AERO 473, AIRCRAFT DESIGN

JANUARY 2019

END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION

DR. JOSHUA AMPOFO

QUESTION 1

Given Data

A five-seat trainer aircraft; includes the crew

Mass of baggage = 300kg

Mass of each passenger and his/her luggage = 160kg

Mass of crew and his/her carry-on = 120kg

Range = 2000km
Wempty 𝑊𝑒
𝑊𝑜
= 𝑊𝑜 = 0.60

𝐿⁄ = 13.5
𝐷

Propeller efficiency = ղpr = 85% = 0.85

Specific fuel consumption = c = 4.26 x 10-8 kg/W.s

Mission fuel fractions

𝑊1
Take off = 𝑊𝑜
= 0.980

𝑊2
Climb = = 0.980
𝑊1

𝑊3
Cruise = 𝑊2
= ?

𝑊4
Descend = 𝑊3
= 0.995

𝑊5
Landing = 𝑊4
= 0.995

COMPUTATIONS

(a). Total mass of crew and payload

= (mass of baggage) + 4(mass of each passenger and his/her luggage) + 1(mass of

crew and his/her carry-on)
= 300 + 4(160) + 1(120)

=1060kg

(b). Sketch of the mission Profile

𝑊3
(c). Cruise segment weight fraction;
𝑊2

Breguet Range Equation

ղ
x 𝐿⁄𝐷 x In ( ) ; make In (𝑊3) In (𝑊3) =
𝑊2 𝑊2 𝑊2 𝑅𝐶 1
R= the subject; ղ 𝐿⁄𝐷
𝐶 𝑊3

Range = R = 2000km; C = 4.26 x 10-8 kg/W.s

In (𝑊3) = (2000 x 103 ) x (4.26 x 10−8 )

𝑊2 𝑅𝐶 1 1
ղ 𝐿⁄ = 0.85
x 13.5
𝐷

In (𝑊3) = 0.00742484
𝑊2

𝑊2
( ) = 𝑒 0.006824 = 1.007452
𝑊3

𝑊3
( ) = 0.9926
𝑊2
 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
(d)
𝑊𝑜

𝑊5
=
𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5
𝑊𝑜
X 𝑊1 X 𝑊2 X X
𝑊3 𝑊4
= 0.980 x 0.980 x 0.9926 x 0.995 x 0.995 = 0.9438
𝑊𝑜

𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑊5
= 1−
𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜

For 6% allowance for reserve and trapped fuel

𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑊5 6
= (1 − ) (1 + )
𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜 100

𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 1.06 (1 - 0.9438) = 0.05957
𝑊𝑜

(e) Total initial mass estimate

𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=
1060
Wo = 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 Wempty 1 − 0.05957 − 0.60
= 3113.7091kg
1− −
𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜

(f) mass of fuel required

W𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Wfuel = x Wo = 0.05957 x 3113.7091 = 185.48365kg
𝑊𝑜
 QUESTION 2

GIVEN DATA

W = W0 = 27000kg

Each half of the wing consist of 3 different airfoil sections therefore they have
different Cl values

Projected area of the tip section = St

Projected area of the middle section = 4.5St

Projected area of the root section = 1.5St

Stalling speed = Vstall = 350km/h = 97.222m/s

Height to clear obstacle during takeoff = H = 25m

Maximum landing distance = 1200m

J = 1.15 N = 3s 𝜇 = 0.43 𝜌 = 1.229kg/m3 𝜃a = 3o

COMPUTATIONS

(a). Lift coefficient for the wing at takeoff using a factor of 0.9
(1.15 x 1.5St)+(2.45 x 4.5St) +(1.25 x St) 14St
Clavg = 1.5St + 4.5St + St
= 7St
=2

At takeoff, when flaps are down, ∆𝐶𝑙 = 1.5

(Cl)max = 2 + 1.5 = 3.5

(CL)max = 3.5 x 0.9 = 3.15

(b). Wing loading based on Vstall

In calculating Vstall, we compute Clmax for both cases ( take off and landing ) and
select the maximum of the two values

(Cl)max = Clavg + ∆𝐶𝑙at landing = 2 + 2.05 = 4.05

(CL)max = 4.05 x 0.9 =3.645

(CL)max at takeoff = 3.15 and (CL)max at landing = 3.645, hence we use 3.645 as
the (CL)max

2 𝑊 1 1
Vstall = √𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
making w/s the subject; w/s = 2
𝜌 Vstall 2 (CL)max

