Original Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
227(10) 1417–1429
The prediction of process-induced Ó IMechE 2013
Reprints and permissions:
deformation in a thermoplastic sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0954405413488362

composite in support of manufacturing pib.sagepub.com

simulation

Peidong Han, Joe Butterfield, Saul Buchanan,

Rauri McCool, Zhenyu Jiang, Mark Price and Adrian Murphy

Abstract
Digital manufacturing techniques can simulate complex assembly sequences using computer-aided design–based, ‘as-
designed’ part forms, and their utility has been proven across several manufacturing sectors including the ship building,
automotive and aerospace industries. However, the reality of working with actual parts and composite components, in
particular, is that geometric variability arising from part forming or processing conditions can cause problems during
assembly as the ‘as-manufactured’ form differs from the geometry used for any simulated build validation. In this work, a
simulation strategy is presented for the study of the process-induced deformation behaviour of a 90°, V-shaped angle.
Test samples were thermoformed using pre-consolidated carbon fibre–reinforced polyphenylene sulphide, and the pro-
cessing conditions were re-created in a virtual environment using the finite element method to determine finished com-
ponent angles. A procedure was then developed for transferring predicted part forms from the finite element outputs to
a digital manufacturing platform for the purpose of virtual assembly validation using more realistic part geometry.
Ultimately, the outcomes from this work can be used to inform process condition choices, material configuration and
tool design, so that the dimensional gap between ‘as-designed’ and ‘as-manufactured’ part forms can be reduced in the
virtual environment.

Keywords
Thermoforming, composite part form prediction, digital manufacturing, simulation

