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Original Article

Proc IMechE Part B:


J Engineering Manufacture
227(10) 1417–1429
The prediction of process-induced Ó IMechE 2013
Reprints and permissions:
deformation in a thermoplastic sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0954405413488362

composite in support of manufacturing pib.sagepub.com

simulation

Peidong Han, Joe Butterfield, Saul Buchanan,


Rauri McCool, Zhenyu Jiang, Mark Price and Adrian Murphy

Abstract
Digital manufacturing techniques can simulate complex assembly sequences using computer-aided design–based, ‘as-
designed’ part forms, and their utility has been proven across several manufacturing sectors including the ship building,
automotive and aerospace industries. However, the reality of working with actual parts and composite components, in
particular, is that geometric variability arising from part forming or processing conditions can cause problems during
assembly as the ‘as-manufactured’ form differs from the geometry used for any simulated build validation. In this work, a
simulation strategy is presented for the study of the process-induced deformation behaviour of a 90°, V-shaped angle.
Test samples were thermoformed using pre-consolidated carbon fibre–reinforced polyphenylene sulphide, and the pro-
cessing conditions were re-created in a virtual environment using the finite element method to determine finished com-
ponent angles. A procedure was then developed for transferring predicted part forms from the finite element outputs to
a digital manufacturing platform for the purpose of virtual assembly validation using more realistic part geometry.
Ultimately, the outcomes from this work can be used to inform process condition choices, material configuration and
tool design, so that the dimensional gap between ‘as-designed’ and ‘as-manufactured’ part forms can be reduced in the
virtual environment.

Keywords
Thermoforming, composite part form prediction, digital manufacturing, simulation

Date received: 13 September 2012; accepted: 5 April 2013

Introduction for several decades, the disposal of thermosetting


matrix systems, in particular, at end of life remains a
It is anticipated that composite materials will play a key significant challenge. Thermoplastic matrices currently
role in the development of next-generation transport offer superior recyclability and are becoming more
platforms through the remainder of the 21st century.1 effective in terms of structural performance,3 environ-
Composites in general and carbon fibre–reinforced mental impact and, importantly, cost.4 When com-
plastics (CFRP), in particular, possess attractive prop- pared with typical thermosetting CFRP manufacturing
erties such as improved structural performance and methods, energy consumption reductions of up to 90%
lower product weight when compared with their tradi- are achievable using thermoplastic forming processes,
tional metallic equivalents. As well as innovation in the where processing times are of the order of minutes
delivery of key in-service performance requirements,
the material systems used on modern vehicles must also
offer more sustainable solutions for life cycle manage- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University
ment,2 including how they impact the environment Belfast, Belfast, UK
through design to manufacture, to safe use in service
Corresponding author:
and, ultimately, to disposal or recycling. Peidong Han, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s
Although composites have been in use for transport University Belfast, Ashby Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK.
applications in a number of combined material formats Email: phan01@qub.ac.uk
1418 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 1. Problems in generic panel assembly due to composite deformation.

