10th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations (