams, while
CYMAT foams were highly sensitive to the loading rate. Also,
when both ALPORAS and CYMAT were tested under the same
strain rates, ALPORAS foams yield a smooth and regular
stressestrain curve, while CYMAT foams fluctuated substan-
tially [179].
Meanwhile, Mccullough et al. [180] investigated the
microstructural tensile and compressive stress/strain
behavior of the closed-cell Al–foams (trade name Alulight).
The foams were anisotropic, inhomogeneous, with properties
nearly similar to open-cell foams. The tensile and compres-
sive yield strengths and unloading modulus increased non-
linearly with the relative density. Besides, Nosko et al. [181]
developed Alulight Al foam through powder metallurgy and
presented the interconnection between foaming parameters,
pore structure, and collapse stress, while Grilec et al. [182]
produced Al-foams from an Alulight precursor and found that
their energy absorption capacity decreased with the density.
On the other hand, Idris et al. [183] confirmed the dependence
of the collapse strength and energy absorption capacity of

Table 5 e Properties of commercial Al-foams.

Foams Density Elastic modulus Strain rate Plateau Strength Energy absorption References
(GPa) (MPa) capacity (MJ/m3)
ALPORAS 0.226e0.286 1.45e2.32 0.55 e 0.93e1.24 [170]
ALULIGHT 0.5 0.18 0.6 7.53 e [171]
ALPORAS 0.25 1.63 e e e [172]
ALPORAS 0.40 3.68 e e e
CYMAT 1 0.253 e 0.555 1.11 e [173]
CYMAT 1 0.57 e 0.445 6.80 e
ALPORAS 0.245 e 0.485 1.78 e
ALPORAS 0.2 0.22 0.68 1.39 65 [174]
ALPORAS 0.3 0.46 0.65 1.65 89
ALPORAS 0.4 0.78 0.58 2.46 95
Alcan 0.09 0.06 0.89 0.48 84
Alcan 0.15 0.17 0.77 1.21 84
Alcan 0.27 0.43 0.74 4.73 84
Alcan 0.33 0.50 0.71 5.05 84
ALPORAS 0.20 e 0.20 1.14 e [175]
ALPORAS 0.21 e 0.20 1.30 e
ALPORAS 0.22 e 0.20 1.47 e
ALPORAS 0.23 e 0.20 1.65 e
ALPORAS 0.24 e 0.20 1.49 e
2026 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
Fig. 8 e Foam samples: (a) closed-cell (CCA) by CYMAT, (b) open-cell (OC) by M-PORE, (c) closed cell (CCB) by SCHUNK [178],
and (d) closed-cell (CC) by ALPORAS [169].
ALPORAS and Alulight foams on the density and sample
thickness.
4. Processing techniques of Al-foams
composites
Table 4 shows the various techniques used for developing Al-
foams composites. These techniques comprise the melt route
(direct foaming) and space-holder technique (powder metal-
lurgy). Other novel techniques such as electrode deposition
and in-situ CVD with space holder will also be discussed. 6.
4.1. The melt route technique (direct foaming route)
In this method, Al is melted in a graphite crucible, and the
melt is stirred at some stirring speed with the help of a me-
chanical stirrer, and reinforcements are added to the melt
during stirring. A foaming agent is then added to the melt.
Upon completing the foaming, a foam-containing metallic die
is taken out from the furnace and cooled in compressed air
(Fig. 9).
Aldoshan and Khanna [184] developed CNT and SiC-
reinforced Al-foams with this technique (Fig. 9), and the
peak stress, plateau stress, and energy absorption increased
along with the relative density but the densification strain
decreased. With increased strain rate the composites’ dy-
namic compressive properties also improved. Besides, Ma
et al. [185] developed Al-foams of 79.0 % porosity with an
average cell diameter of 1.84 mm, while Das et al. [186]
developed SiC- and graphene-reinforced Al composite foam
and incorporated SiC (thickening agent) and calcium hydride
(foaming agent) as well as graphene to strengthen the cell
walls of the foam. The plateau stress and energy absorption of
the developed foams were sensitive to the strain rate.