rather than hours.5 Thermoplastics such as FortronÒ important that the behaviour of angular features is
polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) can be recycled many understood, so that angular dimensions can be con-
times with minimal degradation or loss of physical trolled to the extent that this tolerance can be achieved.
properties.6 Thermoform ability and weldability of Process-induced deformations mainly affect the dimen-
thermoplastics already differentiate them from thermo- sional control of finished components, and this can
sets7 from a manufacturing perspective, and they can lead to increased costs as parts become more difficult
also offer superior toughness and durability. Other sig- and therefore more time consuming to fit in place dur-
nificant attributes include higher heat resistance and ing assembly, as shown in Figure 1. Bottom lines can
greater impact strength relative to current thermoset- be affected as manufacturers require concessions lead-
ting systems. For example, service temperatures of ing to price reductions or in critical cases; manufactur-
350 °F (compared with 200 °F) and toughness levels of ers have to absorb costs as non-compliant parts are
the order of 2–3 times that of composites made from scrapped.12
epoxies are possible. Non-autoclave methods for the The prediction of the final part angle using the
manufacture of advanced thermoplastic composites can methods presented here would enable the designer to
facilitate the application of light weight, durable prod- tailor the material system or processing conditions to
uct structures with significant cost advantages com- control the angle to within the required tolerance. The
pared with autoclave-based thermoset manufacturing.8 primary objective of this work is to cover the current
Despite the stated benefits and increasing applica- gap between conventional part design methods and
tion areas, CFRP parts (both thermosetting and ther- final assembly simulation platforms for CFRTP com-
moplastic) can be prone to undesired deformations ponents by simulating the manufacture of a 90° angled
during and after combined temperature and pressure component using the process of thermoforming. The
processing conditions. The process-induced deforma- choice of a thermoplastic-based material system for this
tion of carbon fibre–reinforced thermoplastic (CFRTP) work is based on its more favourable characteristics
parts during thermoforming is a significant factor when when considering its sustainability relative to the more
designing mould tools, configuring the material layout, commonly used thermosets. In order to broaden the
specifying processing parameters and specifying toler- structural applications for CFRTPs, their behaviour
ance levels for manufacture and assembly. These defor- during manufacture must be characterised, so that
mations also reduce the value of any digital mock up9 designers and manufacturing planners can fully under-
used for virtual build validation as the dimensions of stand and predict how they will perform as they are
the nominally sized virtual parts differ from those on formed and assembled. The method presented here will
parts manufactured using real forming processes. predict simulated ‘as-manufactured’ part geometries
Depending on the part geometry, the constitutive beha- for a simple 90°, V-shaped angle and the approach used
viour of the material and the forming process to transfer this data to the 3D computer-aided design
employed, changing primarily two-dimensional (2D) (CAD) environment for the purpose of completing an
sheets of raw material into three-dimensional (3D) assembly simulation. This work represents the first step
curved and/or angled geometry may lead to undesirable in a process intended to create an additional layer of
part deformations, which do not match the as-designed simulation methods, which needs to be defined, vali-
form. The most common effect of residual stresses in dated and integrated within a digital manufacturing
composite products is the deformation of angled and framework to synthesise accurate composite part form
curved parts.10 With a typical positional tolerance spec- prediction methods with the build validation tools
ified at 60.2 mm11 for an aerospace application, it is already developed in the digital manufacturing
Han et al. 1419

Figure 2. Proposed methodology for composite component shape prediction.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of thermoforming process for thermoplastic composites.

environment, as shown in Figure 2. With these predic- rates13 that they offer compared with existing thermo-
tion and simulation technologies, digital manufacturing set systems that require much longer and expensive
platforms will help engineers and process planners to autoclave processing. Thermoforming14,15 is a family of
plan and deliver fully optimised manufacturing data processes that can be used to process thermoplastic-
for composite structures to the production environment based composite materials by the combined action of
quickly and efficiently. Composite part forming and heat and pressure. In its simplest form, thermoforming
product assembly simulation can therefore be included is a three-stage process, involving heating of the raw
in the design process from the earliest conceptual stage, material blank, coupled with thermal de-consolidation,
ensuring high levels of part and product accuracy followed by part forming and re-consolidation in a
through to production. matched tool, with the final process step part ejection
from the tool, as shown in Figure 3.
In this work, an experimental manufacturing cell
Method based on Lloyd Instruments L6000R Tensile Tester
was developed to thermoform CFRTPs,16 as shown in
Thermoforming equipment Figure 4. The manufacturing cell contains all of the
One of the major attractions to thermoplastic-based major features of an industrial manufacturing setup.
composite systems is the potential rapid processing The system consists of a heating station, a forming
1420 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 4. Thermoforming rig used to form 90°, V-shaped composite samples.

