International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture

journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/ijlmm

Original Article

Accurate simulation on the forming and failure processes of fiber

metal laminates: A review
Yizhe Chen a, b, c, Yusen Yang a, b, Zhuoqun Wang a, b, Hui Wang a, b, *, Jun Li c, Lin Hua a
a
Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
b
Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
c
Jiangsu Xinyang New Material Co. Ltd., Yangzhou 225000, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fiber metal laminates (FMLs) are a kind of composite material prepared by alternately arranging fiber
Received 9 January 2023 layers and metal sheets at a certain temperature and pressure. It has been widely used in aerospace and
Received in revised form automobile transportation for its excellent combined mechanical properties. For the forming and failure
20 February 2023
processes of FMLs, the interfacial behavior and damage evolution of components are hard to be observed
Accepted 26 February 2023
Available online 3 March 2023
experimentally. Therefore, it is of great importance to simulate them accurately. In this article, the
development and application of FMLs were first introduced. Then the comparison of constitutive models
in FMLs simulation was given, especially the dynamic constitutive model applied to the metal layer. After
Keywords:
Fiber metal laminates (FMLs)
that, the important aspects of damage evolution, interface behavior, and model optimization in the
Interfacial behavior simulation on the forming and failure process of FMLs were analyzed, and the emphasis is on the
Numerical simulation nonlinear progressive damage model of different materials, the construction of cohesive zone model and
Forming and failure processes superior meshing methods. Furthermore, the experimental verifications of FMLs simulation were given.
It is shown that the deformation behavior and damage characteristics of various kinds of FMLs during
forming and failure processing can be accurately predicted by reasonable numerical simulation. Even-
tually, the future outlooks for numerical simulation of FMLs was proposed. Through this review, scholars
and engineers who are interested in FMLs can systematically understand the numerical simulation work
of FMLs, which is helpful in improving the quality of research in this field.
© 2023 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/
4.0/).

1. Introduction resistance ability, and the use of fiber-reinforced composites pro-

Nowadays, more and more attention has been paid to environ-
mental protection in the automotive industry, while people are also
very concerned about driving safety. Thus the need for materials
with high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, lightweight, and
other good properties is increasing in the automotive field. FMLs is
a kind of hybrid composite material formed by bonding several
metal sheets and fiber composites together, then solidifying at a
certain temperature and pressure [1], as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The
existence of metal layers provides FMLs with excellent impact
* Corresponding author. Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive
Components Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China.
E-mail address: huiwang@whut.edu.cn (H. Wang).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Board of International Journal of
Lightweight Materials and Manufacture.
vides good fatigue propagation performance [2]. Therefore, the
FMLs possess the advantages of both metal and fiber composites
[3], which are characterized by excellent abilities, including
corrosion resistance [1], fatigue resistance [4], damage resistance,
high impact resistance [4e8], high strength [9e13], and good
interlayer cracking resistance [14,15]. This proves that FMLs can
meet the needs of the further development of automobiles.
Knowing the development history of FMLs is helpful for
studying the deformation behavior and simulation work of FMLs.
With the continuous improvement of energy saving and emission
reduction requirements, the preference for materials with light
weight and good impact resistance is increasing [16]. There are four
main types of FMLs, namely ARALL (Aramid Reinforced Aluminum
Laminate), GLARE (Glass Reinforced Aluminum Laminate), CARALL
(Carbon Reinforced Aluminum Laminate), and TIGR (Titanium/
Graphite Hybrid Laminate). The material composition and appli-
cation history are shown in Table 1.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2023.02.003
2588-8404/© 2023 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of FMLs; (b) Application of FMLs in BMW 7 series sedan [32].

Table 1
Material composition and application history of various FMLs.

Laminate Type ARALL GLARE CARALL TIGR

Material Composition Aramid fiber/epoxy layer and
aluminum alloy sheet
Application History Appeared in the late 1970s.
Typical applications include the
full-scale wing panels of
Fokker-27 and Fokker-50, the
cargo door of the C-17 military
helicopter, and so on [23,24].
Glass fiber/epoxy layer and
aluminum alloy sheet [22]
Appeared in the 1990s.
The first flying GLARE part was
a bonded patch repair on C5-A,
and the first civil application
was in a bulk cargo floor of the
B777. Applied widely in panels
on the fuselage of civil aircraft
like A380 currently [25,26].
Carbon fiber/epoxy layer and
aluminum alloy sheet
Appeared in the 1990s.
They were applied as impact
absorbers for some helicopter
struts and aircraft seats [27].
But not widely used yet because
of galvanic corrosion [28,29].
Graphite fiber/polymer matrix
layer and titanium alloy sheet
Appeared in the 1990s.
They were applied in the
connection area for large
aircraft in Europe [19]. Typical
applications were the wing skin
of B787 and the cabin door for
the nacelle of the V-22 Osprey
helicopter [30,31].