Also, Gonzalez Nava et al. [187] developed Al-foams rein-
forced with alumina (Al2O3), barite (BaSO4), wollastonite
(CaSiO3), and calcite (CaCO3) with CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
as a foaming agent. The energy absorption capacity of the
foams decreased as porosity values increased. Amongst these
reinforcements, BaSO4 showed the best structural and me-
chanical properties. Besides, Kumaraswamidhas et al. [188]
fabricated Al Alloy (AleSi7Mg) foams reinforced with SiC
particles and mild steel tubes. The energy absorption of
this foam with a filled tube was better than that of an unfilled
tube.
4.2. The space-holder technique (powder metallurgy)
This space-holder technique is one of the powder-metallurgy
methods used to prepare metal foams; it offers many benefits
in material conservation by developing composites to near
net shape while discarding the machining processes that
otherwise damage the foams. Yang et al. [189] prepared the
CNT-reinforced Al matrix composite foam via the space-
holder method (Fig. 10), in which the composite powders
were ball milled, mixed with carbamide particles (space
holder) based on volume fraction, and cold-pressed. Then,
the specimens were incubated in a water bath at 80
C for
several hours and sintered, yielding a uniform distribution of
CNT with good interfacial bonding and improved fatigue
strength.
Also, Jaing et al. [190] fabricated Al-foams with spherical
pores. They studied the effect of the relative density and pore
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
Fig. 9 e The melt route technique for the production of Al/SiC/MWCNT foams.
size on the mechanical properties of the developed Al com-
posite foams and found that the compressive stressestrain
curve increased along with the pore size and relative den-
sity. Besides, Li et al. [191] developed Al-foams reinforced with
three types of ceramic particulates, i.e., cubic boron nitride
(CBN), SiC, and boron carbide (B4C) with NaCl particles as
space holders. The elastic modulus, relative density, and en-
ergy absorption of Al foams improved under dynamic and
quasi-static compression. Additionally, Koza et al. [192]
fabricated porous Al composite foams (AlSi10) and found that
the compressive strength increased with density in the
shorter specimen. Meanwhile, Ma et al. [193] developed the
CNT-reinforced Al matrix foam and found that the introduced
CNTs improved the pore uniformity and pore size. The
compressive properties of the composites also increased. Be-
sides, Duarte et al. [194] prepared an Al-CNT-based porous
composite and found that CNTs were well-dispersed, non-
agglomerated, directionally aligned, and stretched in the Al
matrix of the foam with improved Vickers microhardness
value.
Some authors named the powder metallurgy with a space
holder as a sintering dissolution process (SDP) [195e197],
which encompasses various stages, including mixing and
compacting powders, sintering compacts, and dissolving
space holders. Initially, the powders of Al, alumina and NaCl
are mixed, compacted, sintered, and placed in a water bath,
where NaCl (space holder) dissolves in water, leaving behind
the porous Al-foams [198]. Although this process is advanta-
geous for foam fabrications, it generally produces low-
strength foam. Several parameters such as shape, size and
Fig. 10 e The powder metallurgy (space-holder technique) for the fabrication of Al/CNT foams.
2027
quantity of space holders will need to be carefully tailored to
achieve better properties of the resultant composite foams in
this technique.
4.3. Novel techniques
Novel techniques generally encompass the electrodeposition
coating, in-situ chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with space
holder, and novel space holders. These techniques are often
used to overcome the limitations in other basic methods to
improve the microstructure of developed Al composites and
their properties. Table 6 compares the properties of com-
posites developed by novel techniques and simple fabrica-
tion processes. Gergely and Clyne [199] used a novel
technique that combined the advantages of the melt route
and powder metallurgy for fabricating Al reinforced with SiC
foams with TiH2 as a foaming agent. In this two-step method,
TiH2 powder was first pre-treated to form a diffusion barrier
(TiO2) on powder particles, and thus prevented the excessive
evolution of hydrogen gas during the dispersion and casting.
The preheated TiH2 was dispersed in Al/SiC melt at 620
C,
after which the melt was solidified in a graphite mould to
produce a low-porosity precursor material. In the second
step, the precursor was heated above the melting point of the
matrix, and hydrogen evolved from the foaming agent con-
verted it into a cellular structure, thereby providing the
flexibility of regulating the evolution of gases from the
foaming agent. Thus, porosity levels in the developed com-
posites were controlled, and their mechanical properties
improved.