𝑊 1
𝑆
= 2 X (1.229) X (97.222)2 X (3.645) = 21171.3485 N/m2

(c). Wing loading based on landing distance

Vf = 1.23V = 1.23 (97.222) = 119.58306m/s

V𝑓2 (119.58306)2
R = 0.2𝑔 = 0.2 (9.81)
= 7288.5363m

. hf = R (1 - cos𝜃a) = 7288.5363 (1 – cos (3) ) = 9.9887m

Sf = R sin 𝜃a = 7288.5363 sin (3) = 381.4525

𝐻−ℎ𝑓 25 −9.9887
Sa = tan 𝜃a = tan(3)
= 286.4327m

𝑊
2 𝑊 1 𝑗2 2 𝑊 1
Sg = j N √ + 𝑆
= (1.15) 3 √ +
𝜌 𝑆 (𝐶𝐿)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑔 𝜌 (𝐶𝐿)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜇 1.229 𝑆 3.645
𝑊
(1.15)2
𝑆
9.81 𝑋 1.229 𝑋 3.645 𝑋 0.43

𝑊 𝑊
Sg = 2.3052 √ 𝑆 + 0.07 𝑆

𝑊
Let X = √ 𝑆

Also; Landing distance = Sg + Sa + Sf

1200 = Sg + 286.4327 + 381.4525; Sg = 1200 - 286.4327 - 381.4525 = 532.1148m

Sg = 532.1148 = 2.3052X + 0.07𝑋 2

2.3052X + 0.07𝑋 2 - 532.1148 = 0

𝑊
X = 72.2629; 𝑆
= (72.2629)2 = 5221.9267 N/m2

𝑊
𝑆
= 5221.9267 N/m2
(d). Overall wing loading for the aircraft
𝑊
= 5221.9267 N/m2 ( wing loading based on landing distance)
𝑆

(e). Wing area

𝑊𝑜 27000 𝑋 9.81
S= 𝑊 = = 50.7227m2
5221.9267
𝑆
 QUESTION 3

GIVEN DATA

Wing area = S = 180m2

Mass of aircraft at takeoff = Wo = 6400kg

Mass of aircraft at mid cruise speed = Wmc = 5700kg

Maximum velocity at Cruise = Vmax = 650km/h = 180.5556m/s

Cruise altitude = 14.55km = 14550m

Rate of climb at sea level = R/Csea level = 45m/s

Cd0 = 0.017 K = 0.075 (L/D)max = 15 Efficiency = ղ = 90% = 0.9

COMPUTATIONS

(a). Density of air at cruise altitude = h = 14.55km = 14550m

Let: h1 = 14500m 𝜌1 = 2.1065 X 10-1 kg/m3 (these values were obtained

from ISA table)

h2 = 14600m 𝜌2 = 2.0737 X 10-1 kg/m3

h = 14550m 𝜌=?
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑃 − 𝑃1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
ℎ2 − ℎ1
= ℎ− ℎ1
𝜌 = 𝜌1 + (h – h1) [ℎ2 − ℎ1
]

2.0737 X 10−1 − 2.1065 X 10−1

𝜌 = 2.1065 X 10-1 + (14550 -14500) [ 14600 − 14500
]

𝜌 = 0.20901

𝜌 = 2.0901 X 10-1 kg/m3

(b). Wing Loading at the mid-cruise speed
𝑊𝑚𝑐 5700 𝑥 9.81
= = 310.65 kgm-1s-2
𝑆 180

(c). Power required to meet mid-cruise speed requirement

𝑇 1 𝐶𝑑0 2𝐾 𝑊𝑚𝑐
= 𝜌 V2 𝑊𝑚𝑐 + X
𝑊𝑚𝑐 2 𝜌 𝑉2 𝑆
𝑆

𝑇 1 0.017 2(0.075)
𝑊𝑚𝑐
= 2 (2.0901 X 10-1) (180.5556)2 (310.65) + (2.0901 𝑋 10−1 ) (180.5556)2 X (310.65)

𝑇
𝑊𝑚𝑐
= 0.1933 ms-2

(c) Finding power (Pr = power required, Pa = power available)

Pr = TV
𝑇
But Vmax at mid cruise Pr = 𝑊𝑚𝑐
𝑊𝑚𝑐 x Vmax

Pr = 0.1933 x (5700x9.81) x 180.5556

Pr = 1951581.443

Pr = 1.951581443 X 106 Kgm2s-3

Pr = 1.951581443 X 106 watts

𝑃𝑟 1951581.443
But Pa = ղ
= 0.9
= 2168423.825

Pa = 2.168423825 X 106 watts

 QUESTION 4

GIVEN DATA

Tricycle landing gear configuration

Maximum Gross weight = Wo = 106000kg

Length of Mean Aerodynamic Chord = c̅ = 2.3m

The nose landing strut shall have two tyres

The main landing strut shall have two pairs of tyres

COMPUTATIONS

(a). Horizontal distance M

55% of MAC

Let's assume the Aft Center of gravity is in line with the leading edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord

M = 55% of MAC = 0.55 x 2.3 = 1.265

M = 1.265m

(b). Finding the distance D

(%) Percentage of aircraft weight on the main landing gears = 92% = 0.92

0.92 x 106000 = 97520kg

= 97520 x 9.81 = 956671.2N

(%) Percentage of aircraft weight on the nose landing gear = 8% = 0.08

0.08 x 106000 = 8480kg

= 8480 x 9.81 = 83188.8N

Taking moments about the Aft C. G

M x 956671.2 = (D – M) x 83188.8

1.265 x 956671.2 = (D – 1.265) x 83188.8

 1210189.068 +105233.832
D= 83188.8
= 15.8125m

(c). Total Static Load on the Nose landing gear

𝐷−𝑁 15.8125 −(15.8125 − 1.265)
Wnose = w ( 𝐷
) = 106000 x ( 15.8125
)

Wnose = 8480kg

= 8480 x 9.81 = 83188.8N

(d). Total Static load on the main landing gear

𝐷−𝑚 15.8125 − 1.265
Wmain = w ( 2𝐷
) = 106000 x ( 2 x 15.8125
)

Wmain = 48760kg

= 48760 x 9.81 = 478335.6 N

(e). Maximum breaking nose gear load

a = 3.4ms-2
𝑚x𝑎 x 𝐽 106000 x 3.4 x 2
Wb = 𝐷
= 15.8125
= 45584.1897N

Nose gear load = max. static nose load + brake load transfer

Nose gear load = 83188.8 + 45584.1897 = 128772.9897N

(f) Growth factor = 25%

Assumption

To avoid costly redesign as the aircraft weight fluctuates during the design phase and
to accommodate future weight increase due to anticipated growth, the calculated
loads are factored upward before selecting the tyres. Therefore, we use a growth
factor of 25%

The specifications require two tyres on each main landing struct and two tyres on the
nose landing struct. These tyre loads are as follows;
478335.6
Main gear tyre load = 4
= 119583.9N
 83188.8
Nose gear tyre static load = = 41594.4N
2

128772.9897
Nose gear breaking load = 2
= 64386.4949N

With 25% growth factor

25
Main gear tyre load = 119583.9 (1 + 100) = 149479.875N

25
Nose gear tyre static load = 41594.4 (1 + ) = 51993N
100

25
Nose gear tyre breaking load = 64386.4949 (1 + 100) =80483.1186N

(g). Load factor = N = 3

Total load = N x static load

Nose gear tyre static load = 3 x 83188.8(1.25) = 311958N

For total Nose gear tyre breaking load = 3 x 128772.9897(1.25) = 482898.7114N

(h). Load factor = N = 4.2

Total load = N x static load

= 4.2 x 478335.6(1.25) = 2511261.9N

 QUESTION 5

GIVEN DATA

Wing area = Sw = 16.5m2

Aspect Ratio of main wing = ARw = 7.2

Taper Ratio = 𝜆 = 0.35

Horizontal tail distance from C G of the aircraft = LHT = 5.22m

Vertical tail distance from C G of the aircraft = LVT = 4.88m

Horizontal tail volume ratio = VHT = 0.7

Vertical tail volume ratio = VVT = 0.04

Aspect ratio of Horizontal tail = ARHT = 7.2

Aspect ratio of Vertical tail = ARVT = 1.5

Taper ratio = 𝜆 𝑇 = 0.5

COMPUTATIONS

(a). For the main wing

(i). Semi span (half of the wing)

𝑏2
AR = b = √𝐴𝑅 . 𝑆 = √7.2 x 16.5 = 10.8995m
𝑆

𝑏 10.8995
Semi span = 2 = 2
= 5.4498m

(ii). Root chord length of the wing

𝐶
𝜆 = 𝐶𝑡 𝐶𝑡 = 𝜆 𝐶𝑟
𝑟

𝑆 𝑏 𝐶𝑟 + 𝐶𝑡
Area of half of the wing = 2
= 2
( 2
) 2S = b ( 𝐶𝑟 + 𝐶𝑡 ) but 𝐶𝑡 = 𝜆 𝐶𝑟

