Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Applications of shape memory alloys in structural engineering with a focus

on concrete construction – A comprehensive review
Mohammad Amin Molod a, *, Panagiotis Spyridis b, Franz-Joseph Barthold a
a
Institute of Structural Mechanics and Dynamics, TU Dortmund University, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, August-Schmidt-Str. 8, D-44227 Dortmund,
Germany
b
Chair of Fastening Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Au-gust-Schmidt-Str. 8, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Shape memory alloy is a smart material whose usage in reinforced concrete members has been increasingly
Shape memory alloy raised in recent years. This paper focuses on applications of different shapes of the shape memory alloy as an
Reinforced concrete internal, external, and near-surface strengthening element of reinforced concrete members. Initially, the appli­
Rehabilitation of concrete members
cation of the alloy in the civil engineering field, in general, is briefly reviewed. Then, the types and characteristics
Strengthening concrete structures
of the alloy are discussed. Application of the alloy in different formats as a strengthening element for new and old
concrete structural systems is presented. The paper reviews some applications of the alloy in concrete, which may
demonstrate available gaps that can be filled in by further investigations.

1. Introduction various performances enhancement purposes. It is embedded within

1.1. Motivation
Shape memory alloy (SMA) is a smart material that attracted the
attention of researchers in the civil engineering field due to its beneficial
characteristics for a wide range of building applications and construc­
tion details. In this development, two historical periods may be distin­
guished. Initially, SMA elements did not find their way in technological
applications in construction due to their high costs, and they were only
proposed for small size building components or equipment. Compre­
hensive overviews of the use of SMA in civil infrastructures, including,
steel, concrete, and timber structures are provided by Zareie et al. [1],
while Abavisani et al. [2] approach a literature review of SMA from the
perspective of their multifunctional properties. However, a literature
review, furthermore with a focus on the uses of SMA in structural con­
crete, is currently missing in international literature, while significant
developments have been published in the last few years in this field. As
additional SMA types came to the market, and particular iron-based
SMA, the costs of SMA were substantially reduced, and the number of
the investigations have been expanded to using SMA as the material for
main concrete reinforcement. SMAs are manufactured in different
shapes such as rod, bar, strip, bolt, and plate, and it is mostly used as a
reinforcement or strengthening element in concrete members for
concrete members as reinforcement to replace conventional steel bars. It
is also used in near-surface mounted systems as well as external
strengthening elements of concrete members. As the number of studies
in this regard has been significantly increasing, a comprehensive liter­
ature review can help researchers to get familiar with already completed
works, identify possible gaps in research, and propose new directions in
technological development. Therefore, this review paper attempts to
summarise and demonstrate of currently proposed ideas based on a re­
view of more than 75 publications - in their majority from the last
decade – regarding the application of SMA in structures and structural
components made of structural concrete or steel-reinforced concrete
(RC) as well as concrete-type materials such as engineering cementitious
composites (ECC).
1.2. Shape memory alloy
1.2.1. History
The history of SMA backs to 1932 once for the first time SMA
transformation properties were observed and recorded in Gold-
Cadmium (Au Cd) by Chang and Read [3]. At the beginning of its gen­
esis, the alloy was utilized in a few fields, such as aerospace engineering,
robotic and automotive industries. As of the latest decades, its usage is
observed in more engineering fields due to its special characteristics,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohammad.molod@tu-dortmund.de (M.A. Molod).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127565
Received 24 January 2022; Received in revised form 8 April 2022; Accepted 16 April 2022
Available online 25 April 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

Fig. 2. Super elastic shape memory alloy form [9].

Fig. 1. Shape memory effect form [8]. Table 1

Indicative comparison of properties of NiTi SMA vs steel [10,11] relevant to
construction.
including good corrosion resistance, great durability, high power den­
sity, fair fatigue resistance, good damping capacity, and being an actu­ Properties Nitinol Standard concrete rebar
steel
ator in their solid phase [4,5]. Among all numerous types of SMA, NiTi-
SMA has been most used in civil engineering due to their beneficial Recoverable elongation 8% 0.2%
Young’s Modulus 83 Austenite
thermomechanical and thermo-electrical properties [5]. NiTi-SMAs can
dissipate considerable energy, regain large deformation and give more 28–41 Martensite
ductility to the structure. Yield Strength 195–690 MPa Austenite 248–517 MPa

1.2.2. Smas types and properties 70–140 MPa Martensite

There are two main distinctive features of SMA. The first feature is
that the alloys revert to their original shapes by exposure to certain
thermal energy loads. The second is superelasticity, which is signified by
a typically non-linear elasticity and shape recovery even under very
large amounts of imposed strain. The exact material behaviour, as well
as ranges of strain and temperatures where these effects are observed,
rely strongly on their chemical composition and homogeneity, which in
turn is a matter of manufacturing technology and its quality. Their
production is a challenging exercise since even minute variations in
composition can drastically alter their thermomechanical properties.
Indicatively, the Young’s modulus and the Poisson’s ratio of SMA in
construction can be in the range of 30–250 GPa and 0.30 – 0.35,
respectively [6,7]. Currently, the most widespread alloy melting method
is vacuum induction melting (i.e. melting in a vacuum and electro­
magnetic stirring), which provides satisfactory homogeneity. A further
commonly used method is vacuum arc remelting, which leads to very
limited contaminations in the composition but it requires higher re­
sources. A combination of the two is also often a production method of
choice to counterbalance the disadvantages of both [6].
The overall performance and categorisation of SMA are associated
with the two types of crystal forms that comprise the end material.
Firstly, the Austenite form is stable in high temperatures and has
comparatively powerful resistance to any externally applied stress; this
phase is stronger and body-centred cubic structure. Secondly, Martensite
form is stable in low temperature and has a weak resistance to external
stress due to its parallelogram structure. These two phases can be
interchanged if an external load applies to the body generating a dif­
ference between Gibbs free energy of each phase. The Gibbs free energy
represents the thermodynamic potential which yields the maximum
reversible work that can be introduced to a system maintaining a bal­
ance between temperature and pressure. Such a load can be applied due
to either different temperatures or mechanical loads. Overall, both
Martensite and Austenite phases depend on two thermos-mechanical
Ultimate Tensile Fully Annealed 895 MPa 448–827 MPa
Strength
Work Hardened 1900
MPa
Elongation at failure Fully Annealed 25–50% 20%
Work Hardened 5–10%
Corrosion Resistance Excellent Fair
Cost Expensive Fair
parameters: 1) amount of mechanical applied forces and 2) existing
composite temperature. In addition, there are two types of Martensite
transformations; 1) Shape memory effect (see Fig. 1) which is resulted
from temperature-induced transformation; heating the material after
unloading leads to recovery of the initial shape of the material and 2)
shape memory elasticity (see Fig. 2) which is caused by external stress-
induced transformation; material will get its original shape after
unloading and the residual strain will be zero. Table 1 shows some
properties of SMA versus normal Steel bars. NiTi form of SMA has higher
recoverable elongation, modulus of elasticity and tensile strength, and
better corrosion resistance compared to steel bars. However, the only
problem of SMA is its high cost.
1.2.3. Development of SMA applications in civil engineering
In the beginning of the millennium, SMAs were mainly used in small
pieces as a connector, isolator, braces, and retrofitting element to
improve mostly steel structures performance under seismic load, due to
its high cost. Khan and Lagoudas [12] numerically and Mayes et al. [13]
experimentally examined the performance of SMA springs as a single
degree of freedom vibration isolation system to filter ground motion
modeled using a shake table. Han et al. [14] used hybrid SMA and steel
wires as damper devices and diagonal braces for a steel frame structure.
Tamai and Kitagawa [15] proposed diagonal braces lower part made of
Super-elastic SMA and the upper part of steel, as devices for earthquake
resistance. Sun and Rajapakse [16] numerically investigated the