2028 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
Table 6 e Comparison of properties of composites developed by novel technique and simple fabrication processes.
Composite foams Preparation
(matrix/ process
reinforcement)
Al/Novel3-DCu Novel electrodeposition
coating
Al/Ni film Electrodeposition coating
Al/CNT In-situ CVD þ space holder
Al/GNSs@Cu Novel Space holder
A359/Al2O3 Direct foaming
Al/CNTs Melt foaming
Besides, Wang et al. [205] fabricated CNT-reinforced Al-
foams via the combination of CVD, ball milling, and space-
holder technique (Fig. 11), resulting in improved properties
and microstructure. Also, Sun et al. [206] developed the nano-
copper-coated Al-foams via an electrodeposition-metal-
coating technique [207] to enhance the stable compressive
response of the developed foams, and the energy absorption
capacity of Cu-coated composites increased. Initially, the
powders of Al/CNT composite were prepared via in-situ CVD
and then ball milled [208]. The obtained mixture of Al/CNT
composite powders was then mixed with carbamide particles,
and the powders were cold pressed as cylindrical samples.
When the samples were finally sintered, CNTs were uniformly
dispersed and well-bonded with the Al matrix and improved
in the compressive yield strength and energy absorption.
5. Applications of Al-foams and commercial
Al-foam composites
To resolve the challenges in the production of Al-foams, Kumar
[209] developed an Al composite (AleSi alloy reinforced with
zircon particles) foams for automotive, aerospace, and other
engineering applications. Also, the Al-10 % SiC composite
foams were used as permanent cores in bicycle rods with an Al-
composite-based foam core of 35 % weight reduction as
compared to the dense metallic component produced by the
same technology but without a foamed core [210].
Nevertheless, the energy absorption characteristics of Al
composite foams will need to be carefully assessed before
being used for the absorption of crash energy in high-speed
vehicles during impacts. These energy-absorbing materials
are employed for the crashworthiness design of vehicles as a
safety measure [211]. These crash boxes comprising thin-wall
metal columns are primarily composed of mild steel and Al;
they are used in the automobile body of white (BIW) to absorb
crash energy during an impact. These economical thin-wall
metal columns are conventionally used for energy absorp-
tion used in ships, trains, high-load factory products, and
automobiles [212].
Meanwhile, Li et al. [213] developed a low-cost, lightweight
Al lSi7Mg alloy closed-cell foam composite with MnO2 as re-
inforcements and oyster shell particles as foaming agents for
railway transportation via the melt route. Also, Al-foams and
Al composite foams could be used as a sound absorber,
particularly in harsh environments, replacing unsuitable
polymeric materials or when other requirements, such as
Reinforcement Relative Energy Reference
content density absorption
enhanced
efficiency (he)
60.00 mm (thickness) 0.35 200.0 % [200]
1.50 A (thickness) 0.36 e [201]
3.00 wt.% 0.40 117.3 % [97]
0.75 wt.% 0.40 115.1 % [202]
15.00 vol.% 0.20 100.0 % [203]
0.50 vol.% 0.15 73.3 % [204]
supporting loads, are specified [214]. The characteristics of the
pores formed such as, pore size, porosity, and pore
morphology substantially affect the sound absorption coeffi-
cient [215].
On the other hand, casting Al-foam cores with Al shells
could be used to form low-density and lightweight compo-
nents (Fig. 12a). The shell and Alulight cores could be designed
to serve other functions besides their load-carrying ability.
These Alulight foam cores could generally be used in various
casting products, such as covers, housings, gears, linkages,
space frame nodes, control arms, steering knuckles, cross-
members, and other car components, such as engine
mounting brackets and car suspension (Fig. 12a) [218,219].
With high-impact energy absorption capability and high
sound and vibration absorption capability, Al-foam cores
show potential for application in the fabrication of various
casting components used in the automotive industry [216].
Figure 12b shows the prototype of an automobile engine
mounting bracket of BMW manufactured by LKR Ranshofen,
Austria. This part is made of an Al-foam core (Metcomb) with a
cast shell, and the length of a 25-cm part is strong enough to
bear the full weight load of an automobile engine [217]. When
the engine is operating, the mounting bracket absorbs me-
chanical vibrations converting them into heat due to internal
friction in the material. This heat dissipates into the atmo-
sphere, and subsequent vibrations are not transferred from the
engine. It enhances the stiffness of the parts, thereby
increasing the safety of the products during an automobile
crash. Thus, Al-foam cores absorb the vibrations that the mo-
tion of various engine parts produces, which was also observed
in machine tools for increasing their accuracies [220].