Date received: 13 September 2012; accepted: 5 April 2013

Introduction for several decades, the disposal of thermosetting

It is anticipated that composite materials will play a key
role in the development of next-generation transport
platforms through the remainder of the 21st century.1
Composites in general and carbon fibre–reinforced
plastics (CFRP), in particular, possess attractive prop-
erties such as improved structural performance and
lower product weight when compared with their tradi-
tional metallic equivalents. As well as innovation in the
delivery of key in-service performance requirements,
the material systems used on modern vehicles must also
offer more sustainable solutions for life cycle manage-
ment,2 including how they impact the environment
through design to manufacture, to safe use in service
and, ultimately, to disposal or recycling.
Although composites have been in use for transport
applications in a number of combined material formats
matrix systems, in particular, at end of life remains a
significant challenge. Thermoplastic matrices currently
offer superior recyclability and are becoming more
effective in terms of structural performance,3 environ-
mental impact and, importantly, cost.4 When com-
pared with typical thermosetting CFRP manufacturing
methods, energy consumption reductions of up to 90%
are achievable using thermoplastic forming processes,
where processing times are of the order of minutes
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University
Belfast, Belfast, UK
Corresponding author:
Peidong Han, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s
University Belfast, Ashby Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK.
Email: phan01@qub.ac.uk
1418
Figure 1. Problems in generic panel assembly due to composite deformation.
rather than hours.5 Thermoplastics such as FortronÒ
polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) can be recycled many
times with minimal degradation or loss of physical
properties.6 Thermoform ability and weldability of
thermoplastics already differentiate them from thermo-
sets7 from a manufacturing perspective, and they can
also offer superior toughness and durability. Other sig-
nificant attributes include higher heat resistance and
greater impact strength relative to current thermoset-
ting systems. For example, service temperatures of
350 °F (compared with 200 °F) and toughness levels of
the order of 2–3 times that of composites made from
epoxies are possible. Non-autoclave methods for the
manufacture of advanced thermoplastic composites can
facilitate the application of light weight, durable prod-
uct structures with significant cost advantages com-
pared with autoclave-based thermoset manufacturing.8
Despite the stated benefits and increasing applica-
tion areas, CFRP parts (both thermosetting and ther-
moplastic) can be prone to undesired deformations
during and after combined temperature and pressure
processing conditions. The process-induced deforma-
tion of carbon fibre–reinforced thermoplastic (CFRTP)
parts during thermoforming is a significant factor when
designing mould tools, configuring the material layout,
specifying processing parameters and specifying toler-
ance levels for manufacture and assembly. These defor-
mations also reduce the value of any digital mock up9
used for virtual build validation as the dimensions of
the nominally sized virtual parts differ from those on
parts manufactured using real forming processes.
Depending on the part geometry, the constitutive beha-
viour of the material and the forming process
employed, changing primarily two-dimensional (2D)
sheets of raw material into three-dimensional (3D)
curved and/or angled geometry may lead to undesirable
part deformations, which do not match the as-designed
form. The most common effect of residual stresses in
composite products is the deformation of angled and
curved parts.10 With a typical positional tolerance spec-
ified at 60.2 mm11 for an aerospace application, it is
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)
important that the behaviour of angular features is
understood, so that angular dimensions can be con-
trolled to the extent that this tolerance can be achieved.
Process-induced deformations mainly affect the dimen-
sional control of finished components, and this can
lead to increased costs as parts become more difficult
and therefore more time consuming to fit in place dur-
ing assembly, as shown in Figure 1. Bottom lines can
be affected as manufacturers require concessions lead-
ing to price reductions or in critical cases; manufactur-
ers have to absorb costs as non-compliant parts are
scrapped.12
The prediction of the final part angle using the
methods presented here would enable the designer to
tailor the material system or processing conditions to
control the angle to within the required tolerance. The
primary objective of this work is to cover the current
gap between conventional part design methods and
final assembly simulation platforms for CFRTP com-
ponents by simulating the manufacture of a 90° angled
component using the process of thermoforming. The
choice of a thermoplastic-based material system for this
work is based on its more favourable characteristics
when considering its sustainability relative to the more
commonly used thermosets. In order to broaden the
structural applications for CFRTPs, their behaviour
during manufacture must be characterised, so that
designers and manufacturing planners can fully under-
stand and predict how they will perform as they are
formed and assembled. The method presented here will
predict simulated ‘as-manufactured’ part geometries
for a simple 90°, V-shaped angle and the approach used
to transfer this data to the 3D computer-aided design
(CAD) environment for the purpose of completing an
assembly simulation. This work represents the first step
in a process intended to create an additional layer of
simulation methods, which needs to be defined, vali-
dated and integrated within a digital manufacturing
framework to synthesise accurate composite part form
prediction methods with the build validation tools
already developed in the digital manufacturing
Han et al.
Figure 2. Proposed methodology for composite component shape prediction.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of thermoforming process for thermoplastic composites.
environment, as shown in Figure 2. With these predic-
tion and simulation technologies, digital manufacturing
platforms will help engineers and process planners to
plan and deliver fully optimised manufacturing data
for composite structures to the production environment
quickly and efficiently. Composite part forming and
product assembly simulation can therefore be included
in the design process from the earliest conceptual stage,
ensuring high levels of part and product accuracy
through to production.
Method
Thermoforming equipment
One of the major attractions to thermoplastic-based
composite systems is the potential rapid processing
1419
rates13 that they offer compared with existing thermo-
set systems that require much longer and expensive
autoclave processing. Thermoforming14,15 is a family of
processes that can be used to process thermoplastic-
based composite materials by the combined action of
heat and pressure. In its simplest form, thermoforming
is a three-stage process, involving heating of the raw
material blank, coupled with thermal de-consolidation,
followed by part forming and re-consolidation in a
matched tool, with the final process step part ejection
from the tool, as shown in Figure 3.
In this work, an experimental manufacturing cell
based on Lloyd Instruments L6000R Tensile Tester
was developed to thermoform CFRTPs,16 as shown in
Figure 4. The manufacturing cell contains all of the
major features of an industrial manufacturing setup.
The system consists of a heating station, a forming
1420
Figure 4. Thermoforming rig used to form 90°, V-shaped composite samples.
station and a matched mould tooling rig. The equip-
ment offers full control over the process by monitoring
key manufacturing parameters such as tool tempera-
ture, composite material temperature and forming
force. This data provides essential input data for down-
stream computer-based simulations of the process. In
this work, the emphasis was on producing a demon-
strator component that would allow the characterisa-
tion of the spring-in angle associated with changes in
key process parameter settings, which led to the design
and development of a V-shaped forming tooling. The
matched mould tooling was designed with an open V
angle of 92°; this decision was based on previous litera-
ture17 studying on glass fibre reinforced polypropylene
composites in autoclave-based forming process, where
it was shown that a mould angle of 92° can produce a
finished internal angle of 90°.
Experiment design
To study the deformation related to forming mould
temperature and ply layup, a 90° angled component
was chosen as the demonstrator geometry for thermo-
forming experiment. A 90° angular part is usually used
as blade rib for basic structural configuration. This test
sample configuration was chosen to minimise the range
of geometric influences that could affect final part
shape. The performance of the part during forming was
based on the final angle of the finished sample relative
to the original mould shape. Test samples were manu-
factured from a commercially available pre-consolidated
thermoplastic laminate system consisting of continuous
carbon fibre (CF) (T300) reinforced PPS supplied by
TenCate Advanced Composites (material trade name,
CetexÒ PPS). The laminate supplied by TenCate con-
sisted of six plies of woven five-harness satin CF reinfor-
cement embedded in a PPS matrix, consolidated to 50%
fibre volume fraction (Vf). Samples used for the experi-
ment measured 100 mm 3 15 mm wide by 1.86 mm
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)
thick. Two different layup configurations were investi-
gated. These were [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/
(0,90)/(645)]S, respectively. With the supplied square
(1200 mm 3 1200 mm) panel of [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
setup on the water jet, the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S samples
were cut along the panel edge directions, while the
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S were cut by rotating 45° of the
feed direction of water jet.
Six scenarios with the two different layup configura-
tions and three different mould temperatures were
tested, as shown in Table 1. Ten samples are made
using the thermoforming equipment for each scenario.
The number of sample is decided based on the SD of
values for items tested and the required precision of the
average value18
 2
3s
n= ð1Þ
d
in which s is the SD of the property in the lot and d is
the required precision of the average value. The objec-
tive is that the error in the average due to sampling
should almost certainly be less than d. For a 60.1° pre-
cision requirement, the number of sample was selected
as 10 based on test results in this thermoforming
experiment.
Forming procedure
According to processing guideline,15 the laminate sam-
ple was heated between infrared heating panels to the
forming temperature of 320 °C. The samples were held
in the oven until the centre of the laminate reached the
forming temperature (measured by thermocouples);
this took approximately 60 s. Once heated, the sample
was transferred into the forming system where it was
shaped to the geometry imposed by the mould tool.
The forming pressure applied in the experiment was 2.3
MPa (the suggested pressure in the guideline is 2–4
MPa, facility dependent). The part was maintained at a
Han et al.
Table 1. Experiment design for composite part deformation investigation.
Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
Mould temperature (°C) 130 150
Number of samples 10 10
Figure 5. Temperature profile measured for a sample during
thermoforming experiment.
Figure 6. Experimental sample thermoformed from pre-