station and a matched mould tooling rig. The equip- thick. Two different layup configurations were investi-
ment offers full control over the process by monitoring gated. These were [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/
key manufacturing parameters such as tool tempera- (0,90)/(645)]S, respectively. With the supplied square
ture, composite material temperature and forming (1200 mm 3 1200 mm) panel of [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
force. This data provides essential input data for down- setup on the water jet, the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S samples
stream computer-based simulations of the process. In were cut along the panel edge directions, while the
this work, the emphasis was on producing a demon- [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S were cut by rotating 45° of the
strator component that would allow the characterisa- feed direction of water jet.
tion of the spring-in angle associated with changes in Six scenarios with the two different layup configura-
key process parameter settings, which led to the design tions and three different mould temperatures were
and development of a V-shaped forming tooling. The tested, as shown in Table 1. Ten samples are made
matched mould tooling was designed with an open V using the thermoforming equipment for each scenario.
angle of 92°; this decision was based on previous litera- The number of sample is decided based on the SD of
ture17 studying on glass fibre reinforced polypropylene values for items tested and the required precision of the
composites in autoclave-based forming process, where average value18
it was shown that a mould angle of 92° can produce a  2
finished internal angle of 90°. 3s
n= ð1Þ
d
in which s is the SD of the property in the lot and d is
Experiment design
the required precision of the average value. The objec-
To study the deformation related to forming mould tive is that the error in the average due to sampling
temperature and ply layup, a 90° angled component should almost certainly be less than d. For a 60.1° pre-
was chosen as the demonstrator geometry for thermo- cision requirement, the number of sample was selected
forming experiment. A 90° angular part is usually used as 10 based on test results in this thermoforming
as blade rib for basic structural configuration. This test experiment.
sample configuration was chosen to minimise the range
of geometric influences that could affect final part
shape. The performance of the part during forming was Forming procedure
based on the final angle of the finished sample relative According to processing guideline,15 the laminate sam-
to the original mould shape. Test samples were manu- ple was heated between infrared heating panels to the
factured from a commercially available pre-consolidated forming temperature of 320 °C. The samples were held
thermoplastic laminate system consisting of continuous in the oven until the centre of the laminate reached the
carbon fibre (CF) (T300) reinforced PPS supplied by forming temperature (measured by thermocouples);
TenCate Advanced Composites (material trade name, this took approximately 60 s. Once heated, the sample
CetexÒ PPS). The laminate supplied by TenCate con- was transferred into the forming system where it was
sisted of six plies of woven five-harness satin CF reinfor- shaped to the geometry imposed by the mould tool.
cement embedded in a PPS matrix, consolidated to 50% The forming pressure applied in the experiment was 2.3
fibre volume fraction (Vf). Samples used for the experi- MPa (the suggested pressure in the guideline is 2–4
ment measured 100 mm 3 15 mm wide by 1.86 mm MPa, facility dependent). The part was maintained at a
Han et al. 1421

Table 1. Experiment design for composite part deformation investigation.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170


Number of samples 10 10 10 10 10 10

the unformed edges; these were included to allow for


sample alignment and constraint during forming, as
shown in Figure 6.

Sample inspection. Inspection of the finished part geome-


tries was carried out using a coordinate measuring
machine (CMM). CMM is a 3D device for measuring
the physical geometrical characteristics of an object.
The CMM used in current work is Brown & Sharpe
MICROXCEL PFX with 0.5 mm accuracy. This
machine can be both manually and computer con-
trolled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached
to the third moving axis (vertical) of this machine.
Both the inner surface and the outer surface angles
were measured for each sample. For each side of V-
Figure 5. Temperature profile measured for a sample during
thermoforming experiment.
shaped parts, the angle was calculated using two planes,
which were defined using 20 sample points on each sur-
face. This facilitated the accurate determination of the
sample angle avoiding the possibility of errors arising
from single angular measurements, which would have
been possible using a vernier protractor, for example.
The measurement of multiple surface points also facili-
tated the creation of 3D CAD models representing the
test samples.