2
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 3. A Schematic view of a hybrid steel and NiTi-SMA bar as anchorage for
a column.
performance of pre-strained SMA wire as diagonal tendon braces
installed for a simple frame to analyze the dynamic and transient reac­
tion of the structure. Song et al. [17] stated that both forms of SMA,
pseudo-elastic and shape memory effect, can be utilized as bridge
damper elements. Li et al. [18] used hybrid super-elastic SMA and cable
as damper systems in a stay-cable bridge analytically to mitigate vi­
bration of the cable. DesRoches and Delemont [19] analytically inves­
tigated the capability of pseudo-elastic SMA restrainer bars in reducing
the earthquake vulnerability of simply supported bridges. Tamai et al.
[20] experimentally and numerically studied the effectiveness of
anchorage made of SMA in an exposed-type column for building struc­
tures as passive dampers and a seismic resistance member. Wilde et al.
[21] examined the applicability of super-elastic SMA bars as a base
isolation system installed between deck and pier of an elevated highway
bridge and it indicated a significantly lower aggregation of damage in
the system equipped with SMA components. The proposed vibration
isolation system by Dolce et al. [22] had also super effectiveness to filter
vibration energy, in which a super-elastic NiTi-SMA was installed be­
tween a superstructure and ground. Leon et al. [23] investigated the
performance of shape memory effect tendons in the connection portion
of steel beam-column as the main element to transfer loads. The
connection was stable and could endure large strain without going
under permanent damage. The alloy is used also to rehabilitate damaged
structures. Indirli et al. [24] used pseudo-elastic SMA tie bars to reha­
bilitate the S. Giorgio Church Bell-Tower, which was intensively
damaged during a seismic that occurred in 1996. The proposed idea was
implemented to strengthen the tower so that after another earthquake
occurred in 2000, the reinforced structure remained intact. The inves­
tigation on the alloy in steel structures has gone even further. Ozbulut
and Hurlebaus [25] used hybrid laminated rubber bearing and auxiliary
device made of SMA wires as the base isolation system for an elevated
bridge. The alloy is still used in steel structures as bolt connecting steel
column and the beam [26] and as Belleville washers to increase the
ductility of steel column-beam joint [27]. Farmani and Ghassemieh [28]
could also increase initial stiffness, moment capacity and shear resis­
tance, and improve the energy dissipation capability of steel column-
beam joints by the employment of SMA bolts. Concepts and applica­
tions, in various civil engineering structures under seismic excitations, is
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 4. NiTi-SMA as a fastening tool to link concrete column and footing [30].
Fig. 5. Concrete beam with a length of 1.27 m and externally bonded with
hybrid NiTi-SMA rods and steel angle [31].
presented in Sawaguchi et al. [29], highlighting the efficiency of SMA in
fastening and strengthening applications that utilize the shape-memory
effect, and novel applications as a fatigue-resistant seismic damping
alloy.
2. Application of SMA in concrete structures
2.1. External reinforcement of concrete systems
2.1.1. Bar and rod shapes
Tamai et al. [20] numerically investigated the capacity of a hybrid
ϕ20-30 mm NiTi-SMA and steel bars as through-bolt anchorage in a
concrete column base under a simulated seismic load (see Fig. 3). Results
showed the effectiveness of SMA rods to dissipate energy and decrease
the vibration of the structure under intensive ground motion. Varela
[30] used NiTi-SMA bars as a connection tool to link RC columns to the
concrete footing. SMA bars were threaded at both ends. One end was
fastened to coupling nuts attached to the footing dowels, and the other
fastened to Pocket cans attached to the column body. Fig. 4 demon­
strates a schematic view of the concept. The investigation was carried
out numerically using OpenSees software and experimentally. The
ground motion was applied using a shaking table. The proposed concept
that was designed for disassembly (DFD) of a resilient bridge column,
worked well without any considerable damage in the column compo­
nents under applied ground motion. Under a very strong earthquake
with almost 7% drift, the residual drift was below 0.5%, even for the
reassembled model. Furthermore, the same load and drift capacity and
comparable energy dissipation and chord stiffness were recorded for
reassembled model compared to the original models.
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 6. NiTi-SMA bolts used as connection tool of steel column-beam joint
supporting RC slab [32].
Fig. 7. Concrete column-beam rehabilitation technique (using NiTi-SMA)
proposed by Yurdakul et al. [33].
Saiidi et al. [31] experimentally investigated the behaviour of RC
beam externally strengthened with superelastic NiTi- SMA rods under
cyclic loading. As it is shown in Fig. 5, the SMA rod was threaded at both
ends; one end anchored to steel angle in the middle of the beam and
another end to the bearing plates at the beam ends. Results demon­
strated that when SMA was used alone as reinforcement of the beam,
residual displacement of the beam was even less than one-fifth of the
beam with conventional steel while its stiffness was lower. However, a
hybrid of SMA and high strength steel and a hybrid of SMA and carbon
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 8. Concrete column-beam rehabilitation technique (using superleastic
SMA) proposed by Elbahy et al. [34].
fibre reinforced plastic bars provided beams with relatively high stiff­
ness. On average, the residual strain of the beam with SMA was 4.25
times less than that of conventional steel bars.
Fang et al. [32] experimentally and numerically using Abaqus soft­
ware investigated the influence of SMA bolts as connection tools of steel
column and beam supporting RC slab (see Fig. 6) on the residual
displacement of the joint. NiTi-SMA bolts were threaded at both ends.
The quasi-static cyclic load was applied near the end of the beam up to
6% drift. The SMA-based bare steel connections exhibited great ductility
without bolt fracture and satisfactory self-centring function with
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 9. Column reinforced with FRP and NiTi-SMA wire [37].
comparable hysteresis responses compared to the typical post-tensioned
bolt connections. A maximum residual drift of 0.4% was recorded for a
recovery ratio of 93.3%.
Yurdakul et al. [33] numerically and experimentally examined the
applicability of NiTi-SMA bars as externally strengthening elements to
repair concrete column-beam joints, by exposing the longitudinal rein­
forcement in the beams, welding L-profiles on them and then bracing the
L-profiles with SMA bars (see Fig. 7). Axial load on tip of the column and
quasi-static cyclic displacement up to 8% drift ratio were applied. The
proposed retrofitting technique significantly improved the ultimate
lateral load capacity of the specimens. Up to 4% and 5% drift ratio in
negative and positive loading direction, no considerable strength dete­
rioration was observed. Furthermore, the retrofitting technique rela­
tively enhanced the ultimate displacement value of the specimen. It was
also recommended to apply initial post-tension force to the SMA bars to
get full advantage of their superelasticity property as the applied post-
tension force up 75% strength capacity did not let the SMA bars yield
until the last load cycles. In a study, Elbahy et al. employed experi­
mentally [34] and numerically [35] superelastic SMA bars for
strengthening concrete column-beam joint under a ground motion load.
As shown in Fig. 8, the SMA bars were attached to the frame using
external rigid steel angles and bolts. The frame reinforced with the
proposed retrofitting method tolerated higher intensities of an earth­
quake compared to the original RC frame. Furthermore, it decreased the
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Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 10. Concrete column-beam joint repaired with SME wires [39].
maximum and residual drifts of the frame by 10–15% and 50–70%,
respectively.
2.1.2. Wire and cable forms
Application of the alloy in civil engineering is not limited only to the
strengthening of new structures, but also to rehabilitation and retrofit­
ting existing and damaged structures. Jung et al. [36] examined exper­
imentally efficiency of SMA as an external strengthening element of the
plastic hinge region of seismically deficient concrete columns. The
strengthening plastic hinge region of seismically deficient concrete
columns with SMA spirals and active confinement form could signifi­
cantly improve flexural ductility of the column and postpone the con­
crete damage under intensive consecutive seismic loads. Deogekar and
Andrawes [37] glued a glass fibre reinforced polymer(FRP) layer to a
concrete column with epoxy and applied 1.9 mm diameter of Nickle-
Titanium SMA wire initially pre-strained up to 6% over the layer in
the plastic hinge region of the column as shown in Fig. 9. Uniaxial cyclic
load in the experimental part and pushover analysis in the numerical
part of the research were applied. The hybrid confinement could keep
substantial strength and stiffness even under high axial strain so it was
reported that axial strain relevant to completely rupture of FRP in hybrid
confinement of 3.45 MPa was 93.9% higher than its value in passive
confinement of 4.14 MPa. Furthermore, the applied SMA spirals in the
plastic hinge region of the concrete-filled fibre tube bridge column could
increase ultimate drift up to 154%. Hong et al. [38] have also experi­
mentally studied the influence of superelastic SMA wires with a diam­
eter of 1.2 mm on confinement of concrete columns with length 500 mm
and diameter 150 mm under uniaxial compression testing. The pre-
strained wires (0%, 1%, 2%, and 4%) were wounded around the col­
umns clothed with FRP. An increment in axial loading capacity and an
enhancement in deformation performance of the columns were recor­
ded. The increase of SMA wires also led to the enhancement of the ul­
timate bearing capacity of the columns reinforced with externally SMA
wires. Suhail et al. [39] proposed SMA cable as a strengthening element
in a pre-damaged column-beam joint as shown in Fig. 10. The rectan­
gular shape of the column had to be modified by a concrete cast in an
elliptical shape. SMA cable passed through holes of steel plates installed
at two faces of the column, and two ends of the cable are locked with
crimps sleeves (U-shape and the system be tested under cyclic load to
observe the efficiency of the proposed method. Rius et al. [40] applied
Ni-Ti-Nb wires with a diameter of 3 mm to confine RC beams with a
cross-section of 80 by 150 mm as a means of shear strengthening. This
technique increased both the shear strength of the retrofitted beams up
to 92% and the deflection at failure by more than double. Finally, it has
shown that established shear models (Compression Chord Capacity
Model and Eurocode 2) can be efficiently used for design purposes for
this application.
In the same concept of bridge bearing systems presented in Fig. 3,
Zhu and Qiu [41] and Zheng and Dong [42] propose the application of
SMA wires as external damping and restraining elements at concrete
bridge bearings subjected to earthquake-type dynamic loading and they
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 11. Strengthening concrete beam with externally bonded Fe-SMA
strip [44].
Fig. 12. Concrete beam strengthened with Fe-SMA strip [45].
indicate a significant reduction of damage and residual displacement of
bridges, which also facilitate post-earthquake repairs. Fang et al. [43]
provide extensive insights on the complex material behavior of SMA for
Fig. 13. Optimized NiTi-SMA plate as externally bonded reinforcement element of concrete column-beam joints [48]; finite element model (top), and results with
values of optimised plate thickness in cm (bottom a, b).
6
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
such applications, in form of wires or cables, and it establishes that
based on various tested SMA elements, approximately 80% of the re­
covery rate can be anticipated as a minimum, while annealing temper­
atures are in the range of 350◦ − 450 ◦ C. The applicability of the
investigated elements is demonstrated using a linear bridge model with
combined spring-pot support models.
2.1.3. Plate and Strip formats
Michels et al. [44] examined the behaviour of RC beam externally
bonded with iron-based SMA (Fe-SMA) strip. Both ends of the strips
anchored to the bottom surface of a beam using the direct fastening
system X-NPH2; Fe-SMA and concrete were predrilled for the nail
fastening purpose as shown in Fig. 11. The model was tested under static
loading under displacement control with a 2 mm/min rate. The beams
reinforced with externally bonded SMA strips recorded higher cracking
and ultimate load values and provided much more ductility to the
overall behaviour of the beams compared to one without external re­
inforcements and a beam externally reinforced with carbon FRP.
Strieder et al. [45] experimentally and numerically investigated the
effectiveness of 2.3 mm thick Fe-SMA strips externally installed near-
surface of the concrete beam as shown in Fig. 12. Four beams were
tested under the four-point bending test. First cracking and ultimate load
values of beams reinforced with SMA strips were increased up to +
320% and + 160%, respectively. Furthermore, owing to the SMA’s pre-
stressing effect, an enhancement at the serviceability limit of the beam
reinforced with the SMA strip was observed.
Of interest are the applications of SMA-based plate springs as
washers in bolted connections of particularly as self-centring concrete
bridge pier foundations, as in the cases presented by Li et al. [46] and
Fang et al.[47], based on a combination of experimental and numerical
analyses. Li et al. [46] indicate that, compared to normal RC, structures
equipped with such superelastic SMA washer springs combined with
ECC can significantly improve the deformability of the structure under
rocking actions without minor levels of permanent damage for a 10 year
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