consolidated laminate to V-shaped final part.
constant temperature provided in the moulds for 180 s
(60–180 s suggested in the guideline) after transfer and
before demoulding. During the whole thermoforming
process, the temperature of the composite sample is
monitored and recorded using an eight-channel ther-
mocouple universal serial bus (USB) data acquisition
module with sampling interval of 2 s. The probe of
thermocouple is plugged in a pre-drilled 1-mm hole on
the centre of sample and fixed using heat-resistant tape.
A temperature profile for a sample formed with a 170
°C mould temperature is shown in Figure 5.
After forming, the composite parts are trimmed to
their final shape to release any residual effect caused by
1421
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S
170 130 150 170
10 10 10 10
the unformed edges; these were included to allow for
sample alignment and constraint during forming, as
shown in Figure 6.
Sample inspection. Inspection of the finished part geome-
tries was carried out using a coordinate measuring
machine (CMM). CMM is a 3D device for measuring
the physical geometrical characteristics of an object.
The CMM used in current work is Brown & Sharpe
MICROXCEL PFX with 0.5 mm accuracy. This
machine can be both manually and computer con-
trolled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached
to the third moving axis (vertical) of this machine.
Both the inner surface and the outer surface angles
were measured for each sample. For each side of V-
shaped parts, the angle was calculated using two planes,
which were defined using 20 sample points on each sur-
face. This facilitated the accurate determination of the
sample angle avoiding the possibility of errors arising
from single angular measurements, which would have
been possible using a vernier protractor, for example.
The measurement of multiple surface points also facili-
tated the creation of 3D CAD models representing the
test samples.
Simulation model setup
A 2D approach12 has been applied to the analysis used
for part shape prediction using COMPRO, which is a
commercially available simulation platform. It is
equipped with capabilities that enable the consideration
of process parameters as a part is formed, so that final
geometric form can be determined. Primarily developed
for thermosetting material systems, the analysis in this
case was modified to take account of the thermoplastic
properties of the test material. Stress/deformation mod-
ule is employed in the finite element (FE) method to
solve for the component state variables during
processing.
The basic work equation of the FE displacement
method is19
ð ð ð
stedV = ptv udV + pts udS ð2Þ
V V S
where the left side of the equation is the total internal
virtual work and the right side of the equation is the
work done by both body forces and surface forces over
displacements u. In COMPRO, the 2D displacement
field can be denoted as {u w}T, the body forces are
1422
Figure 7. Finite element model representing one-half of the
V-shaped test sample.
denoted as {pvx pvz}T and the surface tractions are
denoted as {psx psz}T.
Using this method, the classical FE equation
involved in the stress/deformation module can be
derived as20
Kr = R ð3Þ
where r is the element nodal displacements vector, K is
the global stiffness matrix and R is the load vector.
In COMPRO, the equation (3) is solved through
Gaussian elimination. And the final coordinates of
deformed structural nodes can be obtained based on
original coordinates and displacement results.
The 2D plane strain four-node quadrilateral ele-
ments were employed to represent the experimental
sample and mould section (see Figure 7). As the cross
section is symmetric, only half of the section was mod-
elled. Boundaries of the part and tool are set as convec-
tion for heat transfer. The bottom mould is defined as
fixed with no displacement. The nodes on symmetry
line of the part are set as sliding with no displacement
perpendicular to the boundary. The start pressure is set
as 0.1 MPa, and the initial and final temperature is set
as 20 °C.
Material model in COMPRO indicates which mate-
rials are to be used in each of the model regions and
descripts the properties to be associated with each mate-
rial. In current case, the V-shaped part is assumed as
Table 2. Material properties.
Name r (kg/m3) E (GPa)
Aluminium 2740 70
CF 1780 231 (long.) 8 (trans.)
PPS 1350 3.8 (tensile) 2.965 (compressive)
CTE: coefficient of thermal expansion; CF: carbon fibre; long: longitudinal; PPS: polyphenylene sulphide; trans: transverse.
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)
deformable and the mould tools were considered as
rigid parts. Both the top and bottom mould materials
are made of aluminium, and the formed V-shaped com-
ponent is CF reinforced PPS composites. The proper-
ties of the aluminium, CF and PPS materials at room
temperature are shown in Table 2.
For each composite material region, the number,
thickness and orientation of the plies within that region
were defined. The woven fibre (both plain and five-
harness satin) reinforced laminate in the experiment is
represented using unidirectional layups,21 as shown in
Figure 8.
In order to simulate the forming condition used for
the experiment, a batch of simulations was executed
with different process cycle models (130 °C, 150 °C,
170 °C forming temperature, respectively) and ply layup
configurations ([(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/(0,90)/
(645)]S), which reflect the range of experimental mould
temperatures and fibre orientations detailed earlier in
this section. The process cycle model simulating the
experiment is shown in Figure 9.
Data transfer to CAD environment
The deformed part shape predicted using the simula-
tion was transferred to the computer-aided three-
dimensional interactive application (CATIA) CAD
environment using a custom built visual basic interface,
using the steps shown in Figure 10. The points shown
in Figure 10(a) were located using the post-forming