Simulation model setup


A 2D approach12 has been applied to the analysis used
for part shape prediction using COMPRO, which is a
commercially available simulation platform. It is
equipped with capabilities that enable the consideration
of process parameters as a part is formed, so that final
geometric form can be determined. Primarily developed
for thermosetting material systems, the analysis in this
Figure 6. Experimental sample thermoformed from pre-
consolidated laminate to V-shaped final part. case was modified to take account of the thermoplastic
properties of the test material. Stress/deformation mod-
ule is employed in the finite element (FE) method to
constant temperature provided in the moulds for 180 s solve for the component state variables during
(60–180 s suggested in the guideline) after transfer and processing.
before demoulding. During the whole thermoforming The basic work equation of the FE displacement
process, the temperature of the composite sample is method is19
monitored and recorded using an eight-channel ther- ð ð ð
mocouple universal serial bus (USB) data acquisition stedV = ptv udV + pts udS ð2Þ
module with sampling interval of 2 s. The probe of
V V S
thermocouple is plugged in a pre-drilled 1-mm hole on
the centre of sample and fixed using heat-resistant tape. where the left side of the equation is the total internal
A temperature profile for a sample formed with a 170 virtual work and the right side of the equation is the
°C mould temperature is shown in Figure 5. work done by both body forces and surface forces over
After forming, the composite parts are trimmed to displacements u. In COMPRO, the 2D displacement
their final shape to release any residual effect caused by field can be denoted as {u w}T, the body forces are
1422 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

deformable and the mould tools were considered as


rigid parts. Both the top and bottom mould materials
are made of aluminium, and the formed V-shaped com-
ponent is CF reinforced PPS composites. The proper-
ties of the aluminium, CF and PPS materials at room
temperature are shown in Table 2.
For each composite material region, the number,
thickness and orientation of the plies within that region
were defined. The woven fibre (both plain and five-
harness satin) reinforced laminate in the experiment is
represented using unidirectional layups,21 as shown in
Figure 8.
In order to simulate the forming condition used for
the experiment, a batch of simulations was executed
with different process cycle models (130 °C, 150 °C,
170 °C forming temperature, respectively) and ply layup
Figure 7. Finite element model representing one-half of the configurations ([(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/(0,90)/
V-shaped test sample. (645)]S), which reflect the range of experimental mould
temperatures and fibre orientations detailed earlier in
this section. The process cycle model simulating the
denoted as {pvx pvz}T and the surface tractions are experiment is shown in Figure 9.
denoted as {psx psz}T.
Using this method, the classical FE equation
involved in the stress/deformation module can be Data transfer to CAD environment
derived as20 The deformed part shape predicted using the simula-
tion was transferred to the computer-aided three-
Kr = R ð3Þ dimensional interactive application (CATIA) CAD
environment using a custom built visual basic interface,
where r is the element nodal displacements vector, K is
using the steps shown in Figure 10. The points shown
the global stiffness matrix and R is the load vector.
in Figure 10(a) were located using the post-forming
In COMPRO, the equation (3) is solved through
nodal positions from the FE model processed using
Gaussian elimination. And the final coordinates of
COMPRO. Splines and lofts were then fitted to the
deformed structural nodes can be obtained based on points, and surfaces were extruded from the sectional
original coordinates and displacement results. data. The upper and lower surfaces were then blended
The 2D plane strain four-node quadrilateral ele- to form a solid CAD model. This shows how simulated
ments were employed to represent the experimental part forms could be transferred to the digital environ-
sample and mould section (see Figure 7). As the cross ment for the purpose of assembly validation in digital
section is symmetric, only half of the section was mod- manufacturing techniques.
elled. Boundaries of the part and tool are set as convec-
tion for heat transfer. The bottom mould is defined as
fixed with no displacement. The nodes on symmetry Results
line of the part are set as sliding with no displacement
perpendicular to the boundary. The start pressure is set Finished sample angles
as 0.1 MPa, and the initial and final temperature is set The final sample angles are shown in Figure 11. For
as 20 °C. parts formed using the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S ply orien-
Material model in COMPRO indicates which mate- tations, the parts cooled from an initial mould tempera-
rials are to be used in each of the model regions and ture of 170 °C were closest to the intended 90 ° part
descripts the properties to be associated with each mate- angle (90.53° average angle), followed by the 150 °C
rial. In current case, the V-shaped part is assumed as (90.66° average angle), and 130 °C (91.15° average

Table 2. Material properties.