Figure 12c shows the crossbeam of the machine tool with
the outer shell of AlZn10Si8Mg, and the foam core was
composed of ALPORAS Al-foams. This crossbeam was pro-
duced by Shinko Wire Company (Japan), which has already
fabricated 700 pieces of such products. Absorption of vibration
could go up to 370 Hz [217]. Shinko wire (ALPORAS) was the
first commercial product of metal forms provided by Japan in
the late 1980s. Its constituents comprised Al matrix with Ca
added as a foam stabilizer and TiH2 as a foaming agent, and it
was patented by the USA in 1987 [214].
Figure 13a shows a filling of Al-foam (Alulight) used in the
door sill as reinforcing material in the frame to increase
stiffness and prevent damage in the case of a side crash in
high premium cars, such as Ferrari 360 and 430 Spider. The
company (Ranshofen, Austria) produced ~ 6000 pieces of
Alulight annually from 1999 to 2009. This company later in
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
Fig. 11 e The preparation of Al/CNT composite foams via the novel method.
2006 manufactured another small crash absorber (7 g) for the
Audi Q7 SUV vehicle in a complete automated series (Fig. 13b);
the crash absorber was placed at the support frame of the
safety net [221]. This company produced 120,000 parts annu-
ally until now and is considered the largest serial producer of
metallic foams in the automotive industry. Also, metal foam
parts developed by the Technical University of Berlin and
Pohltec Metalfoam under the European project evolution are
likely to be used in the prototype (ultra-light electric vehicle)
developed (Fig. 13c) [222]. Meanwhile, an AlSi-alloy-foam
reinforced filled in the A-pillar of Ford passenger car (CD car)
filled showed a 30 % improvement in crash energy absorption
while the weight of the car increased by 3 % only [223].
For railway applications, for example, a foam block of
Alulight (Ranshofen, Austria) was placed behind the bumper
of the Combino tram (in Budapest) to absorb energy in case of
collisions with cars (Fig. 13d), minimizing damages to the
expensive structure [224]. A similar crash absorption box
shown in Fig. 13e was employed in the Sprinter Light Train in
Holland, and Gleich (Kaltenkirchen, Germany) and the Slovak
Academy of Sciences (SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia) manufactured
and delivered ~ 1000 pieces of this absorption box annually
since 2008 [224]. Metallic foams were also used for protection
and crash absorption at the bottom of helicopters and blast
mitigation systems. For example, Duocel® Al-foam shown in
Fig. 13f provided crucial blast energy absorption for protecting
the crew in the retrofit in-cabin seat mounts and military
medium tactical vehicles [225]. Al-foams have also been used
in shinbone protectors or helmets for protecting football
players. For example, Al composite foams with carbon fibers
were developed by Alcarbon (Bremen, Germany) for sports
articles [226]. Besides, ALPORAS foams developed by Foam-
tech (Daegu, Korea) in 20xx as non-flammable and acoustic
Fig. 12 e (a) Products with cores of Al-foams [216], (b) prototype of the engine mounting bracket of BMW, and (c) crossbeam of
a machine tool with an Al-foam core [217].
2029
absorbers were applied as fillers in the walls and structures of
the concert halls, auditoriums, sports centers, conference
rooms, sport and walls, and ceilings of the machinery and
operating rooms of manufacturing plants [227]. Valeo and
Cymat (in France) in their joint program developed a crash box
for Valeo's front-end module systems [228]. Studies are
ongoing to improve the performance of Al-foams and Al-foam
composites in commercial applications [228e232] for eg., car
crash boxes [231], sandwich panels for structures [232,233].