nodal positions from the FE model processed using
COMPRO. Splines and lofts were then fitted to the
points, and surfaces were extruded from the sectional
data. The upper and lower surfaces were then blended
to form a solid CAD model. This shows how simulated
part forms could be transferred to the digital environ-
ment for the purpose of assembly validation in digital
manufacturing techniques.
Results
Finished sample angles
The final sample angles are shown in Figure 11. For
parts formed using the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S ply orien-
tations, the parts cooled from an initial mould tempera-
ture of 170 °C were closest to the intended 90 ° part
angle (90.53° average angle), followed by the 150 °C
(90.66° average angle), and 130 °C (91.15° average
n CTE (E26/°C)
0.3 23
27.3 (shear) 0.256 20.41 (long.) 4.99 (trans.)
1.2 (shear) 0.36 52.2
Han et al.
Figure 8. Representation of fabric laminate.
Figure 9. Process modelled in COMPRO for sample forming
conditions.
angle), conditions in sequence. For samples with the
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S ply orientations, the samples
cooled from an initial mould temperature of 150 °C
were closest to the intended 90° part angle (90.05° aver-
age angle), followed closely by the 170 °C (89.90° aver-
age angle), and 130 °C (90.22° average angle),
conditions in sequence. These results also show that the
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S ply orientation will result in a
sample angle that has less variability across tempera-
tures than the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S configuration. This
is also illustrated in Figure 12 where the [(645)/(0,90)/
(645)]S sample angles across the three mould tempera-
tures. The mould temperature of 150 °C with a ply con-
figuration of [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S will give a finished
part angle, which is closest to the required 90°. These
outcomes illustrate the importance of deformation pre-
diction in composite part manufacturing. Compared
with the mould tooling, which was designed with an
open V-shaped angle of 92°, the different combinations
of material and processing conditions tested here have
resulted in final part angles ranging from less than a 1°
to more than a 2° difference from the original mould
angle. The [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S laminate with 150 °C
mould temperature should be applied if the design
intent for the V-shaped angle is 90°.
Differential scanning calorimetry measurements
The degree of crystallinity (DoC) of the formed CF/
PPS V-shaped component was also inspected through
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). This was
1423
carried out to examine the crystallinity level within the
polymer matrix, which is affected by the cooling rate
and is an important processing condition affecting resi-
dual stress formation.22 For this work, although the
mould temperature can be set as constant, the cooling
rates during both cooling stages (forming temperature
to mould temperature and mould temperature to room
temperature) are not fully controlled. The DSC results
show all the samples formed by different mould tem-
peratures crystallise at a similar level (;26%).
Simulation of 90° sample forming process. COMPRO out-
put files are written in a text format and give the value
of all major state variables at every model node or ele-
ment at process cycle time intervals specified in the con-
trol file. In current case, only the final nodal
coordinates of the nodes on top and bottom side
boundaries of the composite part need to be exported
to identify the spring-in deformation. By connecting
these points, the deformed boundary profile can be cre-
ated, as shown in Figure 10(b).
The results of the batch simulations carried out to
re-create virtually, the test conditions for the sample
forming processes, are shown in Table 3. These results
again demonstrate that deformations will arise for the
composite angles as they are formed and that the shape
variation is dependent on material configuration and
processing conditions. The predicted results also indi-
cate that it is better to use [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S than
[(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S material in current thermoform-
ing rig to achieve 90° final part angle.
A comparison of the experimental and simulated
results is presented in Figure 13 and Table 4. With a
less than 10% relative error across all cases, the simula-
tion predicted deformation is in general agreement with
the experimental results detailed in the previous section.
The largest difference between experimental and simu-
lated results was 9.28% for the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
layup configuration at the 130 °C mould temperature,
whereas the simulation outcome for the [(645)/(0,90)/
(645)]S configuration was within 0.26% of the experi-
mental result for a mould temperature of 150 °C.
To validate the proposed method in this work, finite
element analysis (FEA) tool Abaqus was also used to
predict the part deformation and compare with the
COMPRO simulation. The finished part form was
exported to CAD system for deformation inspection
and further digital manufacturing applications. The
angle of simulated part was inspected in CATIA CAD
environment using mesh nodes transferred from
Abaqus. Figure 14 shows the thermoforming simula-
tion process modelled in Abaqus, and Table 5 presents
the comparison of experimental and simulated results
for V-shaped composite part thermoforming. These
results again demonstrate that deformations will arise
for the composite angles as they are formed.
For Abaqus, the FEA results were stored in an out-
put database from the start to the end of the
1424 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 10. Simulation of predicted deformed part shape modelled in CAD environment: (a) simulated result, (b) fitted splines, (c)
2D surface and (d) 3D solid part definition.