Name r (kg/m3) E (GPa) n CTE (E26/°C)

Aluminium 2740 70 0.3 23


CF 1780 231 (long.) 8 (trans.) 27.3 (shear) 0.256 20.41 (long.) 4.99 (trans.)
PPS 1350 3.8 (tensile) 2.965 (compressive) 1.2 (shear) 0.36 52.2

CTE: coefficient of thermal expansion; CF: carbon fibre; long: longitudinal; PPS: polyphenylene sulphide; trans: transverse.
Han et al. 1423

carried out to examine the crystallinity level within the


polymer matrix, which is affected by the cooling rate
and is an important processing condition affecting resi-
dual stress formation.22 For this work, although the
mould temperature can be set as constant, the cooling
rates during both cooling stages (forming temperature
Figure 8. Representation of fabric laminate.
to mould temperature and mould temperature to room
temperature) are not fully controlled. The DSC results
show all the samples formed by different mould tem-
peratures crystallise at a similar level (;26%).

Simulation of 90° sample forming process. COMPRO out-


put files are written in a text format and give the value
of all major state variables at every model node or ele-
ment at process cycle time intervals specified in the con-
trol file. In current case, only the final nodal
coordinates of the nodes on top and bottom side
boundaries of the composite part need to be exported
to identify the spring-in deformation. By connecting
these points, the deformed boundary profile can be cre-
ated, as shown in Figure 10(b).
The results of the batch simulations carried out to
re-create virtually, the test conditions for the sample
Figure 9. Process modelled in COMPRO for sample forming
forming processes, are shown in Table 3. These results
conditions.
again demonstrate that deformations will arise for the
composite angles as they are formed and that the shape
variation is dependent on material configuration and
angle), conditions in sequence. For samples with the
processing conditions. The predicted results also indi-
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S ply orientations, the samples
cate that it is better to use [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S than
cooled from an initial mould temperature of 150 °C
[(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S material in current thermoform-
were closest to the intended 90° part angle (90.05° aver-
ing rig to achieve 90° final part angle.
age angle), followed closely by the 170 °C (89.90° aver-
A comparison of the experimental and simulated
age angle), and 130 °C (90.22° average angle),
results is presented in Figure 13 and Table 4. With a
conditions in sequence. These results also show that the
less than 10% relative error across all cases, the simula-
[(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S ply orientation will result in a
tion predicted deformation is in general agreement with
sample angle that has less variability across tempera-
the experimental results detailed in the previous section.
tures than the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S configuration. This
The largest difference between experimental and simu-
is also illustrated in Figure 12 where the [(645)/(0,90)/
lated results was 9.28% for the [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S
(645)]S sample angles across the three mould tempera-
layup configuration at the 130 °C mould temperature,
tures. The mould temperature of 150 °C with a ply con-
whereas the simulation outcome for the [(645)/(0,90)/
figuration of [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S will give a finished
(645)]S configuration was within 0.26% of the experi-
part angle, which is closest to the required 90°. These
mental result for a mould temperature of 150 °C.
outcomes illustrate the importance of deformation pre-
To validate the proposed method in this work, finite
diction in composite part manufacturing. Compared
element analysis (FEA) tool Abaqus was also used to
with the mould tooling, which was designed with an
predict the part deformation and compare with the
open V-shaped angle of 92°, the different combinations COMPRO simulation. The finished part form was
of material and processing conditions tested here have exported to CAD system for deformation inspection
resulted in final part angles ranging from less than a 1° and further digital manufacturing applications. The
to more than a 2° difference from the original mould angle of simulated part was inspected in CATIA CAD
angle. The [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S laminate with 150 °C environment using mesh nodes transferred from
mould temperature should be applied if the design Abaqus. Figure 14 shows the thermoforming simula-
intent for the V-shaped angle is 90°. tion process modelled in Abaqus, and Table 5 presents
the comparison of experimental and simulated results
for V-shaped composite part thermoforming. These
Differential scanning calorimetry measurements results again demonstrate that deformations will arise
The degree of crystallinity (DoC) of the formed CF/ for the composite angles as they are formed.
PPS V-shaped component was also inspected through For Abaqus, the FEA results were stored in an out-
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). This was put database from the start to the end of the
1424 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 10. Simulation of predicted deformed part shape modelled in CAD environment: (a) simulated result, (b) fitted splines, (c)
2D surface and (d) 3D solid part definition.