As a kind of composite material with the advantages of light-
weight and excellent anti-impact performance, at present, FMLs
have been successfully applied to the materials of aircraft fuselage
and automobile body [3,13,17e19]. The most typical example is
BMW 7 Series sedan [20,21]. The application of FMLs in the BMW 7
Series is shown in Fig. 1 (b). Specifically, a kind of FMLs structure
consisting of two steel plates sandwiched by a carbon fiber plate is
applied in the position of the B-pillar, which greatly reduces the
weight of the B-pillar while meeting the strength requirements. By
applying FMLs and other measures, the BMW 7 Series has lost
130 kg of weight compared with the previous model.
However, for the FMLs material, the deformation behaviors of
the metal layer and composite layer are different during the
preparation and forming process, and the interfacial behavior and
damage evolution are incredibly complicated. Therefore, the nu-
merical simulation method is needed to study the performance of
the FMLs and intuitively predict its deformation behavior.
In this article, the application of FMLs was introduced. The
common theories and constitutive models of FMLs in the numerical
simulation were given. The important aspects (including damage
evolution, interface settings, etc.) in FMLs simulation were
analyzed. The accuracy analysis methods of FMLs simulation were
carried out.
2. Constitutive model comparison in FMLs simulation
In the process of numerical simulation of FMLs, constitutive
equations are needed for accurate modeling. The mechanical
constitutive equation reflects the relationship between stress and
strain and the mechanical properties of certain materials [33,34]. In
order to obtain simulation results as quickly and efficiently as
possible, it is necessary to select a suitable constitutive equation
according to the specific situation. Table 2 shows a comparison of
several classic constitutive models of FMLs.
2.1. Classical laminate theory
The KirchhoffeLove plate theory is a kind of classical laminate
theory which is used extensively in early simulation studies. The
theory is a description of the macroscopic mechanical behavior of
laminated plates, which takes Kirchhoff's assumption as the basic
premise. There are three basic assumptions of the classic laminate

Table 2
Characteristics and instructions of several classic constitutive models of FMLs.

Constitutive Models KirchhoffeLove Plate Theory [41] Anisotropy theory [42] Classic Johnson-Cook Model [43]

Characteristics Considers only the in-plane stress state of Calculates stresses under different strains. Considers the temperature effect and strain
the composite. Cannot obtain failure locations and damage rate effect of the material
Nonlinear behavior of the composite is not evolution processes of composite materials Suitable for dynamic model analysis.
considered. The deformation process of the material is
not considered
Instructions Targeted corrections based on different Introduction of material failure criteria Corrections based on specific experimental
issues and situations are needed (Tsai-Hill criterion, Tsai-Wu criterion, data are needed
Hashin criterion, Puck criterion) is needed

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Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