Fig. 14. Plastic region of concrete foundation-column reinforced with NiTi-SMA bars [49].

return period earthquake, while they could outlive them at a 25 year

return period earthquake level. Similarly, Fang et al. [47] implemented a
Ni-Ti superelastic SMA at foundation bolt connections loaded under
cyclic axial loads and demonstrated that this arrangement can provide a
stable hysteretic energy dissipation with negligible residual deforma­
tion, for up to 2% drifts and 10% equivalent viscous damping for the
tested configuration. The study, however, presents a straightforward
system whose performance can be regulated by simple adjustment of the
number of SMA washers in series and parallel arrangement. Molod et al.
[48] numerically designed and optimized an SMA plate externally
bonded to a concrete column-beam joint once under cyclic and once
under reverse-cyclic loading systems. The plate then was bolted to the
joint. Fig. 13 shows the proposed strengthening method and optimized
SMA plates. The proposed technique could increase the stiffness of the
concrete column-beam system significantly and mitigate the risk of
failure of the joints by shifting the maximum stress of the steel bars to
the middle of the beam due to the existence of the SMA plate.

2.2. Embedment within the concrete members

2.2.1. Bar and rod formats

Saiidi and Wang [49] applied NiTi-SMA bars in the plastic hinge
region of the RC foundation-column joint and loaded the system under
ground-motion simulated with shaking table. The SMA bars are con­
nected with steel bars located in other regions of the system using
threaded mechanical couplers shown in Fig. 14. The system reinforced
with superelastic SMA in its plastic hinge region could retain almost all
post-yield deformation. Usage of ECC also decreased the concrete col­
umn damage so that the column would need only minimum repairmen
after an intense earthquake. A NiTi-SMA bar reinforced layer of ECC has
also been applied by Qian et al.[50] in the span of structural concrete
beams under cyclic 4-point bending, compared to equivalent strength­
ening layers with conventional reinforcement. Although the tests with
conventional reinforcement performed slightly better than the ones with
SMA under bending at maximum capacity, the SMA-based technique
exhibited superior crack control and recovery performance. Beßling
et al. [51] have experimentally examined the influence of Fe-SMA bar in
concrete members under tensile load. Six concrete specimens have been
investigated, in which two of them were reinforced with 12 mm steel bar Fig. 15. NiTi SMA-Steel coupling reinforcement detail [52].
(B500B), two with nonactivated, and two other with activated (heated
in the oven with 160C for 2 h) 11 mm Fe-SMA bar. The bar was placed in the specimens reinforced with activated Fe-SME, in which 150%
the centre of the cross-section. The specimens have been tested under enhancement of first cracking load was recorded. Xiang et al. [52]
tensile loading under displacement control 1 mm/min up to 49 kN proposed SMA-Steel coupled reinforcement (see Fig. 15) to gain a
tested. Results showed an improvement in serviceability limit state of