6. Challenges and future perspectives
Although porous materials have shown huge potential in
various structural and functional applications, of the pro-
duction cost and several other technical issues will need to be
substantially improved before their usages become wide-
spread. At present, there are still various shortcomings in the
metal foaming techniques with knowledge gaps about the
porous materials. They are:
 Insufficient understanding of the Al composite foaming
mechanisms; due to limited knowledge about the factors
and parameters that determine the formation of foams
with consistent quality, the control of structure and
morphology remains as challenging as ever. This problem
could probably be resolved by optimizing the factors and
parameters responsible for the production of foams with
higher quality and better properties, and by analysing the
effect of different reinforcements on foaming characteris-
tics and properties of resultant Al composite foams.
 Knowledge about the physical properties of foams is
inadequate; there is a need to optimize the processing
2030 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
Fig. 13 e (a) The Al-foam part for Ferrari 360 and 430 Spider [221], (b) Crash-absorbing element for Audi Q7 [221], (c) Crash
box of the electric car prototype [222], (d) Crash absorbers of the Combino tram produced by Alulight [224], (e) Crash
absorbers of the Sprinter Light Train in Holland [224], and (f) Al-foam for a blast mitigation test [225].
parameters of the foaming process and material selection
by studying their morphologies and the effect of certain
parameters, such as shape, size and quantity of pore
forming agents, fabrication temperatures, heat treatments
etc., on their structure and physical properties.
 The relationships between the morphology and structure
of Al composites and the mechanical (or other) properties
are not sufficiently investigated. Application of the existing
Al composite foams requires an in-depth understanding of
their properties through thorough characterization of their
morphological attributes to gauge their effect on the
properties of existing foams.
 Difficult to achieve homogeneity in foams; inhomogeneity
causes the mechanical properties to deteriorate while
reducing the energy absorption efficiency of foams. Modi-
fying the existing processing techniques and optimizing
the processing parameters is necessary to obtain uniformly
structured Al composite foams.
 Lower wettability of reinforcing materials in Al composite
foams leads to weak interfacial bonding between re-
inforcements and the matrix material of Al composite
foams, generating low-strength materials with limited
properties. This problem could be resolved by exposing the
Al metal melt to external fields, thereby de-agglomerating
particles and their dispersion into melt volume, and then
over the ingot structure.
 The manufacturing cost of Al composite foams is chal-
lenging for mass production and industrial applications.
One possible approach to overcome this challenge is to
control the overall cost of the product by exploiting the
multifunctionality of Al composite foams in a particular
application. For example, for automotive, aerospace, and
railways applications, stiff, lightweight, and recyclable
material with higher impact energy absorption and vibra-
tion damping properties are required. In these applica-
tions, a material with all such functions can be used
thereby discarding other additional components that not
only add to the cost but also increase the weight of auto-
mobile. Thus, a balance between the cost and the benefits
could be achieved. Besides, as a secondary benefit, weight
reduction could save energy substantially. However, in
some applications, the cost of Al composite foams could be
of secondary importance, for example, in the application
where the best crash absorption properties are prioritized
to enhance safety. Also, in the field of the arts, design,
medicine, or sports, the cost consideration is less signifi-
cant. Furthermore, the cost of Al composite foams could be
reduced using low-cost blowing agents and reinforcements
with better processing techniques.
 Another way of reducing the manufacturing cost is to
recycle Al foams and using the recycled Al as a master alloy
for fabricating new foams. With the growing demand for Al
foams, the development of suitable recycling processes is
essential for economic and environmental reasons. The
foam scrap could be recycled to their base material by
melting them in conventional salts, while the ceramic
particles could be eliminated by centrifugation and the salt
would absorb the impurities and oxides [ [234,235]] How-
ever, complete elimination of titanium in Al composite
foams with TiH2 as blowing agent and the formation of large
amounts of Al oxides is a challenging task. Thus, recycling
Al composite foams will need further investigation and
improvement in techniques to get the high metal yields.
7. Summary
This review presents the advancements in the development of
Al-foams of enhanced properties and performance, summa-
rizing the efforts of various studies aiming to enhance the
foam characteristics. The essential components required in
the formation of foam are foaming agents, such as TiH2, ZrH2,
etc., with some benefits and limitations. Some researchers
used foaming agents for developing the Al-foams, while
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 0 1 7 e2 0 3 8
others preferred space holders due to their better control on
porosity and structure of porous composite. The properties
could further be improved by different reinforcements that
conferred their valuable features. Metallic, ceramic, and
carbonaceous reinforcements are commonly used to improve
the compressive strengths and energy absorption of these
foams; they could also stabilize foam structures, forming
better foams. Amongst them, carbonaceous reinforcements
are more advantageous, but the bonding and wettability be-
tween carbonaceous particles and Al matrices have some
limitations, which are dispensed by either coating re-
inforcements or bonding additives.
