Road Load and Tractive Effort

Tractive Resistance (TR)

Tractive Effort is the force exerted at the pavement to
overcome resistance to motion, termed the Tractive
Resistance, which consists of:
• Air Resistance, Wind Resistance or Drag (AR):
Depends upon the size and shape of the vehicle, its
degree of streamlining, and increases approximately as
the square of the speed.

• Rolling Resistance (RR): This depends mainly upon the

nature of the ground, the tires used and the weight of
the vehicle, and includes drive-train losses.

• Gradient Resistance (GR): This is determined by the

steepness of the hill and the weight of the vehicle.
 Air Resistance or Drag (AR)
Drag is the largest and most important aerodynamic force
encountered by cars at normal highway speeds. Overall
drag on a vehicle is a combination of:-
• Resistance of Fore body and After body (depending upon
the car’s shape), 55% - 60%
• Flow resistance of the front grille and radiator, 10% - 15%
• Air striking the outer components and car openings
(windows, side mirrors, door handles and luggage rack),
8% - 12%
• Skin friction (depend upon the car finish and the length
of the body), 8% - 10%
 Air Resistance or Drag (AR)
The aerodynamic or air resistance equation is usually
expressed as the following semi-empirical formula:
• AR = (1/2) ρ Cd Af v2
where:
• AR = air resistance [N]
• ρ = air density [kg/m3] Usually taken as 1.202 kg/m3
• Af = the car frontal area [m2]
• v = Relative velocity of car [m/s]
• Cd = Coefficient of air resistance [dimensionless]
 Air Resistance or Drag (AR)
The relative velocity between car and air (v):
• Still air: v = Vcar
• Head wind: v = vcar + vwind and v2 = (vcar + vwind)2
• Tail wind: v = vcar - vwind and v2 = (vcar - vwind)2

Car frontal area (Af):

• Af = the projected frontal area of the vehicle.
• Af ≈ 0.8 (B x H)
Air Resistance or Drag (AR)
FRONTAL AREA Af
Typical Values of CD Based on Shapes
TYPICAL VALUES OF CD
 Rolling Resistance (RR)
The other major vehicle resistance force on level ground is
the rolling resistance of the tires. At low speeds on hard
pavement, the rolling resistance is the primary motion
resistance force. For off-highway, level ground operation;
the rolling resistance is the only significant retardation
force.
• The total rolling resistance is the sum of the resistance
from all the wheels:
• RR = fr w = fr m g, where:
• fr = rolling resistance coefficient (dimensionless)
• w= weight of the vehicle (N)
( m = mass, g = gravitation constant)
 Coefficient of Rolling Resistance, RR
(dimensionless)
Typical Coefficient values:
Tire and Surface Coefficient of RR
Bicycle tire on concrete 0.002
Bicycle tire on asphalt road 0.004
truck tire on asphalt 0.006 - 0.01
Car tires on concrete 0.01 - 0.015
Car tires on tar or asphalt 0.03
Car tire on solid sand 0.04 - 0.08
 Gradient Resistance (GR)
The gradient resistance depends on the angle of
the road inclination and the weight of the car.
GR = w sin θ = mg sin θ
where:
• w = weight of car (N) = mg
• θ = angle of road inclination
 Gradient Resistance (GR)
Road inclination (gradient):
• The road gradient can be described as 1 in N:
• Gradient will be (G = sin θ).
• The gradient can be written as a percentage
ie (G = sin θ = S%).
• For small angles (sin θ = tan θ)

* The road gradient on the highway usually does not

exceed 4% and on the local roads it could reach 10%-12%.
* The steepest gradient the vehicle is expected to climb
(this may normally be taken as 20%, that is 1 in 5).
 Worked Example 1:
Q. A vehicle mass is 1500 kg has a coefficient of rolling
resistance of 0.015. The transmission has a final drive ratio
4.07: 1 and overall mechanical efficiency of 85%. While
climbing a slope, the engine develops a maximum torque of
100 Nm and the rolling wheel radius is 0.27 m. Assume the
steepest gradient to be encountered is a 1 in 4. Find the gear
ratio that would be suitable to climb the slope.
Take g = 9.81m/s2

Data: Veh mass, m = 1500 kg,

RR Coefficient, fr = 0.015,
Final Drive Ratio if= 4.07:1, ηm= 85%, Max Torque Te= 100Nm
Rolling radius Wr= 0.27 m, Gradient = 1 in 4, g = 9.81m/s2
 Worked Example 1:
RR= fr w= fr mg = 0.015 x 1500 x 9.81 = 220.7 N
GR = w (1/4) = mg /4 = 1500 x 9.81/4 = 3678.8 N
• TR = AR + RR + GR = negligible + RR + GR
• = 220.7 + 3678.8 = 3899.5 N
• Tractive Effort TE = Total Resistance TR
• Te ηm ig if / Wr = 3899.5 N
• ig = (3899.5 Wr) / (Te ηm if) = 3899.5 x 0.27 /(100
x 0.85 x 4.07)
• ig = 3.04: 1 Ans
 Worked example 2:
Q. A car is moving in top gear (ig = 1) with a constant
speed of vcar = 108 km/h, against wind vwind = 9 km/h.
The car has a frontal area Af = 1.88 m2, and the
coefficient of air resistance Cd = 0.6. Calculate the air
resistance (AR), if air density is 1.2 kg/m3.
• AR = 1/2 ρ Cd Af [vcar + vwind) /3.6]2
• AR = 0.5 x 1.2 x 0.6 x 1.88 x [(108 + 9) /3.6]2 =
714.87 N Ans