Figure 11. Measured V-shaped angle for three mould temperatures and two layup configurations.

thermoforming simulation. An orphan mesh part
instance can be imported from any increment/step
available in the output database. The orphan mesh part
contains no feature information and is extracted from
the output database as a collection of nodes, elements,
surfaces and sets with no associated geometry. By
choosing the last frame of demoulding step of the anal-
ysis, the finished part was imported as an orphan mesh
in the Abaqus part module. Then orphan mesh part
was exported as a 3D XML file for use in the CATIA
Han et al. 1425

Figure 12. Change in V-shaped angle relative to original mould angle.

Table 3. Simulated part deformations predicted using COMPRO.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170

Deformed V-shaped angle (°) 91.07 90.547 90.478 90.207 90.052 90.023
Change of angle 0.93 1.453 1.522 1.793 1.948 1.977

Table 4. Comparison of the experimental and simulated deformation results.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170

Change of angle in experiment (DuE) (°) 0.851 1.336 1.473 1.777 1.953 2.102
Change of angle in simulation (DuS) (°) 0.930 1.453 1.522 1.793 1.948 1.977
Relative error (|(DuS2DuE)/DuE|) (%) 9.28 8.76 3.33 0.90 0.26 5.95

CAD environment. The part can be used as a typical
geometric component instead of an orphan mesh part
after its solid feature is reconstructed in CATIA using
nodes information in the 3D XML file. Figure 15
shows the predicted V-shaped part transferred from
Abaqus to CATIA.
Discussion
The main aim of this work was to develop a means by
which virtual methods could be used to predict the
behaviour of a CFRTP part, so that more realistic
component forms could be employed during simulated
build validations in a digital manufacturing environ-
ment. The approach was motivated by the need to pro-
mote more sustainable solutions for advanced material
applications in future transport systems. This can
potentially be achieved through the development of
material systems and processing methods supported by
predictive technologies in both product and process
designs. The work aimed to identify the effects of pro-
cessing parameters including material system (layup
angles) and processing conditions on the finished
dimensions of an angled composite component, thereby
informing design and production-related decisions
including material configuration and mould design. To
achieve this, the deformation behaviour of a 90°,
V-shaped, thermoplastic composite angle was examined
using experimental manufacturing and inspection
methods. FE methods were used to determine how the
finished part angle varied using virtual simulations. A
simple angular form has been used for the work to nar-
row the range of geometric influences, which could
affect final part shape. The simulated results have been
compared with practical tests to validate the tools and
methods used.
1426
Figure 13. Comparison of the experimental and simulated deformation results.
Table 5. Comparison of the experimental and Abaqus simulated deformation results.
Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
Mould temperature (°C) 130
Change of angle in experiment (DuE) (°) 0.851
Change of angle in simulation (DuS) (°) 0.764
Relative error (|(DuS2DuE)/DuE|) (%) 10.17
The experimental results arising from this work
demonstrate that there is process-induced deformation
ranging from 0.851° to 2.102° in V-shaped parts formed
with six-ply ([(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/(0,90)/
(645)]S) laminates. This behaviour is caused by the
composites’ anisotropic shrinkage during thermal pro-
cessing cycle, and it is difficult to predict using formula
calculations.23 The various results also illustrate that
the final angle of thermoformed CFRTP part is corre-
lated to processing conditions and material configura-
tions. Thus, it is possible to control the post-forming
part angle to achieve tolerance requirement by custo-
mising the processing conditions or layup configura-
tions. The influence of mould temperature on the
deformation is more dependent on the composite’s ther-
mal properties and the deformation is caused by the
thermal shrinkage through the range of temperatures as
the samples cool.24,25 As the three sets of tests (130 °C,
150 °C and 170 °C) used set the mould temperature
above the sample’s softening temperature (90 °C), the
residual stress arose during the shrinkage process as the
sample transitioned from forming temperature to
mould temperature. This can still be largely relieved
during the forming stage when the part is confined to
the mould. After demoulding, the part deforms because
of the thermal shrinkage during the cooling from mould
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S
150 170 130 150 170
1.336 1.473 1.777 1.953 2.102
1.222 1.352 1.535 1.726 1.903
8.53 8.21 13.60 11.62 9.49
temperature to room temperature. The samples formed
using the 170 °C mould temperature will generate more
shrinkage when cooling to room temperature, followed
by 150 °C and 130 °C, respectively. Therefore for the
same ply orientation, the final bend angles decrease
with the increasing mould temperature (see Figure 11).
For different layup configurations with the same pro-
cessing conditions, the mismatch between CF and PPS
matrix shrinkage through the sample thickness is simi-
lar as they have the same number of plies and fibre vol-
ume fraction. The out-of-plane contraction for the
laminates is much larger than the in-plane contraction.
Therefore, the reason for lower level of deformation
with [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S layup samples should be the
predomination of fibres along the length of the V-
shaped part, which bear the out-of-plane contraction
stress. The effects of mould temperature and layup con-
figuration on final part form in the experiments show
that less deformation arises in samples where fibre
orientation is dominant along the angle cross-sectional
direction and more deformation arises in samples where
a higher mould temperature has been used.
Ignoring process-based dimensional variations by
using the nominally sized CAD model for build valida-
tion could cause longer assembly times or tolerance fail-
ures at best or costly redesign at worst – if mal-formed
Han et al. 1427