The characteristics and properties of Al-foams also depend
on the techniques used for their production. Melt route, space-
holder technique, and other novel techniques involving their
combination or other additional techniques are particularly
useful to improve the strengths of Al-foams. Space-holder
techniques are mostly preferred because of their ease of
control over the porosities of foams and the strengths of Al-
foams. Their applications in automobile parts to absorb en-
ergy during impact and in other structural and functional
systems have been successfully achieved. Nevertheless, they
can be further improved by recognizing the drawbacks and
possible solutions in their constituents, performance under
different working conditions (stressestrain values), and pro-
duction techniques. Additionally, keeping in view the cost
considerations, the recycling of the Al composite foams could
be a viable solution to the ever-growing demand for sustain-
able lightweight materials.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to the Ministry of
Higher Education (MOHE) and International Islamic University
Malaysia (IIUM) for the financial assistance provided under
the grant number of FRGS19-095-0704.
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2016.
Bisma Parveez is a PhD scholar presently doing PhD in Islamic
International University of Malaysia, Gombak under Department
of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering. Her PhD work is
focusing on porous metal composite development. She has
completed a master's degree in mechanical engineering from
National Institute of Technology, India with specialization in In-
dustrial Tribology and Maintenance Management. She also ac-
quired her degree in in Mechanical Engineering from University of
Kashmir, India.
Assistant Professor Dr. Nur Ayuni Jamal is currently a lecturer in
the Faculty of Engineering at International Islamic University
Malaysia. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from
University of Malaya, Malaysia. She acquired her master's degree
in engineering science and Bachelor of Engineering in Materials
Engineering from International Islamic University Malaysia. Her
interest in research includes porous metals, porous metal com-
posite, advanced materials as well as wide range of composite
materials especially with the use of waste and recycle
reinforcements.
Prof. Md. Abdul Maleque is currently working as a Professor and
Advisor of the Advanced Materials & Surface Eng. Research Unit
(AMSERU) at International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).
Being highly active in research Prof Maleque has authored and co-
authored some 370þ publications include international and local
refereed journals and conferences, book chapters, patents, project
reports, etc with 4400þ citations and 36 h-index. He was the
recipient of highest citation indexed award 2014 from IIUM; IIUM
Quality Research award 2013 from IIUM; Vice Chancellor award
1999 from UM; Dean's award 1998 from UM and several interna-
tional and national level awards. He has been working in the
Technical Committee Chair on Alloy Steel Standardization,
Department of Standard Malaysia, Malaysia to develop Malaysian
standard since 2009.
Associate Professor Farazila Yusof is a lecturer in the Faculty of
Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia. She received her PhD
in Mechanical Engineering from Nagaoka University of Technol-
ogy, Japan. She acquired her master's degree in engineering sci-
ence and bachelor's degree in CAD/CAM from University of
Malaya, Malaysia. She is currently serving as a Deputy Dean of
Higher Degree, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya,
Malaysia. She is also a Head Unit of Centre of Advanced
Manufacturing and Material Processing (AMMP), Faculty of Engi-
neering, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Her expertise includes
advanced materials joining (laser welding, friction stir welding,
soldering, brazing), with range of metallic materials with specialty
in powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing and CAD/CAM/
CAE applications.
Dr. Nashrah Hani Jamadon is currently a Senior Lecturer at the
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Fac-
ulty of Engineering and Built Environment, UKM. She specializes
in materials processing, which primarily focuses on materials
joining. She has been involved in research on joining of advanced
materials using metallurgical process.
Dr. Sharifah Adzila is currently a lecturer in the Faculty of Me-
chanical & Manufacturing Engineering at Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering
from University of Malaya, Malaysia. She acquired her master's
degree in Polymer Technology from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
and Bachelor of Engineering in Materials Engineering from Uni-
versiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia. Her interest in research is
biomaterial includes bioactive ceramics, polymers and
composites.