theory. 1. Before and after the deformation of the laminated plate, and its first derivative, and the sensitivity analysis of composite
the normal line perpendicular to the middle plane remains a laminates was carried out.
straight line. 2. The original normal perpendicular to the center of The classical laminate theory has its limitation, and it can not
the plane remains unchanged after loading, and there is no strain. 3. completely determine the stress that causes the failure of com-
Each monolayer is in a state of plane stress. This classical laminate posite materials [40]. In addition, Nam, Cortes et al. had succes-
theory has been used in many studies of the buckling behavior of sively modified and developed the classical laminate theory to
FMLs. Researchers can obtain laminate models for analyzing make it suitable for various performance studies of FMLs [44,45]. In
various mechanical problems and solving many crucial problems. order to express the nonlinear properties of the metal layer in the
In the process of analyzing the tensile strength of FMLs, Jiang plastic forming stage in the stiffness matrix, the stiffness matrix
et al. extended the theoretical solution of FMLs based on the clas- needs to be supplemented, thus the constitutive equation will
sical laminate theory [35,36]. They carried out numerical analysis of become more complicated, and the practicability will be reduced.
typical fiber metal hybrid symmetrically laid laminate. Firstly, In recent years, some researchers have obtained the viscoelastic
based on classical laminate theory and the stiffness matrix of the and plastic constitutive relation of the composite material, and
metal layer, the expression form of laminate stiffness was obtained, these models they established reflected the meso-structural char-
as shown in equation (1): acteristics of the composite material to a certain extent [46e51].
The viscosity term in the constitutive relation better reflected the
X
n X
nm 9
k k > strain rate strengthening effect of the material. However, this will
Aij ¼ Q ij ðhk  hk1 Þ þ Q ij;m ðhk  hk1 Þ >
>
>
> cause the constitutive relation to be more complicated in form and
k¼1 k¼1 >
>
>
" #>
>
>
not suitable for practical analysis. In addition, these models do not
1 Xn
k
  Xnm
k
  = consider the weakening of mechanical properties caused by ma-
Bij ¼ Q ij h2k  h2k1 þ Q ij;m h2k  h2k1 ði; j ¼1; 2; 6Þ terial damage, which is insufficient in the simulation of material
2 >
>
k¼1 k¼1 >
> damage characteristics.
" #>
>
1 X n   X nm   >>
>
>
Q ij;m hk  hk1 >
k 3 3 k 3 3
Dij ¼ Q ij hk  hk1 þ ; 2.2. Application of constitutive model
3
k¼1 k¼1
(1) In addition to automotive applications, FMLs are also widely
used in the aviation field. The biggest threat to the components of
Where Aij, Bij, and Dij respectively refer to the in-plane stiffness this material comes from the delamination, fracture, and other
matrix, coupling stiffness matrix, and bending stiffness matrix of damage caused by impact. Therefore, in the test of FMLs, the impact
the entire laminate. Qij and Qji,m are stiffness matrices of the metal resistance has been paid attention to by all. In the numerical
layer and fiber resin layer, respectively. The whole laminate is simulation of the impact test, the most important theoretical
divided into layers according to the material, and hk and hk-1 are the problem is how to characterize the constitutive model of the metal
normal coordinates of the upper and lower surfaces of layer k. layer that mainly provides impact resistance for FMLs. The Johnson-
Equation (1) reflects the common idea in the numerical simulation Cook model, the Zerilli-Armstrong model and the Steinberg model
on FMLs that the properties of every layer and different materials are widely used in various dynamic constitutive models for metal
are calculated separately and then integrated into the entire impact numerical simulation.
laminate. The Johnson-Cook model is based on the induction and sum-
Secondly, in actual engineering structures, asymmetric lami- mary of the experimental results of metals under different strain
nates are often laid. Thus the classical laminates were expanded. By rates and temperatures by Johnson and Cook [43], and a pure
calculating the non-middle plane stiffness coefficient, each lami- empirical constitutive relationship considering the effects of strain
nate was regarded as a special laminate deviating from the middle rates and temperatures is proposed. The Zerilli-Armstrong model is
plane of the laminate. Therefore, the stiffness coefficient matrix of a dislocation-type constitutive model proposed by Zerilli and
the non-middle surface of the laminated plate could be expressed Armstrong based on the theory of thermally activated dislocation
as equation (2): motion [52], which can describe the mechanical behavior of metal
9 materials with different structure types (face-centered cubic and
A0ij ¼ Aij >
>
> body-centered cubic). The Steinberg model is proposed by Stein-
=
0
Bij ¼ Bij þ dAij ði; j ¼ 1; 2; 6Þ (2) berg, Cochran, and Guinan to transform shear modulus and yield
>
> strength into equivalent plastic strain, pressure, and internal en-
0 2
Dij ¼ Dij þ 2dBij þ d Aij >
;
ergy at high strain rates. It is a dynamic constitutive model that
ignores the influence of strain rate on material strength [53].
Where d means the distance from the assumed plane to the However, the square root of flow stress and plastic strain in the
reference axis, and A0 ij, B0 ij, D0 ij are the modified in-plane stiffness initial assumption of the Zerilli-Armstrong model is proportional,
matrix, coupling stiffness matrix and bending stiffness matrix of which is not applicable to all metal materials of face-centered cubic
asymmetric structure laminate, respectively. Similar methods are [54], and the assumption that the hardening strain index does not
often used in numerical simulation of FMLs to solve complex depend on the strain rate and temperature is not true at large strain
structure problems [37e39]. rates [55], can not match with the face-centered cubic structural
For fiber-reinforced composites, Liu et al. based on the classical aluminum alloy materials in FMLs. What's more, the numerical
laminate theory and the first-order theory, using the finite element simulation of FMLs formation needs to consider the temperature
method, derived the first derivative of the tensile, bending, stiffness effect under large strain. Therefore, the Zerrili-Armstrong model is
of the FMLs with respect to the fiber volume fraction and fiber generally not applied in the numerical simulation of FMLs. On the
orientation [40]. A calculation method was proposed for the first other hand, Chen found that the simulation results of the Steinberg
derivative of the total stiffness and mass matrix. The sensitivity dynamic constitutive model under shock high pressure would
analysis.Method of static response eigenvalue and eigenvector was significantly deviate from the test results, and the results calculated
successfully described by the total stiffness matrix, mass matrix, using the Steinberg model did not coincide with the theoretical

