Grip force and slipping

• If the wheel drive force (Ft) of the vehicle is more than the
road grip force (Ftmax), we consider the road grip force,
because the excess will cause the wheel to slip.
• For example, let Ft = 1000 N and Ftmax = 800 N; then a
force of 200 N is wasted on friction and is lost.

• After the slip starts, the maximum grip coefficient of the

wheel during rolling decreases.
 Slipping
• Let's call the angle of rotation of the freely rotating wheel
Өo, let's also call the angle of rotation of the driven wheel
Ө, so;

• In other words, linear slip is the ratio of the difference

between vehicle speed and wheel speed to the vehicle
speed.
 Example-1
Q1) The following values are known for a four-wheeled vehicle weighing
10 kN.

• Radius of each wheel = 0.32 m

• Engine torque = 100 Nm at 3000 rpm
• Total transmission efficiency = 0.86
• Total transmission ratio = 12/1
• Front projection area = 1.8 m2
• Air resistance coefficient = 0.38
• Slipping = 0.05
• Rolling resistance coefficient = 0.02
• Air density = 1.2 kg/m3

Determine the hill climbing ability in these conditions.

Example-1
Example-1
 Example-2
Q2) The following values are known for a four-wheeled vehicle with a total weight of
12 kN including the wheels.
• Radius of each wheel = 0.32 m
• Weight of each wheel = 180 N
• Mass moment of inertia of a wheel=1.24 kg.m2
• Engine torque = 120 Nm at 3000 rpm
• Equivalent moment of inertia of masses rotating at engine speed = 0.48 kg.m2
• Total transmission efficiency = 0.85
• Total transmission ratio = 3.82/1
• Front projection area = 1.88 m2
• Air resistance coefficient = 0.4
• Slipping = 0.03
• Rolling resistance coefficient = 0.02
• Air density = 1.22 kg/m3
Determine the acceleration ability of this vehicle on a straight road and in a windless
environment.
 Example-2
A2)
Velocity of the vehicle;
𝜋. 𝑟𝑤 . 𝑛𝑒 𝜋 × 0.32 × 3000
𝑉= 1−𝑠 = 1 − 0.03
30. 𝑖0 30 × 3.82
𝑚 𝑘𝑚
= 25.53 = 91.9
𝑠 ℎ

Traction force;
𝑚𝑒 . 𝑖0 120 × 3.82
𝐹𝑡 = η𝑇 = × 0.85 = 12
𝑟𝑤 0.32
 Example-2
A2)
Total resistance;
෍ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹𝑡

𝐹𝑅 = 𝑊. 𝑓 = 12000 × 0.02 = 240 𝑁

1
𝐹𝐴 = . 𝜌. 𝐶𝐷 . 𝐴. 𝑉 2 = 0.5 × 1.22 × 0.4 × 1.88 × 25.53 2
2
= 299 𝑁

𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹𝑡 − 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴 = 1217.63 − 240 + 299

= 678.63 𝑁
 Example-2
A2)
Total resistance;
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝑚𝑒𝑓 . 𝑎
𝑚𝑒𝑓 = m. γ
𝑊
𝑚=
𝑔

σ 𝜃𝑤 + 𝜃𝑒 . 𝑖02 . η 𝑇
𝛾 =1+
𝑚𝑣 . 𝑟𝑤2
4 × 1.24 + 0.48 × 3.822 × 0.85
𝛾 =1+ 2
= 1.087
1223.24 × 0.32
 Example-2
A2)
Total resistance;

𝑚𝑒𝑓 = 1.087 × 1223.24 = 1329.66 𝑘𝑔

678.63 𝑚
𝑎= = 0.510 2
1329.66 𝑠
 Example-3
Q3) The following values are known for a four-wheeled vehicle.
• Mass of vehicle=1300 kg
• Radius of each wheel = 0.3 m
• 𝑖𝐺 for 5th gear=0.89
• 𝑖𝐷 for differential=3.67
• Front projection area = 2.25 m2
• Air resistance coefficient = 0.35
• Rolling resistance coefficient = 0.018
• Air density = 1.202 kg/m3
What is the required engine power at 2000 rpm for the vehicle to move at a constant
speed on a straight road?
 Example-3
A3)
Velocity of the vehicle;

𝜋.𝑟𝑤 .𝑛𝑒 𝜋×0.3×2000

𝑉= 1−𝑠 = = 19.24 m/s
30.𝑖0 30×0.89×3.67

Total resistance force;

𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴
1
𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊. 𝑓 + . 𝜌. 𝐶𝐷 . 𝐴. 𝑉 2
= 1300 × 9.81 × 0.018 + 0.5 ×
2
1.202 × 0.35 × 2.25 × 19.242 = 404.8 N
 Example-3
A3)
The power required to counter the resistive forces;