7
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 16. Concrete column-footing joint reinforced with NiTi-SMA bars [55].
balance between energy dissipation capacity and self-centring in con­
crete bridge piers under seismic load. The idea led to higher resilience
and lower vulnerabilities. Zheng and Dong [53] address a similar
application of SMA bars in earthquake resistance concrete bridge piers
based on life-cycle performance and cost. The study indicates the
localized installation of SMA bars significantly decreases the residual
drift ratio and consequently the damage probability. Moreover, it pre­
sents a whole-life costing study showing that the investment of SMA
reinforcement is 4% of the total construction cost, but it leads to a failure
risk reduction corresponding to 85% of the asset cost over 75 years.
Justifying the initial investment from a life cycle perspective. Rahman
and Billah [54] discuss the inclusion of SMA reinforcement localized at
both ends of concrete bridge piers and highlight the efficiency of this
application, particularly for long-duration seismic events, where
recentering performance, as well as resilience against greater drifts
offered by SMA, becomes critical.
Alam et al. [55] numerically investigated the performance of NiTi
(55% Ni to 45%Ti) super-elastic shape memory alloy in column-footing
joint (see Fig. 16) and beam-column joints under seismic load. The SMA
beam-column and column-footing joints showed better performance in
terms of energy dissipation and residual displacements in comparison
with the joints reinforced with conventional steel bars. The main cause
of buildings’ and bridges’ failure during seismic is residual and lateral
displacement. SMA beam-column and column-footing joints recorded
less residual displacement. Youssef et al. [56] embedded NiTi SMA bar
within plastic hinge region of RC beam-column joint experimentally and
numerically. The SMA bars were connected to conventional steel bars
with a mechanical coupler (see Fig. 17), and the system was loaded
8
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 17. Concrete column-beam joint reinforced with NiTi-SMA bars [56].
under reverse cyclic load. The RC beam-column reinforced with
superelastic SMA recorded larger deformation capability in the plastic
hinge region and negligible residual strain in longitudinal and transverse
rebar compared to the specimen reinforced with conventional steel
rebar. However, the SMA specimen had lower energy dissipation and
higher beam rotation. Due to its low modulus of elasticity, the SMA
rebar yielded lately compared to that of steel; moreover, beam tip
rotation of the SMA specimen (0.0183) was more than that of steel
(0.0101). Later on, Abdulridha et al. [57] numerically investigated the
performance of SMA bars placed in the plastic region of the beam-
column joint experimentally done by Youssef et al. [56] using a pro­
posed constitutive model in Vector2. Fig. 17 shows details of the joint.
The joint was tested under cyclic and reverse cyclic loads. The perfor­
mance of SMA bars in large-scale concrete beams was reliable and could
restrict cracks’ width and residual strains. Performance of both rein­
forced beams for the sustainability of displacement ductility and dissi­
pated energy under cyclic loading were comparable; however, under
reverse-cyclic loading conventional reinforced beam dissipated 54%
energy more than that of SMA beam.
Abdulridha et al. [57] also numerically and experimentally investi­
gated the performance of super-elastic NiTi-SMA bars as longitudinal
reinforcement in critical zone coupled with conventional steel bars in
other zones of a concrete beam (see Fig. 18) under three types of load­
ings, namely monotonic, cyclic and reverse cyclic to assess residual
displacement, crack patterns and energy dissipation. Under monotonic
test at cracking load, crack width in beam reinforced with SMA was 1.5
times greater than the beam with conventional steel bars, and at yielding
load the difference even enlarged to 7.1 times. By failure load, crack
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig 18. Longitudinal section of beam reinforced with NiTi-SMA in critical zone proposed by Abdulridha et al. [57].
Fig. 19. Concrete beam internally reinforced with NiTiBi-SMA bar under three-
point bending test [58].
width reached 65 mm at 36kN, 60 mm at 28kN, and 80 mm at 34kN for
specimens reinforced with normal steel bar under monotonic load,
specimens reinforced with SMA bars under monotonic load, and spec­
imen reinforced with SMA bars under cyclic-monotonic load, respec­
tively. Under reverse cyclic loading, NiTi reinforced beam showed a
greater capacity of recovery compared to the Nitional beam under cyclic
load. Conventional beams had similar behaviour to NiTi reinforced
beams under reverse cyclic load. However, for the same displacement
ductility of 6.5, the SMA beam recovered 80% under cyclic loading
which was 4.5 times greater than recovery capacity in a steel beam that
was 17%. Respectively the (i.e. maximum to residual crack width ratios
was 34.0 to 3.0 and 7.0 to 5.5 mm. Furthermore, both steel and SMA
beams had almost similar energy dissipation under cyclic loading; while
in the SMA beam, it was considerably less than steel beam for reverse
cyclic loading test. For the numerical part of this investigation, a hys­
teretic constitutive model has been developed and implemented in
VecTor2 software, and all mentioned tests are simulated using the
software as well. Under cyclic monotonic load, numerical ultimate and
yield strengths were 9% and 7% higher than values recorded in exper­
iments, respectively. Under reverse cyclic load, computational ultimate
and yield strengths were 20% and 9% greater than results obtained
experimentally, respectively. Energy dissipation in the numerical
investigation was also 11% higher than the experimental one under
reverse cyclic load.
9
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 20. Concrete column-beam joints reinforced with NiTi-SMA bar and car­
bon FRP [59].
Choi et al. [58] experimentally investigated the behaviour of RC
beams reinforced internally with prestrained NiTiBi-SMA bar under
three points bending test (see Fig. 19). The SMA bar was fixed at both
ends of the beam using two splitting plates with a hole in the centre
coupled together with two bolts. The SMA bar was prestrained using
heat. The proposed technique led to 3% pre-strain in the bars, and beams
reinforced with the bars had almost the same and to somehow larger
flexural strength than those activated by electronic resistance. The re­
sults also showed that the heat of hydration emitted during concrete
curing could be used to activate and induce recovery stress in the SMA
bars instead of the traditional method of using electronic power in case
the SMA bars are manufactured with a lower temperature of As than
temperature of concrete. Hojatirad and Naderpour [59] have numeri­
cally examined eight different frame models in 5, 10 and 15 storey
structures, in which column-beam joints are internally strengthened
with SMA rebar in plastic hinge region and externally with carbon FRP
sheet (see Fig. 20) and analyzed under 13 Far-field’s earthquake records.
The results reported an increment in maximum drift and ductility of the
frames. A reduction in the probability’s rate of the seismic damage and
an enhancement in the frame resistance to collapse were also recorded.
Youssef et el. [60] employed hybrid SMA and glass FRP in the plastic
hinge region of a concrete beam-column joint to provide a frame with
adequate ductility, corrosion-free, and with less residual displacement
and appropriate initial stiffness and strength. NiTi superelastic SMA bars
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 21. Experimentally investigated concrete column-beam joint strengthened
with NiTi-SMA bars [60].
Fig. 22. RC shear wall reinforced with NiTi-SMA bars in its plastic hinge
regions [64].
were linked to conventional steel bars using mechanical couplers as is
shown in Fig. 21, and the system was modelled in Seismostruct software
under pushover, a static nonlinear analysis. The frames reinforced with
the proposed technique experienced lower displacement at failure. It
also had lower failure load, ductility and initial stiffness in comparison
with the frame reinforced with conventional steel bars. Nahar et al. [61]
compares five different types of SMA-RC and a regular steel-RC beam-
column joint through push-over analyses and provide an understanding
of the range of alterations in the seismic performance for different SMA
materials on the basis of maximum and residual drift. This study con­
cludes that SMA reinforced elements exhibit an overall much lower
seismic vulnerability and the likelihood of failure and it qualifies a
ferrous polycrystalline SMA material (Fe-Ni-Co-Al-Ta-B), which has a
very high tensile strength (max 1200 MPa) and superelastic strain range
(13.5%), as the most cost-efficient and structurally superior solution. A
series of building structures designed per the prevailing national
building code is analysed for 20 selected historical far-field recorded
excitations by Siddiquee et al. [4] assuming an inclusion of SMA rebars
in their column beam connections, which in turn are assessed consid­
ering applicable seismic design methodologies (e.g. Collapse Margin
Ratio), and it advocates that the collapse resistance of SMA reinforced
buildings are enhanced particularly for low and high-rise building but
not for mid-rises (6 storeys), while conventionally reinforced buildings
still exhibit a higher ductility. Fawaz and Murcia-Delso [62] experi­
mentally investigate the bond strength of ribbed ferrous SMA bars and
conclude that it is no different to that of conventional steel bars with
equivalent rib layout, nor is it affected by imposed temperature for
annealing. The study from Lee et al. [63] compliments previous studies
for beam-column joints reinforced with SMA bars by providing a
10
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
paradigm methodology and interpretive results for the calculation of the
plastic hinge length of rectangular concrete columns reinforced with
NiTi superelastic SMA, based on static calculations and statistical
regression applied on an actual column cross-section database. The re­
sults indicated that the plastic hinge length of the SMA reinforced ele­
ments increases with increasing axial load, aspect ratio, and yield
strength of the SMA rebar and decreasing concrete compressive strength
and longitudinal and transverse reinforcement quotients, but it is
approximately 55% shorter than the estimated by referenced design
standards.
Wang and Zhu [64] have explored the influence of superelastic NiTi-
SMA as reinforcement in the plastic hinge region of an RC shear wall (see
Fig. 22) through numerical analyses which were adequately validated
and supported by experiments. The wall was loaded under 20 repetitions
of cyclic loading. The concrete wall reinforced with SMA, in the boun­
ded corner region dissipated less energy while having no residual
deformation upon unloading of the cycle with a peak drift of 2.5%. For
this value of drift, the maximum strain of the SMA bar was only 3.3%
while the recoverable strain of the SMA bar was around 6%; therefore,
there was a significant enhancement in ductility that allowed the wall to
tolerate a greater load causing larger displacement. Tolou Kian and
Cruz-Noguez [65] carried out a parametric analysis of 72 shear wall FE
models reinforced with various types of materials (conventional steel,
post-tensioning high strength steel, glass FRP, Ni-Ti SMA) leading to the
conclusions that, although the shear walls exhibit lower stiffness using
SMA reinforcement (with lower elastic moduli) they can substantially
increase several self-centring requirement criteria set in the study.
Soares et al. [66] investigate similar wall geometries, with a combined
system of hybrid Ni-Ti superelastic SMA and normal steel rebar, using
nonlinear push-over and reverse cycling finite element analyses. This
study also confirms that investigated components exhibit lower stiffness
but they achieve a 2.5% drift without suffering a significant loss in load
capacity and superior self-centring compared to the conventionally
reinforced reference tests. Abraik and Asteetah [67] have also numeri­
cally run a parametric study of the RC slender shear wall (aspect ratio ≥
2.0) strengthened with SMA bars, by which an improvement in load
capacity and drift of the wall was reported and an excellent self-centring
capability and negligible damage were recorded. In the same series of
work, Abraik et al. [68] indicate that replacement of typical steel rein­
forcement through SMA rebar in plastic hinge areas can lead to a sub­
stantial reduction of accelerations and hence diaphragm rotations and
damage of non-structural components for buildings with concrete core
wall layouts. Depending on the arrangement of the reinforcement and
the wall geometry, further analysis of these effects in regards to ductility
and overstrength, and in regards to hybrid FRP/SMA reinforcements and
different methods of approximation are demonstrated in Abraik and
Youssef [69] and Abraik et al. [70], respectively. Moreover, the
respective analysis of Abraik [71] and for frame building layouts lead to
a reduction of inter-storey drifts by 30% on average for all different
parameters evaluated.
A comprehensive comparison between Ni-Ti-Nb SMA, glass FRP, and
steel reinforcement for concrete elements is given by Karimipour and
Edalati [72]. These were used as tensile reinforcement in concrete
beams with realistic dimensions (150 by 200 mm) and steel stirrups
under a 4-point test setup. Τhe investigations involved concrete mixes of
various strength and stirrups at different quantities and they were car­
ried out through laboratory tests (27 in total) and non-linear numerical
analyses. Τhe study indicates that both SMA and glass FRP reinforce­
ment substantially outperforms steel rebar in general and particularly as
regards the comparison of flexural resistance for normal and low-
strength concrete, the bond-slip strength, and the compensation of
shear resistance by stirrup reinforcement. Furthermore, it presents the
limits of applicability of established design codes (in this case the ACI-
318) and it outlines the significance of the contribution of rebar with
advanced materials on the shear resistance of concrete members. Molod
et al. [73] investigated the role of percentage and diameter of SMA bars
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