2𝑆
2S = b 𝐶𝑟 (1+ 𝜆 ) 𝐶𝑟 = b(1+ 𝜆 )
 2(16.5)
𝐶𝑟 = 10.8995(1+ 0.35 )
= 𝑪𝒓 = 2.2427m

(iii) Tip chord length of the wing

𝐶𝑡 = 𝜆 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑡 = 0.35 x 2.2127 = 0.7849m

(iv) Location of mean aerodynamic chord from the root ( 𝑦̅ ) and the length of the
mean aerodynamic chord ( 𝑐̅ )
𝑏 1 + 2𝜆 10.8995 1 + 2(0.35)
𝑦̅ = 6
( 1+𝜆 ) = 6
( 1 + 0.35
) ̅ = 2.2875m
𝒚

2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 2 1 + 0.35 + 0.352
𝑐̅ = 3 𝐶𝑟 ( 1+𝜆
) = 3
(2.2427) ( 1 + 0.35
) 𝒄̅ = 1.6308m

(b). Horizontal Tail Wing

(i) Semi span

𝑉𝐻𝑇 . ̅𝐶 . 𝑆 0.7(1.6308)(16.5)
SHT = 𝐿𝐻𝑇
= 5.22
= 3.6084

bHT = √𝑆𝐻𝑇 . 𝐴𝑅𝐻𝑇 = √(3.6084)(7.2) = 5.0971m

𝑏𝐻𝑇 5.0971
2
= 2
= 2.5486m

(ii) Root Chord

2𝑆𝐻𝑇 2(3.6084)
𝐶𝑟𝑡 = (1 + 𝜆 𝑇 )𝑏𝐻𝑇
= (1+0.5)(5.0971)
= 0.9439m

(iii) Tip chord

𝐶
𝜆 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑡𝑡 ; 𝐶𝑡𝑡 = 𝜆 𝑇 . 𝐶𝑟𝑡 = 0.5 x 0.9439 = 0.472m
𝑟𝑡

(iv) Location of mean aerodynamic chord from the root ( 𝑦̅𝐻𝑇 ) and the length of the
mean aerodynamic chord ( 𝐶𝐻𝑇
̅ )
 𝑏𝐻𝑇 1 + 2𝜆 5.0971 1 + 2(0.5)
𝑦̅𝐻𝑇 = ( ) = ( ) ̅𝑯𝑻 = 1.1327m
𝒚
6 1+𝜆 6 1 + 0.5

2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 2 1 + 0.5 + 0.52
̅
𝐶𝐻𝑇 =3 𝐶𝑟𝑡 ( 1+𝜆
) = 3
(0.9439) ( 1 + 0.5
) ̅ 𝑯𝑻 = 0.7341m
𝑪

(C). Vertical Tail wing

(i). Span (height) of the vertical tail

𝑉𝑉𝑇 . 𝑏 . 𝑆 0.04(10.8995)(16.5)
SVT = 𝐿𝑉𝑇
= 4.88
= 1.4741

hVT = √𝑆𝑣𝑇 . 𝐴𝑅𝑣𝑇 = √(1.4741)(1.5) hVT = 1.487m

(ii). Root Chord length

2𝑆𝑉𝑇 2(1.4741)
𝐶𝑟 𝑉𝑇 = = 𝑪𝒓 𝑽𝑻 = 1.3218m
(1 + 𝜆 𝑇 )ℎ𝑉𝑇 (1 +0.5 )(1.487)

(iii). Tip Chord length

𝐶𝑡 𝑉𝑇
𝜆𝑇 = ; 𝐶𝑡 𝑉𝑇 = 𝜆 𝑇 . 𝐶𝑟 𝑉𝑇 = 0.5 (1.3218) 𝑪𝒕 𝑽𝑻 = 0.6609m
𝐶𝑟 𝑉𝑇

(iv) Location of mean aerodynamic chord from the root ( 𝑍̅𝑉𝑇 ) and the length of the
mean aerodynamic chord ( 𝐶𝑉𝑇
̅ )

ℎ 1 + 2𝜆 1.487 1 + 2(0.5)
𝑍̅𝑉𝑇 = 3𝑉𝑇 ( 1 + 𝜆 ) = 3 ( 1 +(0.5) ) ̅ 𝑽𝑻 = 0.6609m
𝒁

2 1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 2 1 + 0.5 + 0.52
̅
𝐶𝑉𝑇 = 3
𝐶𝑟 𝑉𝑇 ( 1+𝜆
) = 3 (1.3218) ( 1 + 0.5
) ̅ 𝑽𝑻 = 1.0281m
𝑪