346
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al.
calculation results under static high pressure [56], so there was
little application of the Steinberg model in numerical simulation of
FMLs.
Compared with the Zerilli-Armstrong model and the Steinberg
model, the Johnson-Cook model is easy to obtain parameters due to
its purely empirical property. And the Johnson-Cook model is
simple in form and easy to understand, has fewer parameters, and
is convenient to create in the simulation software. Moreover, the
effect of strain rate and temperature is considered in the Johnson-
Cook model at the same time. Therefore, the Johnson-Cook model
has been more widely used in the numerical simulation of FMLs
and indexed by various large commercial dynamic finite element
analysis software.
With the increase of experiments conducted by researchers in
the field of FMLs, some purely empirical and semi-empirical models
have been generated on the basis of the Johnson-Cook model and
have received good results in the application. Combined with the
Johnson-Cook model and interfacial cohesion method, Wan
established a numerical model of GLARE under low-velocity impact
from falling weight impact test [57]. The material characteristics of
aluminum alloy and glass fiber laminates are quite different.
Therefore, the FMLs damage was introduced into the Johnson-Cook
model to obtain the following equivalent plastic strain, as shown in
equation (3):
  εpl
 process of gradual deterioration. After the failure of weak points,
εD ¼ d1 þ d2 ed3 h
pl
1 þ d4 ln (3)
ε0
Where εpl D is the equivalent plastic strain, h is the stress,
εpl/ε0 is the dimensionless equivalent strain rate, and d1-d4 are the
failure parameters which were given in a report published by the
Federal Aviation Administration [58]. This is a good example of
modified Johnson-Cook models applied to FMLs numerical
simulation.
Within the examination of failure evaluation of FMLs’ low-
velocity tensile behavior by Khan and Sharma, a modified Johnson-
Cook damage model determined by quasi-static loading was used
as a material model for metal layer modeling [59]. For glass-fiber-
reinforced plastic, a 3-D Hashin damage model established on
strain rate was defined by VUMAT (a subroutine of the finite element
analysis software ABAQUS for the user to define material behavior)
to observe the failure inside laminates. The interface delamination
was produced through the cohesive surface method. The findings
demonstrated that these laminates failed in the order of metal
yielding, matrix failure, and fiber failure with delamination.
In addition to the study on the dynamic response of FMLs under
low-velocity tensile, Khan and Sharma have also studied the
interface failure of fiber-metal laminates under high-velocity
impact through experiments [60]. Based on the experimental re-
sults, they proposed a finite element model of FMLs related to the
failure rate by improving the damage model of the metal laminates
on the basis of the Johnson-Cook model and using the Hashin-Puck
failure scheme as the failure criterion of the composite laminates.
The simulation results are in good agreement with their experi-
mental data. The construction of this model provides valuable
insight into the research of the internal damage theory of FMLs.
In the study of properties of carbon fiber stainless steel laminate,
in order to study the dynamic impact response of carbon fiber
stainless steel laminates and the impact performance under ther-
mal load, the Johnson-Cook model was introduced by Tang et al.
[61]. They successfully calculated the impact dynamic response
process of FMLs made by carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) and
SS304 stainless steel under thermal load and analyzed its dynamic
impact response and progressive damage. The results showed that
brittle fracture of the fiber layer, plastic deformation of the metal
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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356
layer, and delamination between the fiber layer and the metal layer
are the main failure modes of carbon fiber stainless steel laminates
under high-velocity impact.
From the comparison of three kinds of dynamic constitutive
models for the metal layer in FMLs and some practical application
results, the Johnson-Cook model is more suitable for the dynamic
constitutive characterization of metal layers in FMLs, because it
considers both strain rate and temperature effects, has a simple
form, and the parameters are easy to obtain. Moreover, it can be
improved according to practical experience so the simulation re-
sults match well with actual tests.
3. Damage evolution and interface behavior in FMLs
simulation
For the forming and failure process of fiber metal. Laminates, the
interfacial behavior and damage evolution of components is hard to
be observed experimentally. It is of great importance to simulate
the process of fabricating and deforming process of FMLs
accurately.
3.1. Damage evolution
The damage and failure process of fiber-metal laminates is a
the load will be redistributed, and different forms of damage will be
formed and accumulated, which will eventually lead to the damage
of the whole structure. In order to accurately obtain the whole
damage evolution process through numerical simulation, it is
necessary to introduce the analysis method, which can reflect the
progressive damage of fiber-metal laminates.
In the research on the damage progress of the FMLs under
general oblique impact conditions by Zhang et al. [62], a nonlinear
dynamic finite element model including progressive intra-layer
and inter-layer failure modes was described. During the analysis,
the value of the damage variable is calculated from the current
strain increment and strain rate of the element according to the
constitutive relation shown in equation (4):
 