Figure 14. Simulated thermoforming process modelled in Abaqus: (a) initial contact, (b) press forming, (c) clamp and (d)
demoulding.

Figure 15. Abaqus predicted deformed part shape transferred to CAD environment.

composite parts are released for assembly. An example
is shown in Figure 16. The ‘as-designed’ form includes
nominally sized features with perfect 90° angles and the
formation of the rib with two back to back angled sec-
tions is not a problem. The simulated CAD form, how-
ever, now takes into account processing conditions and
material configuration, and in predicting the final part
angles, it is more representative of the final ‘as-manu-
factured’ form. The application of the 90° experimental
geometry in the formation of a rib section shows that
the slight variation in the angular pieces has meant that
the assembly requirement for the angles to be placed
back to back is not possible without the use of fixturing
to force the components into the required position. It is
at this stage that the designer can re-run his or her
simulation to obtain optimal part forms by changing
process parameters. Alternatively if fixturing is the only
solution, the designer can examine the effect of fixtur-
ing forces on the parts, so that the assembly can be
completed with minimal impact on any residual force
on the components.
The fundamental motivation for this work comes
from the growing need to develop advanced structural
composite applications in a digital manufacturing envi-
ronment. Furthermore, the function of digital manu-
facturing, in simulating and validating product
1428
Figure 16. Assembly problem caused by unplanned part deformation in composite rib section: (a) as-designed form, (b) simulated
part form and (c) as-manufactured form.
manufacturability, is based on the prerequisite that the
digital models used in the software systems represent
realistic part forms. As a typical feature of composite
part manufacture is process-induced shape variation,
there is a need for assembly process simulation meth-
ods that can predict realistic composite geometries for
design purposes, which can be delivered to the digital
environment for component build validation during
assembly planning.
This work has achieved this aim by proving that the
simulated part performance for a simple 90° sample
can be predicted accurately using FE methods. The FE
outcomes can be translated into 3D part definitions,
which in turn can be delivered to the digital manufac-
turing environment. The relationship between layup
configuration and mould tool temperature has also
been established. It can also be concluded that the final
part dimension can be controlled by using the material
configuration and mould temperature when using the
current thermoforming rig.
Conclusion
The work shows how manufacturing simulation tech-
niques, which have been used mainly for metallic-based
component assembly, can be extended to composite
applications facilitating the use of realistic part form
predictions for build validation simulations. An effec-
tive simulation method has been established to predict
the deformation behaviour of a thermoplastic laminate
composite as it is thermoformed. A comparison across
a range of physical tests has shown that at worst, the
simulated results for the prediction of the finished angle
in a simple 90° angle are within 10% of the practical
test measurements. By transferring predicted results to
CAD environment, this method can deliver ‘as-manu-
factured’ part shape to digital manufacturing system
for more realistic assembly validation.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the contribution of Convergent
Manufacturing Technologies, Inc. in providing the
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)
COMPRO package, which was used to carry out the
simulation work for this study.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work is part of a broader programme ‘Improving
the Sustainability of Transport Using Advanced
Composites and Digital Manufacturing’ supported by
the Department of Employment and Learning
(Northern Ireland).
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