girder reinforced with SMA in form of a cable under a three-point

bending test. The load-deformation behaviour of the girder was alter­
able and even very large plastic deformation was reversible.
Li et al. [78] examined the behaviour of four simply supported RC
beams strengthened with a combination of NiTi shape memory alloy
wires and carbon FRP plates (see Fig. 24) loaded under a three-point
loading system. A one-millimetre thin polyethylene hollow tube with
Fig. 23. Longitudinal section of concrete beam reinforced with NiTi-SMA wires an internal diameter of 4 mm was embedded in the concrete, and SMA
at tension area and with fibres containing adhesives [76]. wires were placed into the tubes to increase bonding between SMA and
concrete. The specimen reinforced with four SMA wires and steel stir­
as main reinforcements of a simply supported concrete beam under four rups could carry larger cracking load compared to those without and
points bending test in strength and residual displacement of the beams. with a lower number of SMA wires. That also carries a larger cracking
Eight beams, four reinforced with the same percentage but different load compared to the specimen with the same number of SMA but
diameters of SMA bars and four reinforced with the same diameter but a without steel stirrups. The employment of more SMA wires also led to a
different percentage of SMA bars, simulated in Ansys software. reduction in residual deformation.
Enhancement in the SMA ratio of the beam led to a stiffer beam and less Mas et al. [79] experimentally investigated the performance of NiTi
residual displacement upon unloading. In addition, the beam reinforced shape memory alloy cables as longitudinal reinforcement of concrete
with the same amount of SMA but a greater number of thin bars beams. Results showed that the NiTi-SMA cables were considerably
distributed along the width of the beam behaved stiffer with higher robust and durable if they are used as tension elements.
cracking load and recorded less residual strain compared to that rein­ An innovative prestressing system with embedded SMA wires for
forced with less number of bars with thicker diameters. Sawaguchi et al. concrete railroad crossties anchored employing cast-in hooks as well as
[74] proposed an early pre-stressing concept by use of Fe–Mn–Si-SMA external anchorage devices is presented by Sung and Andrawes [80] and
with traces of Niobium Carbide, and confirm the efficiency of the Sung and Andrawes [81], respectively. Davis et al. [82] introduce a
method by use of analytical calculations and beam bending tests. concept of self-sensing in concrete components by use of embedded
magnetic SMA reinforcing wires and prove its feasibility through labo­
2.2.2. Wire, cable and fibre forms ratory testing.
Song et al. [75] used two intelligent materials, Nitinol martensite The feasibility of SMA wires in form of short distributed fibres in
Shape memory alloy (SMA) and Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), for concrete has already been proposed in the past by Moser et al.[83], but it
health monitoring and rehabilitation of RC beams. Each seven SMA has gained stronger interest in the last few years. A comparative study of
wires were grouped to make a cable with a diameter of 1.15 mm, and
after 2% pre-strain were inserted in six pre-cast 13 mm diameter con­
duits, which were placed along the length and inside the concrete beam.
Four PZT transducers were embedded into the beam; one to generate a
wave signal and the rest to receive the signals of the induced vibration.
Upon unloading the beam, cables were heated, wires contracted to reach
their original length, and cracks closed up. The specimen carried also
higher loads compared to the first time that cables were at room tem­
perature. Kuang and Ou [76] examined the performance of NiTi-wires as
reinforcement in five beam specimens; the first beam reinforced with
two 2 mm SMAs at tension area, second with two 4 mm steel bars, third
with seven main bars of SMA in the tension area, fourth and fifth beams
reinforced with five and seven main bars of SMA, respectively, at the
bottom of the section plus four adhesive-filled brittle fibres located along
longitudinal axis below the neutral axis of the beams (see Fig. 23). Re­
sults demonstrated that using more numbers of SMA wires leads to
enhancing the stiffness and bearing capacity of the beams. In the fourth
and fifth beams a low viscosity epoxy adhesive flowed out from the
broken-open fibres to fill the cracks that closed upon the unloading
process. After ten days, repaired beam under the same loading process
showed improvement in terms of strength of the cracks repaired with the
adhesive so that stress was distributed and new cracks were created in
some other areas than the mid-span of the beams. Czaderski and
Motavalli [77] experimentally examined the behaviour of a concrete Fig. 25. Concrete T-shape beam reinforced with NiTi SMA-FRP bars [89].

Fig. 24. Concrete beam temporary reinforced with NiTi-SMA followed by permanent reinforcement of carbon FRP [78].

11
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

concrete structural properties reinforced with straight polypropylene,

Fig. 26. NiTi SMA-FRP composite used in the plastic hinge region of
concrete column-beam joint [90].
end-anchored steel, and end-anchored Ni-Ti SMA short fibres is pro­
vided in Aslani et al. [84] witnesses a nearly double cracking and ulti­
mate tensile strength of SMA fibres reinforced concrete compared to the
tested steel-fibre concrete (and an even higher difference to poly­
propylene fibre concrete). The monotonic and reverse deformability of
SMA fibre reinforced concrete was also proven superior to the other
mixes. Studies to further improve the fibre reinforced concrete me­
chanical properties by use of hybrid mixes with different fibre types are
presented by Dehghani and Aslani [85], the bond performance of fibre
with different end-forms is experimentally elaborated by Dehghani and
Aslani [86], and a study on the applicability and material character­
ization in geopolymer concrete by Wang et al.[87]. An improvement in
the post-cracking performance and deformation reversibility is also
confirmed for Ni-Ti fibres by Lee et al. [88].
2.2.3. Composite format
Zafar and Andrawes [89] experimentally employed SMA-FRP com­
posite rebar as the main reinforcement of a T-shape concrete beam
shown in Fig. 25. Both ends of the proposed SMA-FRP bar were anchored

Fig. 27. Concrete column-beam joint reinforced with NiTiNb SMA-FRP composite bars [36].