dfm dm  d0m
d¼   ðdε½0; 1Þ (4)
dm dfm  d0m
Where dm is the equivalent strain and is equal to the square root
of the normal stress and the sum of the squares of the two
tangential stresses; d0 m and df m are the equivalent stresses at the
initial failure and the complete destruction of the material;
respectively. The damage variable d is used to define the damage
mode of the material.
For the composites, if an element's damage variables for both
matrix and fiber failure reach 1, the element must be dropped from
the FE model, and the sudden stiffness degradation scheme is
performed once a certain mode's initiation criterion for failure is
met. For the metal layer and the interface, the element is dropped if
the scalar damage parameter is higher than 0.99, and the damage
variable is calculated. Then the progressive reduction of stiffness is
applied after failure conditions are reached. After that, the current
decreased stiffness matrix updates the stress. The current strain
increment and strain rate are modified and adopted to the next
calculation during each time of increment.
The damage and the delamination in the typical interfaces of
CRALL 3/2 FMLs at different impact angles are shown in Fig. 2,
where 2, 0 , 30 , 40 and 60 on the left are different ballistic
impact angles, while the numbers at the bottom indicate the typical
interfaces impacted successively, Al in parentheses refers to the
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 2. The damage and the delamination in the typical interfaces of CRALL3/2 FMLs at different impact angles [62].
aluminum alloy layer, while 0 and 90 refer to the fiber-reinforced
layer in the direction of 0 and 90 , respectively. It can be seen
from the figure that the damage magnitude and delamination
distribution of the interlayer interfaces were different under
different ballistic impact directions, and the delamination in the
metal-fiber resin interfaces was worse than that in the interfaces of
adjacent fiber-reinforced layers, which was consistent with the
actual experiment. It demonstrates how well the suggested
nonlinear dynamic FE model works to examine the FMLs' failure
mechanisms under ballistic oblique impact loadings. This study
reflects that nonlinear dynamics can make the simulation analysis
of FMLs closer to the actual situation.
Through numerical simulations, Wang et al. have elucidated the
failure mechanisms of elliptical notched FMLs [63]. Within this
study, a progressive damage model was proposed to learn the
progressive damage evolution and failure mechanism of FMLs,
considering thermal residual stress. The damage initiation and
evolution in the mixed mode can be intuitively seen in Fig. 3, in
Fig. 3. Mix-mode bilinear constitutive model of the interface model and the detailed
expression of damage [63].
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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356
which the damage initiation model by the quadratic stress failure
criterion and the damage evolution model by the Benzeggagh-
Kenane evolution law is also shown.
In Fig. 3, the subscript of n, s, and t respectively correspond to the
normal and two shear directions, while t0 and t with subscripts
mean the peak value of the separation stress under pure single-
mode and the actual value in the progress of different directions,
respectively. Once the damage initiation equation is reached, the
damage is judged to begin. In the damage evolution equation, GC
without subscript is the total critical mixed-mode fracture tough-
ness, GC and G with subscripts are the critical fracture energy and
fracture energy of different directions, and h is a parameter that can
be obtained from mixed-mode bending tests.
The results of the numerical predictions included the relation-
ships between nonlinearity mechanical behavior and off-axis angle,
the connection between ultimate fracture pattrens and fiber di-
rection, and the dominant factors of notch strength. With the
adoption of the nonlinear progressive damage constitutive model,
the numerical simulation prediction is in good agreement with the
experimental results. It is proved that the progressive damage
model is suitable for the tensile failure of FMLs with the elliptical
notch.
A 3-D progressive damage model that can accurately anticipate
the failure mode of the FMLs pin-loaded joints was created in the
numerical simulation of the fiber metal laminate's pin-loaded
joints by Zu et al. [64]. This model can forecast the bearing
strength and internal damage of the three primary failure types of
the pin-loaded FMLs joints. The bearing's ultimate failure load and
failure modes were shown to be significantly influenced by
geometrical factors. It was clear how fiber stacking orders affected
the failure loads of the pin-loaded FMLs joints. Depending on the
stacking order, the 0 /45 plies of the pin-loaded FMLs joints might
enhance the bearing mechanical qualities. The three primary ways
that composite joints fail are shown in Fig. 4.
To sum up, the FMLs is a kind of super hybrid multilayer
anisotropic material, which has complicated damage evolution and
damage forms, so using the constitutive model of nonlinear failure
and progressive damage evolution to construct the finite element
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 4. Three main failure modes of composite joints: (a) bearing, (b) shear-out, and (c) net-tension [64].
method (FEM) model can better reflect the actual performance and
damage process of materials in the numerical simulation.
3.2. Interface behavior
Interlaminar delamination is one of the major failure modes for
FMLs [65]. For FMLs, the macroscopic behavior depends not only on
the properties of individual components but also on the elasto-
plastic interaction and interfacial properties between different
phases [66]. Since the spraying of the adhesive with a certain
thickness during the preparation of FMLs, a resin-rich region is
formed at the interface. Thus the proper settings of the interfacial
model are important for simulating the failure of delamination
damage.
The residual thermal stress resulting from the difference in the
thermal expansion coefficient between fiber-reinforced material
and metal plate is a serious concern in the study of FMLs joints
with variable lay-up configurations. In the simulation of delami-
nation failure between aluminum and carbon fiber plates, the
damage evolution of the adhesive layer was investigated. Ricardor
et al. considered the physical behavior that occurs during the
solidifying process of the joints by creating an intermediate step
prior to applying the displacement with the adhesive's solidifying
temperature and the cohesive zone model (CZM) based on a
relationship between stresses and displacements [67]. The model
and the detailed view of CZM layer within it are shown in Fig. 5.
With the contribution of CZM region, the results of cohesive
interface evolution are highly consistent with the experimental
results.
Fig. 5. A FEM model of the FMLs joint (Al-CFRP-Al) and the enlarged detail view of the CZM layer [67].
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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356
As a modeling technique under the framework of continuum
damage mechanics, the interfacial model can predict the occur-
rence and propagation of delamination in laminated composites
[68]. It is a powerful method for analyzing nonlinear fracture pro-
cesses tool [69]. There are five kinds of interfacial damage modes,
namely shear cracking (split), matrix tensile cracking, fiber fracture
(stretching), micro-buckling (compression), and stratification. The
first four models are in-plane damage, which occurs within a single
layer. The stratification is an out-of-plane damage mode whose
evolution is affected by inter-layer stress [70,71].
When simulating the generation and propagation of cracks, it is
expected to add a cohesive layer in the cracking area. There are two
main methods for establishing a cohesive layer. The first one refers
to establishing a complete structure and then cutting a thin layer on
it to simulate the cohesive unit. The second one, respectively, es-
tablishes the solid model of the cohesive layer and other structural
components through the binding constraints, making the unit
displacement and stress coordination on both sides of the cohesive
unit.
The crack model proposed by Hillerborg et al. assumed a stress
separation model with normal and tangential directions on the
crack [72]. This model can simulate the dissipation of energy during
the fracture process. It is often used for the interface of materials
and cracking analysis. Fig. 6 (a) and Fig. 6 (b) show linear separation
criterion curves for the cohesion model in the normal direction and
tangential directions, respectively.
Take Fig. 6 (a) as an example. Under normal tensile stress, the
relative displacement of the node increases with the increase of
stress. When the relative displacement does not reach d0 3 (point
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Linear separation curve in the normal direction with sketch map (b) Linear
separation curve in tangential directions with sketch map.
2), the interface element does not have damage, and the stiffness
maintains the initial stiffness (Kp). When the relative displacement
exceeds d0 3, the stiffness of the interface element begins to
decrease with the increase of the relative displacement of the node
and is equal to (1-d)Kp under the corresponding displacement.
When the relative displacement of the node increases to df 3 (point
Fig. 7. Interfacial modeling: (a) boundary conditions of finite element model of FMLs joint and (b) the through-thickness lay-up [53]; (c) the theoretical model and (d) numerical
implementation of stress intensity factor extraction from displacement field [64]; (e), (f) temperature maps through-the-thickness with laser over sound zone and defected zone
[65].
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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356
4), the interface element is completely destroyed, and the stiffness
decreases to zero, and the upper and lower interfaces at the node
can be disconnected. If the relative displacement continues to in-
crease (such as point 5), the upper and lower interfaces are sepa-
rated. Therefore, point 4 is referred to as the point of complete
failure. The triangular area formed by points 0, 4 and 5 is the strain
energy released in the process of complete failure of the interface
element. The state of each point on the line under normal tensile
load can be seen in the sketch map above. Normal compression
generally does not cause interface damage. Fig. 6 (b) shows a
similar pattern under shearing load in tangential directions, in
which reverse shearing has the same effect as forward shearing.
The whole of Fig. 6 constitutes the bi-linear softening constitutive
behavior model, which is commonly used in the numerical simu-
lation of interface behavior in FMLs.
One common failure mode is delamination between the inter-
face layers of the FML [73]. Cohesive zone elements have been
applied to the fracture behavior in the interface layers in FMLs in
this regard. In the study of Zu et al. the FMLs joint was modeled in
ABAQUS to carry out the simulation [64]. The results showed that
the numerical and experimental were similar in the trends in the
load-displacement curves. Moreover, depending on the stacking
order, the 0 /±45 plies of the pin-loaded FMLs joints might
enhance the bearing mechanical qualities. The one-quarter model's
model and distribution of each layer through thickness are dis-
played in Fig. 7 (a) and Fig. 7 (b).
In the research of interfacial fracture of the FMLs by Abdullah
et al. the following steps were used to calculate energy using the
stress intensity factor: Obtain the displacement field, transform the
displacement into stress intensity factor (SIF), and then convert SIF
into energy [74]. By using this model, the information on
displacement and stress close to the crack tip can be clearly ob-
tained. The acquisition of the stress intensity factor and corre-
sponding finite element model is shown in Fig. 7 (c) and Fig. 7 (d),
respectively.
A numerical analysis of the infrared nondestructive testing
scheme of FMLs was done in the research of Montinaro et al. on
interlaminar defects characterization [75]. This study investigated
the temperature response of the material and correlated it to flaw
signatures. The results of the numerical simulation showed that the
method could produce signatures of flaws at various depths and
with complex shapes, and the inspection of FMLs was determined
to be the technique's optimal field of application. The temperature
distribution is shown in Fig. 7(e) and Fig. 7 (f). According to the
data, field characteristics like the mean or standard deviation that
are determined in an area of interest after the laser spot at a.Close
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