Figure 11. Measured V-shaped angle for three mould temperatures and two layup configurations.

thermoforming simulation. An orphan mesh part surfaces and sets with no associated geometry. By
instance can be imported from any increment/step choosing the last frame of demoulding step of the anal-
available in the output database. The orphan mesh part ysis, the finished part was imported as an orphan mesh
contains no feature information and is extracted from in the Abaqus part module. Then orphan mesh part
the output database as a collection of nodes, elements, was exported as a 3D XML file for use in the CATIA
Han et al. 1425

Figure 12. Change in V-shaped angle relative to original mould angle.

Table 3. Simulated part deformations predicted using COMPRO.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170


Deformed V-shaped angle (°) 91.07 90.547 90.478 90.207 90.052 90.023
Change of angle 0.93 1.453 1.522 1.793 1.948 1.977

Table 4. Comparison of the experimental and simulated deformation results.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170


Change of angle in experiment (DuE) (°) 0.851 1.336 1.473 1.777 1.953 2.102
Change of angle in simulation (DuS) (°) 0.930 1.453 1.522 1.793 1.948 1.977
Relative error (|(DuS2DuE)/DuE|) (%) 9.28 8.76 3.33 0.90 0.26 5.95

CAD environment. The part can be used as a typical material systems and processing methods supported by
geometric component instead of an orphan mesh part predictive technologies in both product and process
after its solid feature is reconstructed in CATIA using designs. The work aimed to identify the effects of pro-
nodes information in the 3D XML file. Figure 15 cessing parameters including material system (layup
shows the predicted V-shaped part transferred from angles) and processing conditions on the finished
Abaqus to CATIA. dimensions of an angled composite component, thereby
informing design and production-related decisions
including material configuration and mould design. To
Discussion achieve this, the deformation behaviour of a 90°,
The main aim of this work was to develop a means by V-shaped, thermoplastic composite angle was examined
which virtual methods could be used to predict the using experimental manufacturing and inspection
behaviour of a CFRTP part, so that more realistic methods. FE methods were used to determine how the
component forms could be employed during simulated finished part angle varied using virtual simulations. A
build validations in a digital manufacturing environ- simple angular form has been used for the work to nar-
ment. The approach was motivated by the need to pro- row the range of geometric influences, which could
mote more sustainable solutions for advanced material affect final part shape. The simulated results have been
applications in future transport systems. This can compared with practical tests to validate the tools and
potentially be achieved through the development of methods used.
1426 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 13. Comparison of the experimental and simulated deformation results.

Table 5. Comparison of the experimental and Abaqus simulated deformation results.

Ply orientation [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S [(645)/(0,90)/(645)]S

Mould temperature (°C) 130 150 170 130 150 170


Change of angle in experiment (DuE) (°) 0.851 1.336 1.473 1.777 1.953 2.102
Change of angle in simulation (DuS) (°) 0.764 1.222 1.352 1.535 1.726 1.903
Relative error (|(DuS2DuE)/DuE|) (%) 10.17 8.53 8.21 13.60 11.62 9.49