12
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 28. Fe-SMA bars installed underneath concrete beam using shotcrete [91].
Fig. 29. Geometry and reinforcement of the beam reinforced with 5 Fe-SMA stirrups [95].
to both ends of the beam using U-clamp to restrict slippage of the bars,
and the beam was loaded under three cycles of quasi-static flexural
loading. The shape and dimensioning of the beam prohibited concrete
crushing despite the absence of stirrups. The innovative rebar made of a
hybrid of superelastic SMA fibres and FRP could enable the concrete
beams to close the tensile cracks upon unloading with insignificant re­
sidual deflection owing to the recentering ability of the SMA fibres.
Energy dissipation in the third cycle was also 124% more than that in the
first cycle. Zafar and Andrawes [90] employed NiTi small diameter fi­
bres glued together by polymeric resin and covered by an external
cladding layer as reinforcement in the plastic hinge region of the con­
crete column-beam joint. Mechanical couplers were utilized to connect
the SMA-FRP composite with glass FRP. Fig. 26 demonstrates a sche­
matic view of the system reinforced with SMA-FRP composite. Two extra
frames, one reinforced with conventional steel bars and the other rein­
forced with GRFP were also simulated for comparison purposes. The
residual inter-storey drifts of the frame reinforced with conventional
steel bars were 62% and 84% higher than the frames with glass FRP and
SMA-FRP, respectively. Furthermore, the frame with SMA-FRP rein­
forcement experienced lower damage and dissipated more energy
compared to two other frames; hence, it resulted in an improvement of
structural performance in seismic zones.
Jung et al. [36] also proposed a technique with SMA wires glued
together using epoxy resin and covered by a layer of FRP, as shown in
Fig. 27. This composite was embedded into the plastic hinge region of
the concrete column-beam joint and connected to glass FRP, which was
embedded into other zones (see Fig. 27), by mechanical couplers. The
method was analysed based on an experimentally validated numerical
model, also employing bidirectional shake table tests, and it indicated
that superelastic SMA-FRP composite bars could considerably reduce
the residual inter-storey drift ratio of the frame.
13
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
2.3. Near-surface mounted system
2.3.1. Bar shape
Shahverdi et al. [91] examined the application of iron-based SMA
bars embedded in a shotcrete layer on the bottom surface of two simply
supported beams (see Fig. 28). This new reinforcing technique worked
well, and using pre-stressed Fe-SMA bars could enhance cracking load. It
was also shown that pre-stressing Fe-SMA bars were easier than con­
ventional steel bars since they did not need anchor heads and mechan­
ical jacks. Schranz et al. [92] strengthened RC slab with length, width,
and height of 5 m, 1 m, and 0.23 m, respectively, by Fe-SMA using two
different methods: 1) replacement of concrete cover by SMA bars and an
additional mortar layer and 2) near-surface-embedment into created
grooves, and tested the slab under quasi-static loading. Before the
installation, the bars were pre-strained up to 4–4.5%. The Fe-SMA bars
were activated using resistive heating in two slabs and were non-
activated in one to observe the influence of activation. A large
improvement in cracking, yielding and ultimate loads of the slab due to
the strengthening technique were reported without observation of any
tensile rupture or bonding failure of the SMA bars until compressive
failure of the concrete slabs. The length of the cracked area in concrete
slabs reinforced with activated SMA bars was also shorter than that
without activation. The short time of installation and simple process of
pre-stressing made the method more onsite practical.
Rojob and El-Hacha [93] experimentally mounted 14.3 mm diameter
FE-SMA bars near-surface of the RC beam, and the beam was loaded
monotonically up to failure under four points bending load (see Fig. 30).
The suggested self-prestressing technique significantly increased the
flexural capacity of the beam at both service and ultimate conditions. It
also improved the ductility of the beam considerably. The only problem
stated is debonding between the groove filling materials due to the
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 30. Near-surface mounted FE-SMA bar in RC beam [93].
Fig. 31. Possible applications of ribbed Fe-SMA bar in flexural and shear
strengthening [94].
smooth surface of the SMA bars. Michels et al. [94] experimentally
examined the capability of a 16 mm ribbed SMA bar and mentioned
Fig. 31 as possible applications of the bar in flexural and shear
strengthening of concrete beams. Czaderski et al. [95] have experi­
mentally investigated the influence of U-form ribbed Fe-SMA bar as
external stirrups (see Fig. 29) in six RC T-shape bridge girders with 750
mm height, 5.2 m length, 160 mm width, and 650 mm effective width
under the four-point bending scheme, in which one beam was without
external SMA stirrup as a reference, two beams reinforced with 3 SMA
stirrups (activated and nonactivated) and two beams with 5 SMA stir­
rups (activated and nonactivated). The first beam loaded up to failure,
repaired, and retested. All U-form Fe-SMA stirrups with 12 mm thickness
were applied as the external stirrup and covered with a layer of sprayed
14
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
Fig. 32. Fe-SMA strips installed in two grooves underneath the concrete
beam [98].
mortar. Results demonstrated a significant enhancement in the shear
capacity of the girder without any difficulties for application in practice.
Furthermore, activated stirrups led to a reduction in the number and
width of cracks, reduction in overall beam deflection, and internal stress
of internal steel stirrups. Cladera et al. [96] have also experimentally
examined eight T-shape beams with a length of 5.8 m and a height of
0.55 m externally reinforced with U-form Fe-SMA strips. Results re­
ported a 30% increment in shear strength of the retrofitted beams and a
reduction in crack width and delay in appearance of the cracks. Schranz
et al. [97] have experimentally studied the bond behaviour of Fe-SMA
bars installed near-surface of concrete structures, while the bars were
activated by resistive heating. Recovery stress due to activation of the
alloy reached between 193 and 261 MPa without a negative effect on the
bonding. However, a crack with 0.05 mm was recorded due to activation
at a maximum heating temperature of 190◦ C. Under quasi-static
loading, two failure modes occurred: Bond pull-out failure for high
ductile material and tensile rupture of less ductile SMA bars. It was also
found that anchorage length for SMA rebar cannot be determined based
on ACI and EN codes (341 mm), but should be between 400 and 800 mm
for less ductile and greater than 800 mm for ductile Fe-SMA bars.
2.3.2. Strip format
Shahverdi et al. [98] used Fe-SMA, as a strip to reinforce four beam
specimens, one not activated and three activated strips (see Fig. 32). Pre-
stressed Fe-SMA resulted in approximately two times enhancement in
strength of the beams. In addition, the cracking load of beams reinforced
with pre-stressed Fe-SMA was about 80% higher than that one rein­
forced with not pre-stressed Fe-SMA. It could be said that using pre-
stressed Fe-SMA can reduce deflection, the width of cracks, Stress in
internal steel, and consequently improve durability and serviceability of
concrete structures. El-Hacha and Rojob [99] mounted FE-SMA strips
with a size of 5000 × 15.8 × 1.5 mm (L × W × T) near-surface of the RC
beam, which was loaded monotonically up to failure under four points
bending load (see Fig. 33). The proposed self-restressing and near-
surface-mounted Fe-SMA strengthening system enhanced the flexural
performance of the beams at service and ultimate load conditions with
comparable ductility to an un-strengthened beam. The fastening tech­
nique also worked well in such a way that the end anchors transfer the
load induced by the activation process to the concrete and no debonding
between SMA strips and grout was observed up to yielding load. The
proposed system had also a comparable performance at service load
condition to the near-surface-mounted and pre-stressed carbon FRP-
strengthened system. Although the ultimate strength of the beam with
the carbon FRP system was slightly higher than the SMA system, the
beam with the carbon FRP system failed due to a considerable reduction
in ductility and sudden rupture of the carbon FRP bars. A methodology,
experimental validation, and parametric analysis of a non-linear finite
element model of concrete beam strengthened by NSM, Fe-SMA strips is
presented by Abouali et al. [100].
Hong et al. [101] experimentally investigated the influence of near-
surface mounted Fe-SMA strips in an RC beam. The strips were bonded
M.A. Molod et al.
Fig. 33. Near-surface mounted Fe-SMA strips in RC beam [99].
to the concrete material by rapid hardening cement. The beam was put
under four points bending test under displacement control of 3 mm/min.
Results demonstrated that when the number and width of the SMA
strips, as well as the level of pre-straining of the SMA strips increases, the
cracking, yielding and ultimate loads of the beams also increase. The
new pre-stressed near-surface mounting technique not only did not
decrease the ductility of the beams compared to the old technique of pre-
stressed FRP near-surface mounting technique but also was simply
applicable since it did not need extra equipment like end anchor and
hydraulic jack.
3. Discussion
The application of shape memory alloy in the civil and structural
engineering field in general and in concrete structures in specific has
been reviewed in this paper. It has been observed that shape memory
alloy is a promising material that can be used in different formats in
different areas of concrete structures. Due to the high cost of this smart
strengthening element, the alloy was initially investigated in small
pieces, but a reduction in cost due to more productions and the emer­
gence of new and cheaper versions of the alloy provided more oppor­
tunities for researchers to investigate the influence of larger pieces of the
alloy as a strengthening element of concrete members. Some researchers
used the alloy as main reinforcement within concrete members, and the
systems showed better performance in terms of ductility and energy
dissipation, especially in their plastic hinge regions such as concrete
column-beam joint, column-footing joint, and shear walls. The effec­
tiveness of the alloy was also investigated as an external strengthening
element of concrete members in different formats like plate, bar, rod,
wires, and bolts. Some investigations were also done on the application
of the alloy in near-surface mounted systems showing its efficiency in
mitigation of residual displacement of the systems upon unloading and
as a retrofitting material. All presented works reported the effectiveness
of the alloy as a strengthening element for existing and new concrete
structures. More investigations and providing more evidence of the
effectiveness of the alloy in concrete members can bring the material in
15
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565
the daily life of the construction industry in practice. It can then lead to
more production of the alloy and consequently more reductions in its
cost.
Shape memory alloys have recently gained exponential popularity in
construction research and applications. This is due to their advanced
mechanical properties that come to respond to acute needs in the
modern construction industry such as efficient strengthening and repairs
of structures, and sustainable solutions characterized by durability
against natural time-effects and resilience against environmental effects
and loads of extreme intensity. This paper focuses particularly on
reviewing scientific publications of SMA in concrete structures which
appears to lack a consistent literature review in the literature, although
it is the most prevalent material in the construction industry. The pub­
lications are categorized with various application technologies and
construction product forms. Before the literature presentation, a short
introduction is given concerning the material performance and charac­
teristics and a brief historical overview of civil engineering applications
in general. The review also classifies the use of SMA construction
products in externally applied, cast-in, and near-surface mounted inte­
gration of SMA in various forms with concrete components.
Research in the field deals predominantly with SMA alloys consisting
of Ni-Ti at different proportions (approximately 60% − 40%), followed
by Fe-SMA. Recently, investigation on Fe-SMA as a reinforcement
element of concrete structures due to its cost-effectiveness is more than
other types. The alloy is also divided into two classes. Both classes have
been examined in concrete structures. Superelastic SMA has been used
mostly in active systems, in which no need of external resources for
regaining the alloy for its original form is required. On the other hand,
the shape memory effect requires always an extra process (heating
process) either in the initial step for pre-stressing purposes or at the final
step to recovering the original shape of the alloy. Due to the material
model development of the alloy and from an economical point of view,
the numerical investigation has been always a good option for the
investigation of the alloy in large-scale structures. However, due to the
cost-effectiveness of the newly founded SMA, like iron-based SMA, the
alloy has been used in large-scale specimens in laboratories. The authors
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