distance should be sensitive to and influenced by the existence of Table 3

subsurface delamination of any kind. Comparison of the costs of computing time for different mesh densities [57].

In the research on the flexural performance of FMLsfor auto- Specimen Number of Number of Size of the Elapsed
motive applications by Lin et al. the FMLs under three-point model elements and elements element in time
bending is divided into three regions, as shown in Fig. 8 [76]. nodes and nodes the central (hour)
in the central region
Based on the method of dividing layers by material and layering, region
the steel layer was further divided into elastic and plastic regions,
a 900/1842 500/1042 0.432 (mm) 2
which are respectively assigned to different constitutive models.
b 1664/3392 1024/2114 0.326 (mm) 3.5
This modeling method can make the numerical simulation of c 2800/5682 2000/4082 0.220 (mm) 6
interface behavior more accurate. d 3600/7282 2800/5682 0.169 (mm) 8
In the research on the low-velocity impact behavior of FMLs by e 9600/19,362 8000/16,162 0.109 (mm) 20
Yao et al. the damage initiation of the composite laminates was
based on the Hashin failure criteria and Yeh delamination failure In the simulation process of carbon fiber epoxy laminate
criteria [77]. During the progressive damage simulation processes, delamination, Waas et al. found that the force-displacement (F-D)
thanks to the damage evolution law, the designed material prop- curve was smoother with the increasing mesh amount, which
erty parameter in VUMAT, and the cohesive element model, the helped more in of the delamination critical force analysis [68]. In
projected findings for various impact situations demonstrated a particular, a fine mesh with a unit number of more than 12,000 is
good comparison with experimental results in impact loads, totally required to produce an accurate, critical force with a precision
absorbed energy, and damage morphologies. tolerance of 10% from the precise solution. The error rate for the
In summary, through the establishment of crack models and mesh number of 12,000 and 65,000 were respectively 4.6% and
failure criteria and the combination with the elastic-plastic model 1.8%. The mesh number can be regarded as a reference for hierar-
under traction-separation law, the adhesive layer between the chical 3D numerical simulation of composite materials. Fig. 9 shows
metal and carbon fiber composites can be characterized well, and
the interface behavior of FMLs can be revealed.