𝑃𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 . 𝑉 = 404.8 × 19.24 = 7.787 𝑘𝑊

 Example-4
Q4) The following values are known for a four-wheeled vehicle.
• Mass of vehicle=1300 kg
• Radius of each wheel = 0.3 m
• 𝑖𝐺 for 4th gear=1.13
• 𝑖𝐷 for differential=3.67
• Front projection area = 2.25 m2
• Air resistance coefficient = 0.35
• Rolling resistance coefficient = 0.018
• Air density = 1.202 kg/m3
• Engine power at 3000 rpm=48 kW
• Moment of inertia of a wheel=3 kg.m2
• Moment of inertia of engine=0.26 kg.m2

The vehicle should be accelerated in 4th gear at a speed of 82 km/h. Find the
maximum acceleration of the vehicle taking into account the rotating masses?
 Example-4
A4)
Velocity of the vehicle;

𝜋. 𝑟𝑤 . 𝑛𝑒
𝑉= 1−𝑠
30. 𝑖0

𝑉. 30. 𝑖0 22.78 × 30 × 1.13 × 3.67

𝑛𝑒 = =
𝜋. 𝑟𝑤 . 1 − 𝑠 𝜋 × 0.3

= 3006.8 𝑟𝑝𝑚 ≅ 3000 𝑟𝑝𝑚

 Example-4
A4)
The power required to counter the resistive forces excluding
acceleration resistance;

𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐴
1
𝐹𝑇 = 𝑊. 𝑓 + . 𝜌. 𝐶𝐷 . 𝐴. 𝑉 2
= 1300 × 9.81 × 0.018 + 0.5 ×
2
1.202 × 0.35 × 2.25 × 22.782 = 475.16 N

𝑃𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 . 𝑉 = 475.16 × 22.78 = 10.82 𝑘𝑊

 Example-4
A4)
Remaining power for the vehicle's acceleration resistance;

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃𝐸 − 𝑃𝑇

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 48 − 10.82 = 37.18 𝑘𝑊

𝑎
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉. 𝑚. 𝑎 + 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑑 . 2
𝑟𝑤
𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 4. 𝜃𝑤 + 𝑖𝐺2 . 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝜃𝐸

𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 4 × 3 + 1.132 × 3.672 × 0.26 = 16.47 kg. 𝑚2

 Example-4
A4)
Remaining power for the vehicle's acceleration resistance;

𝑃𝐴𝐶 37180
𝑎= =
𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑑 16.47
𝑉. (𝑚 + 2 ) 22.78 × 1300 +
𝑟𝑤 0.32

𝑎 = 1.1 𝑚Τ𝑠 2
Forces in linear vehicle motion
 Static axle load distribution on
straight road
• Forces acting on a vehicle in linear motion can be
classified as mass forces and external forces.

• Mass forces arise as a result of changes in the

vehicle's relative positions relative to the horizontal
plane or in the linear and angular velocities of the
vehicle.

• External forces are those that are not directly related

to the mass. Traction or braking force, air and rolling
resistance are such forces.
 Static axle load distribution on
straight road

Static forces act when the vehicle is stationary. When the vehicle
is stationary, the weight of each wheel is not equal to its weight in
motion, this is called dynamic forces.
• The axle loads of a vehicle at rest and on a horizontal road can
be determined with the help of ground reactions.

• If we take a moment with respect to the r point, which is the

rear wheel contact point,
Axle load distribution on an inclined road
 Axle load distribution on an inclined road

Forces parallel to the road;

 Axle load distribution on an inclined road

Substitute in formula [1];

 Axle load distribution on an inclined road

If the front and rear axle load formulas are observed, the dynamic
load is negative in the front and positive in the rear axle formula.
Because when going uphill, the rear wheel axle weight increases.
The front wheel axle weight is also reduced.
 Maximum traction force

The maximum traction force is expressed as follows, depending

on the dynamic axle load and the traction coefficient.

𝐹𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑊𝑑 . 𝜇𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑥

In order to determine the maximum traction force, it is necessary

to know where the vehicle is driven from.
 Rear wheel drive

If the vehicle is rear-drive, is written instead

of Ft in the first equation, and is written instead of Rro.
 Rear wheel drive

The expression in parentheses in this formula is the rear axle

dynamic load distribution factor, or in other words, the weight
distribution factor.
 Front wheel drive

If the same calculations are made for the front axle, only the signs
change.
 Four wheel drive

The axle load of a 4-wheel drive vehicle is the sum of the rear
wheel dynamic load and the front wheel dynamic load.