Table 2
Summary and classification of reviewed publications.
Ref. Concrete component Shape Memory Alloy Research Conclusion
Type Load Type Form Material method

[20] RC column base Seimic load External Rod NiTi-SMA Num. Effectiveness of SMA rods to dissipate
reinforcement energy and decrease the vibration of the
structure
[30] RC column- Dynamic earthquake loading External Bar NiTi-SMA Exp. & Disassembly technique and low residual
footing using shaking table (ground reinforcement Num. drift
connection motion)
[31] RC Beam Cyclic loading (half cycle) External Rod NiTi-SMA Exp. Reduction in residual displacement
reinforcement
[32] St. column-beam Quasi-static cyclic load External Bar / bolt NiTi-SMA Exp. & Residual displacement
joint under RC reinforcement Num.
slab
[33] RC column-beam Axial load vertically on tip of External Bar NiTi-SMA Exp. & Improvement of ultimate lateral load
joint the column plus quasi-static reinforcement Num. capacity and displacement
cyclic displacement up to 8%
drift ratio
[34] RC column-beam Ground motion External Bar SE-SMA Exp. Reduction in residual drifts and Tolerate
joint reinforcement higher intensities of an earthquake
[35] RC column-beam Ground motion External Bar SE-SMA Num. Reduction in residual drifts and Tolerate
joint reinforcement higher intensities of an earthquake
[36] RC Column-Beam Ground motion PGA time External Wire NiTi-SMA & SME Num. & Improvemen ductility of the column and
joint history & seismic load reinforcement Exp. considerably reduction in residual inter-
(shaking table) story drift ratio
& RC column
[37] RC Column Uniaxial cyclic (exp.) & External Wire NiTiNb-SME Exp. & Higher ductility and increase of ultimate
Pushover analysis (num.) reinforcement Num. drift
[38] Concrete column Uniaxial compression External Wire SE-SMA Exp. Increment in axial loading capacity and
(confinement) reinforcement enhancement in deformation
performance of the columns
[39] RC column-beam Cyclic load External Cable SMA Exp. Proposal to repair pre-damaged column-
joint reinforcement beam joint
[40] RC Beam Lading at a central point of External Wire NiTi-Nb-SMA Exp. Increase shear strength and deflection
the beams by load cell reinforcement
[41] RC highway Earthquake-type dynamic External Wire SE-SMA Num. Minimize the post-earthquake residual
bridge loading reinforcement deformation
[42] Concrete bridge Earthquake-type dynamic External Wire and NiTi-SMA Num. Significant reduction of damage and
bearings loading reinforcement Cable residual displacement of bridges and
facilitate post-earthquake repairs
[43] RC bridge girder Cyclic loading protocols External Cable NiTi-SMA Exp & Effectively control the peak and
reinforcement Num.
residual displacements of the bridge
girder, and make the bridge more
resilient
[44] RC Beam Static loading test under External Strip Fe-SMA Exp. Higher cracking and ultimate load and
displacement control reinforcement more ductility
[45] RC Beam Four point bending test External Strip Fe-SMA Exp. & Increment in cracking and ultimte load
under displacement controle reinforcement Num. and enhancement of the serviceability
limit
[46] Concrete bridge A suite of ground motions External Washer SE-SMA Exp. & Significantly improve the deformability
pier foundations (dynamic analysis) reinforcement Num. of the structure under rocking
[47] Concrete bridge Cyclic axial loads External Washer NiTi-SMA Exp. & provide a stable hysteretic energy
pier foundations reinforcement spring Num. dissipation with negligible residual
deformation
[48] RC column-beam Cyclic and reverse cyclic External Plate NiTi-SMA Num. Increase stiffness and mitigate risk of
joint loadings reinforcement failure of the joint
[49] RC foundation- Ground motion simulated Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Exp. Retaining almost all post-yield
column with shaking table within concrete deformation and reduction in the
concrete column damage.
[50] RC beam Four points bending Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Exp. Superior crack control and recovery
within concrete performance
[51] RC beam Tensile loading Embedment Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Improvement in serviceability limit
within concrete state and enhancement of first cracking
load
[52] Concrete bridge Seimic load Embedment Bar SE-SMA Num. Balance between energy dissipation and
piers within concrete self-centering capacities under seismic
hazards, higher resilience and lower
vulnerabilities
[53] Concrete bridge Seimic load Embedment Bar not specified Num. Earthquake resistance: Significantly
piers within concrete reduction in residual drift ratio and
damage probability
[54] Concrete bridge Seimic load Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Recentering performance and resilience
piers within concrete against greater drifts
[55] Seimic load Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num.
within concrete
(continued on next page)

16
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

Table 2 (continued )
Ref. Concrete component Shape Memory Alloy Research Conclusion
Type Load Type Form Material method

RC column-beam Better performance in terms of energy

& column-footing dissipation and less residual
joints displacements
[56] RC column-beam Reversed cyclic loading Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Exp. & Larger deformation capability and
joint within concrete Num. neglibible residual strain, but lower
energy dissipation and higher beam
rotation
[57] RC column-beam Monotonic, cyclic and Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Ductility, residual displacement, crack
joint & RC beam reverse cyclic loads within concrete patterns and energy dissipation
[58] RC Beam Three point bending test Embedment Bar NiTiBi-SME Exp. The proposed technique leaded to 3%
under displacement control within concrete prestrain in the bars and beams
[59] RC frame 13 Far-field’s earthquake Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Increment in ductility and maximum
(column-beam records within concrete drift of the frames and enhancement in
joints) the frame resistance to collapse
[60] RC column-beam pushover (static nonlinear Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Lower displacement at failure, lower
joint analysis) within concrete failure load, ductility and initial stiffness
[61] RC column-beam Push-over analyses Embedment Bar Fe-Ni-Co-Al-Ta-B Num. Maximum and residual drift; much
joint within concrete SMA lower seismic vulnerability and the
likelihood of failure
[62] Concrete Pull-out test Embedment Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Bond strength and bond-slip behavior of
specimens within concrete ribbed Fe-SMA bars embedded in
concrete
[63] RC column Earthquake loading Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Plastic hinge region range:
within concrete approximately 55% shorter than the
estimated by referenced design
standards
[64] RC shear wall Cyclic loading (20 cycles) Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. & Significant enhancement in ductility
within concrete Exp. and tolerate a greater load
[65] Shear wall Cyclic loading Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Ductility, self-centering, energy
within concrete dissipation, and stiffness in self-
centering
[66] Shear wall Push-over and reverse Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Superior at reducing residual
cycling within concrete displacements, but less energy
dissipation than conventional wall
[67] RC slender shear Monotonic and cyclic loading Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. Improvement in load capacity and drift
wall (pushover analysis) within concrete of the wall and had excellent self-
centering capability
[68] RC core wall Pushover lateral load Embedment Bar SE-SMA Num. Significantly reduction in floor
within concrete accelerations, residual displacements,
and residual in-plane rotations
[69] RC Shear wall Quasi-static lateral load Embedment Bar SE-SMA Num. Ductility and overstrength
within concrete
[70] RC Shear wall Nonlinear static analysis Embedment Bar SE-NiTi-SMA Num. Solution for durability
(Pushover analysis) within concrete
problem and significantly improvement
of seismic performance by Hybrid FRP/
SMA
[71] RC frame Ground motions Embedment Bar SE-SMA Num. Reduction of inter-storey drifts
(column-beam within concrete
joint)
[72] RC beam Four point test Embedment Bar NiTi-Nb SMA Exp. & Flexural resistance, the bond-slip
within concrete Num. strength and the compensation of shear
resistance by stirrup reinforcement
[73] RC beam Four point bending test Embedment Bar NiTi-SMA Num. More SMA: stiffer beam and less residual
within concrete displacement. Same amount, but more
number of thinner SMA: higher cracking
load and recorded less residual strain
[74] RC beam Three-point bending test Embedment Bar Fe–Mn–Si-SME Exp. Efficiency of the early pre-stressing
within concrete containing NbC concept and s increase in bending
strength and cracking stress of the