4. Accuracy optimization of FMLs simulation

In general, a single simulation work cannot directly obtain the

best results. In order to obtain the best simulation analysis results,
it is necessary to establish multiple sets of different types of models
for comparison and optimize the results [78].
In the numerical study of damage under high-velocity impact of
FMLs, Wan designed five models with different mesh densities for
the impact regions for comparative analysis [57]. As shown in
Table 3, from model a to model e, the mesh density gradually
increased. In each model, the mesh density of the impact area was
higher than that of the peripheral.
When the mesh was coarse, the range and shape of the crack
area were quite different from the experimental results. When the
mesh was fine (for model d and model e), the simulation results
were consistent with the experimental results. Conclusively, the
meshes size of model d could reach a good balance between
computational efficiency and computational accuracy.

Fig. 9. (a) coarse mesh: 3250 elements, (b) fine mesh: 13,000 elements, and (c) finest
Fig. 8. Elastic and plastic regions of the steeleFRP composite under three-point mesh: 65,000 elements and force-displacement (F-D) curves of DCB laminate for
bending [76]. different numbers of elements [68].

351
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

meshes in three different densities and the corresponding F-D

curves.
In the study of the effect of metal type and thickness on the
impact resistance of FMLs, three methods of numerical simulation
were compared by Sadighi et al. [4].
In method 1, both the aluminum layer and the composite layer
were solid elements [79]. The aluminum alloy was modeled as a
rate-dependent elastoplastic material, while the composite mate-
rial was modeled as an isotropic material. In method 2, the Hashin
damage initiation criterion was applied to the composite layer,
while the aluminum plate did not use the damage criterion [80].
Since the interfacial modeling between the metal layer and the fi-
ber layer requires thickness stress, the shell element with the plane
stress assumption is not applicable to the composite layer. In
Method 3, Seo et al. developed a user data subroutine VUMAT to
simulate the progressive damage and destruction of the composite
layer of the 3D solid element, making up for the shortcomings of
Method 2 [81].
According to method 1, only a fourth of the laminates were
modeled with suitable symmetric boundary conditions due to the
specimen's geometric symmetry. As shown in Fig. 10. In this model,
the dark layer consists of Al alloy and Mg and the bright layers are
Fig. 11. Distribution of strain localization (a) conventional damage model (b) non-local
fiber-reinforced plastic. Since most of the deformation occurs in
damage model [87].
this area, the unit (impact point) in the middle of the target was
smaller in the radial direction. There was a total of 350 C3D8R el-
ements per layer. The second approach differed from the first in the the problem of mesh dependence and achieve accurate and effi-
selection of composite layers and failure criteria. In method 2, the cient modeling and simulation.
8-node continuous shell element applied the Hashin damage
initiation criterion. The comparison showed that method 1 made a 5. Experimental verification of FMLs simulation
greater contribution to the applicability of the results. In conclu-
sion, in the analysis of the impact resistance of the laminate, if the Different simulation results can be obtained based on different
impact energy is too high, great damage will occur to the laminate. model settings and constitutive formula choices. Pure theoretical
In this case, suitable failure criteria for the solid element is required inference cannot determine which results are closest to reality, so the
to reach complete and detailed finite element modeling. accuracy of the simulation results needs further verification. It is a
The delamination damage of composite laminates is a strain common method to compare experimental results with simulation
softening problem that is commonly seen in aerospace structural results to judge the reliability of the numerical simulation results.
designing. Since the classical localized constitutive relationship is In the investigation of the post-buckling response of FMLs col-
not suitable for solving the strain-softening problem, the Cosserat umn with delamination, the results of laboratory testing were
model, the integral model [82,83] and the gradient model [84e86] contrasted with numerical research by Kamocka et al. [88]. There
were proposed. The mesh dependence problems arise while are two different ways to construct finite element models, one is FE
applying the traditional continuous damage model to the delami- analysis with no delamination mechanism for a faultless structure,
nation. To solve this problem, Fu and Du proposed a non-local while the other is FE analysis with a delamination mechanism. The
theory and derived the finite element formulation of the two- failure mechanism of delamination was modeled using CZM
dimensional gradient-enhanced damage model [87]. The strain degradation model. Mixed mode debonding was utilized in the
distribution on mesh dependence was obtained by finite element analysis since delamination is caused by both normal and tangen-
simulation on the basis of the traditional continuous damage model tial contact stresses. As shown in Fig. 12, there is a noticeable
and non-local theory model. Fig. 11 shows a strain localized dis- discrepancy between the two numerical models. When delamina-
tribution diagram of a conventional damage model and a non-local tion is applied, failure mode corresponds to the experiment, and
damage model, and the dependency on mesh size can be avoided the strain results of simulation analysis are almost consistent with
by the proposed method. those of the actual test.
In summary, after considering both the calculation time and the In the study of the experimental and numerical results of glass
simulation accuracy, choosing the appropriate mesh size can avoid fiber-reinforced composite, Liang et al. found that the numerical
results clearly showed the initial stage, extension stage and general
failure stage of the fiber and the matrix, as shown in Fig. 13 [89].
Also, the experimental results were found to be consistent with the
numerical process, which further verified the feasibility of nu-
merical analysis.
Aghchai et al. analyzed the numerical simulation errors in the
impact test of FMLs [90]. The local necking in the experimental and
finite element models occurred in the regions of radius 22.2 mm
and 21.5 mm, respectively. The simulation results showed an error
rate of 4%. The error might be caused by a misalignment of the
punch and the substrate or a delay in the stop of the punch after the
reaction force drops. Fig. 14 shows the local necking position of the
Fig. 10. Mesh settings of FMLs in different layers [4]. circular samples in the experimental and finite element models.
352
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356