The experimental results arising from this work temperature to room temperature. The samples formed
demonstrate that there is process-induced deformation using the 170 °C mould temperature will generate more
ranging from 0.851° to 2.102° in V-shaped parts formed shrinkage when cooling to room temperature, followed
with six-ply ([(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S and [(645)/(0,90)/ by 150 °C and 130 °C, respectively. Therefore for the
(645)]S) laminates. This behaviour is caused by the same ply orientation, the final bend angles decrease
composites’ anisotropic shrinkage during thermal pro- with the increasing mould temperature (see Figure 11).
cessing cycle, and it is difficult to predict using formula For different layup configurations with the same pro-
calculations.23 The various results also illustrate that cessing conditions, the mismatch between CF and PPS
the final angle of thermoformed CFRTP part is corre- matrix shrinkage through the sample thickness is simi-
lated to processing conditions and material configura- lar as they have the same number of plies and fibre vol-
tions. Thus, it is possible to control the post-forming ume fraction. The out-of-plane contraction for the
part angle to achieve tolerance requirement by custo- laminates is much larger than the in-plane contraction.
mising the processing conditions or layup configura- Therefore, the reason for lower level of deformation
tions. The influence of mould temperature on the with [(0,90)/(645)/(0,90)]S layup samples should be the
deformation is more dependent on the composite’s ther- predomination of fibres along the length of the V-
mal properties and the deformation is caused by the shaped part, which bear the out-of-plane contraction
thermal shrinkage through the range of temperatures as stress. The effects of mould temperature and layup con-
the samples cool.24,25 As the three sets of tests (130 °C, figuration on final part form in the experiments show
150 °C and 170 °C) used set the mould temperature that less deformation arises in samples where fibre
above the sample’s softening temperature (90 °C), the orientation is dominant along the angle cross-sectional
residual stress arose during the shrinkage process as the direction and more deformation arises in samples where
sample transitioned from forming temperature to a higher mould temperature has been used.
mould temperature. This can still be largely relieved Ignoring process-based dimensional variations by
during the forming stage when the part is confined to using the nominally sized CAD model for build valida-
the mould. After demoulding, the part deforms because tion could cause longer assembly times or tolerance fail-
of the thermal shrinkage during the cooling from mould ures at best or costly redesign at worst – if mal-formed
Han et al. 1427

Figure 14. Simulated thermoforming process modelled in Abaqus: (a) initial contact, (b) press forming, (c) clamp and (d)
demoulding.

Figure 15. Abaqus predicted deformed part shape transferred to CAD environment.

composite parts are released for assembly. An example to force the components into the required position. It is
is shown in Figure 16. The ‘as-designed’ form includes at this stage that the designer can re-run his or her
nominally sized features with perfect 90° angles and the simulation to obtain optimal part forms by changing
formation of the rib with two back to back angled sec- process parameters. Alternatively if fixturing is the only
tions is not a problem. The simulated CAD form, how- solution, the designer can examine the effect of fixtur-
ever, now takes into account processing conditions and ing forces on the parts, so that the assembly can be
material configuration, and in predicting the final part completed with minimal impact on any residual force
angles, it is more representative of the final ‘as-manu- on the components.
factured’ form. The application of the 90° experimental The fundamental motivation for this work comes
geometry in the formation of a rib section shows that from the growing need to develop advanced structural
the slight variation in the angular pieces has meant that composite applications in a digital manufacturing envi-
the assembly requirement for the angles to be placed ronment. Furthermore, the function of digital manu-
back to back is not possible without the use of fixturing facturing, in simulating and validating product
1428 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(10)

Figure 16. Assembly problem caused by unplanned part deformation in composite rib section: (a) as-designed form, (b) simulated
part form and (c) as-manufactured form.

manufacturability, is based on the prerequisite that the COMPRO package, which was used to carry out the
digital models used in the software systems represent simulation work for this study.
realistic part forms. As a typical feature of composite
part manufacture is process-induced shape variation, Declaration of conflicting interests
there is a need for assembly process simulation meth-
ods that can predict realistic composite geometries for The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
design purposes, which can be delivered to the digital
environment for component build validation during Funding
assembly planning. This work is part of a broader programme ‘Improving
This work has achieved this aim by proving that the the Sustainability of Transport Using Advanced
simulated part performance for a simple 90° sample Composites and Digital Manufacturing’ supported by
can be predicted accurately using FE methods. The FE the Department of Employment and Learning
outcomes can be translated into 3D part definitions, (Northern Ireland).
which in turn can be delivered to the digital manufac-
turing environment. The relationship between layup
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