mortar.
[75] RC beam Three-point bending test Embedment Wire/Cable NiTi-SMA Exp. Health monitoring and rehabilitation of
within concrete RC beams: reaching original length and
closing crack
[76] RC beam Static bending tests Embedment Wire NiTi-SMA Exp. Closing and repairing cracks and
within concrete enhancing the stiffness and bearing
capacity of the beams
[77] RC Girder Three point bending test Embedment Cable NiTi-SME Exp. Reversible very large plastic
within concrete deformation
[78] RC Beam Three-point loading system Embedment Wire NiTi-SMA Exp. Larger cracking load and reduction in
within concrete residual deformation
[79] RC Beam Three point bending test Embedment Cable NiTi-SMA Exp. NiTi-SMA cables were considerably
under displacement control within concrete robust and durable as tension elements
up to beam failure
(continued on next page)

17
M.A. Molod et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127565

Table 2 (continued )
Ref. Concrete component Shape Memory Alloy Research Conclusion
Type Load Type Form Material method

[80] Railroad concrete Prestressing force (using Embedment Wire NiTiNb-SMA Exp. & Help preventing end-splitting cracks,
crossties electrical resistivity heating) within concrete Num. adjust prestressing force and

adjust the reinforcement configuration

[81] Concrete Activation test and four-point Embedment Wire NiTiNb-SMA Exp. & Effectively apply prestress at target
bending test within concrete Num.
crossties regions as designed with significantly
less prestress losses
[82] Concrete Three point bending Embedment Wire Ferromagnetic Exp. & Structural health monitoring / damage
components within concrete SMA Num. detection
[83] Cement Prestressing, then bending Embedment Wire NiTi-SMA Exp. Feasibility of internal prestressing, to
tests within concrete obtain crack free industrial and building
based mortar and products.
concrete
[84] Fibre reinforced- Static and cyclic flexural tests Embedment Fibre NiTi-SMA Exp. Postponing initial crack formation and
concrete within concrete restricting the crack widths
[85] Prismatic and Four-point flexural test and Embedment Fibre SE-SMA Exp. The various hybrid fibre mixes used
cylindrical compressive test within concrete (steel, carbon, synthetic, SMA) enhance
specimens the flexural strength of concrete.
Various further sensitivites are reported.
[86] Highly flowable Pull-out test (quasi-static and Embedment Fibre SE-SMA Exp. The hook-ended shape of SMA fibres
cementitious high-rate loading) within concrete improves their bond formance,
matrix regardless of the number of bends. A
Dynamic Increase Factor was identified
for SMA fibres.
[87] Fibre-reinforced Compressive test, Embedment Fibre NiTi-SMA Exp. Smallest residue deformation and
within concrete largest re-centring ratios
geopolymer Splitting tensile test,
concrete Static and cyclic flexural test
[88] Cementitious slab Bending test Embedment Fibre NiTi-SMA Exp. Improvement in the post-cracking
specimens within concrete performance and deformation
reversibility
[89] RC T-shape beam Three point bending test Embedment Wire NiTi-SMA Exp. Close tensile cracks with insignificant
under displacement control within concrete residual deflection
(3 cycles)
[90] RC column-beam A suite of Embedment Composite NiTi-SMA Num. Improvement of structural performance
joint within concrete SMA-FRP in seismic zones: lower residual inter-
ground motion records story drifts, high energy dissipation and
lower damage
[91] RC Beam Four point bending loading Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Pre-stressing Fe-SMA bars and
under displacement control mounted enhancement of cracking load
[92] RC Slab Quasi-static loading Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Large improvement in cracking,
mounted yielding and ultimate loads of the slab
[93] RC Beam Monotonically up to failure Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Significantly increase of flexural
under 4 points bending load mounted capacity and improvement of ductility
of the beam
[94] RC Beam Service load (load cell with Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Demonstrating the main mechanical
max. capacity 100 kN) mounted characteristics of the alloy
[95] RC Girder (T- Four-point bending loading Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. Significant enhancement in shear
shape beam) mounted capacity of the beam. Reduction in
number and width of cracks and overal
deflection of the beam.
[96] RC T-shape beam Displacement control using a Near surface Strip Fe-SMA Exp. Increment in shear strength, reduction
hydraulic actuator mounted in crack width and delay in appearance
(maximum load capacity of of cracks
1000kN)
[97] Concrete blocks Pull-out loading Near surface Bar Fe-SMA Exp. & Bonding and crack width: recovery
mounted Num. stress without a negative effect on the
bonding
[98] RC Beam Four point bending loading Near surface Strip Fe-SMA Exp. Higher cracking load; Prestressing Fe-
(quasi-static manner in five mounted SMA strips decreased cracks’ width,
cycles) deflections and stress in the steel bars.
[99] RC Beam Monotonically up to failure Near surface Strip Fe-SME Exp. Enhancement in flexural performance at
under 4 points bending mounted service and ultimate load conditions
[100] RC Beam Monotonically downward Near surface Strip Fe-SMA Num. Enhancement of load carrying capacity
vertical displacement until mounted during service and and more ductility
failure of the beam and energy absorption
[101] RC Beam Four point bending test Near surface Strip Fe-SMA Exp. Enhancement in cracking, yielding and
under displacement control mounted ultimate loads with simply applicable
pre-stressed technique

18
M.A. Molod et al.
believed that an experimental investigation on small scale for validation
purposes followed by a large number of numerical simulations and
probabilistic analyses can provide guidance that needs to be given to
practising engineers. The alloy can be used as standalone reinforcement
when utilized as an external or near-surface strengthening element, but
a hybrid – in collaboration with conventional reinforcement could be a
more appropriate choice for application within the concrete members.
Although the application of the alloy under tensile load showed a sig­
nificant improvement in the response of the elements, the existence of
the alloy in the plastic hinge region of concrete structures led to a
remarkable behaviour of the structure under cyclic and reverse cyclic
loading like seismic. The behaviour of column-beam joints or pier-deck
connection of bridges under earthquake load showed a promising idea to
improve the ductility of the joints and reduce failure of the structure. In
addition, the alloy was used in an innovative self-prestressing technique
without any difficulties for application in practice. Although, the cost of
the alloy may still be a concern to bring it into practice, considering the
whole life cost of a structure can reduce the concern.
Based on the review, it is made clear that certain Shape Memory
Alloys cab offer clear benefits in concrete construction, as internal or
strengthening reinforcing elements in various types of structures.
Possibly further engineering research should be devoted to the response
of SMA under various design conditions such as fire, freeze–thaw, and
combinations of other environmental impacts with the surrounding
concrete. An interesting development is possibly be the development of
composite elements with SMA and fibre reinforced polymers. Although
little is currently discussed in the literature concerning the benefits
related to cost, commercialization of the product in the future is ex­
pected to increase. To that end, it would be interesting to assess the
whole-life costing of such materials in construction in further studies.
Due to the variety of material compositions and technologies, the au­
thors suggest that a strategy for construction product harmonization or
certification would be of benefit for the design and research engineers
but also the overall supply chain. This will require an appropriate
classification and characterization as well as quality assurance and
control of SMA construction products, e.g. in terms of mechanical
properties, standard dimensions, and concrete bond quality. At the same
time, besides the added structural performance of concrete structures,
which is firmly related to current industrial efforts for sustainability,
little is publicly discussed as regards the environmental impact of SMA
considering that these become a scaled product in construction, and
future research should respond to the question of CO2 equivalent
emissions and natural resources availability for the production and use
of SMA in concrete construction.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Appendix
With the aim to allow a concise overview of the content, this ap­
pendix provides a summary of all aforementioned research studies
described in the main body of the paper in Table 2. It provides the main
characteristics of the research focus, i.e. type, form and applications
location of SMA, load type, type of concrete elements and main
conclusions.
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