the assumption of aluminum in the isotropic form in finite

element simulation.
Heggemann and Homberg carried out a series of studies on the
deep drawing of CFRP and developed a shell-based forming simu-
lation model [91]. This model can identify critical areas where the
fibers and rovings tend to bend and break. Also, a simulation model
that can correlate the interaction and divergent forming behavior of
CFRP with metal materials was developed. In the model, the
anisotropic, elastoplastic material model was used to metal simu-
lation, and nonlinear anisotropic material model was used for CFRP
layer simulation. The simulation results showed a good agreement
with the experimental results, making it possible to identify the
critical areas of FMLs.
In conclusion, according to the Johnson-Cook model, Hashin
failure criteria, etc., damage evolution and inter-layer failure
mechanism of FMLs can be described. After optimizing the nu-
merical models, results predicted by simulation can be in good
agreement with those obtained by experimental verification.

6. Conclusion

As a composite material combining the advantages of metal and

Fig. 12. a) normal structure FEM, b) numerical model with delamination, c) experi-
mental sample [88].
fiber composites, fiber metal laminates (FMLs) have been widely
used in aircraft and automobile industries. In recent years, with the
help of numerical simulation, researchers have gained a broader
understanding of FMLs properties and made contributions to the
forming and machining process of FMLs. In order to understand the
simulation of the forming process of FMLs better, a review article on
this topic is in urgent need. As a review article focusing on the
numerical simulation works of FMLs, from modeling to the analysis
of the result, this article summarizes the matters needing attention
in the simulation process. By exemplifying the literature of excel-
lent simulation experiments, some modeling and analysis schemes
for reference are given. The main conclusions of this article include
the following aspects.

(1) The simulation analysis of FMLs is based on the constitutive

Fig. 13. Comparison of progressive damage between experimental and numerical re-
sults [89].
For all samples, the average error rate of several selected
points along the curve was 3%. The reasons for this difference
included the delay of the punch stop after the reaction force
decreases, the loss of concentricity between the punch and the
sample surface, measurement errors in experimental testing, and
relationship of metal and fiber-reinforced plastic materials.
Several classic models commonly used in the simulation
process include Kirchhoff-Love Plate Theory, Anisotropic
Theory Model, and Classic Johnson-Cook Model. Conclu-
sively, the Johnson-Cook model considers the temperature
effect and strain rate effect of the material, which reflects the
characteristics of anisotropy in the deformation process. This
model has been widely used in the dynamic process analysis
of FMLs.

Fig. 14. Local necking position (a) experimental sample (b) FEM model of FMLs [90].

353
Y. Chen, Y. Yang, Z. Wang et al.
(2) The settings of damage evolution, interfacial behavior, and
model optimization are critical aspects in the simulation of
FMLs. Generally, the cohesive zone model works well in
analyzing the damage evolution of FMLs. Traction-separation
law is often used in combination with the elastic-plastic
model to realize the simulation analysis of the interfacial
delamination failure of FMLs. Mesh dependence appears
when the continuous damage model is applied to the
delamination behavior of FMLs. According to the results of
multiple sets of comparative simulations, appropriate set-
tings could avoid this problem to improve analysis accuracy.
(3) Through these methods above, the deformation and
destruction in forming processes of some FMLs, including
glass fiber-aluminum alloy, carbon fiber-aluminum alloy,
steel-polyurethane sandwich plate, and carbon fiber-
titanium alloy laminate had been verified. The numerical
simulation results showed that the deformation behavior
and damage characteristics of FMLs can be accurately pre-
dicted by reasonable numerical simulation.
7. Future outlook
As a kind of lightweight and high-performance composite ma-
terial, FMLs are widely used now. Although relevant numerical
simulation studies have been carried out earlier, there is still great
potential for development. Based on the discussion in this paper,
the following future outlook is proposed:
(I) Most of the numerical simulation studies on the forming and
failure process of FMLs are about the forming limit under
Nakazima test and the damage under ballistic impact loads,
while the simulations of other forming and failure modes,
such as rolling bending forming, liquid-filled forming, explo-
sion loading and bird impact, are very few. Therefore, more
types of FMLs numerical simulation should be carried out.
(II) The damage and failure mechanism of FMLs is complex and
needs long-term, in-depth study. In most numerical simu-
lations about FMLs damage, although typical failure modes of
each layer and each material are usually defined, the inter-
action between different failure modes has not been deeply
explored. The numerical simulation of FMLs' hybrid failure
mode should be the focus of future research.
(III) In the current numerical simulation on the failure process of
FMLs, the modeling of laminates is basically a simple small-
size flat structure, which is quite different from the FMLs in
actual service. Therefore, the numerical simulation of FMLs
components in actual service should be supplemented.
(IV) In the practical application, FMLs components are usually
preloaded before being threatened by possible damage,
especially the compression preload. The existence of preload
will cause the strength of FMLs to decrease greatly after
being subjected to other loads. Therefore, it is urgent to take
the effect of compression preload into account in the nu-
merical simulation on the failure process of FMLs.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
from the Young Elite Scientists Sponsorship Program by China As-
sociation for Science and Technology (Grant No. 2021QNRC001),
354
International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 6 (2023) 344e356
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52175360), and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant
No. 2022T150278, 2022M710062).
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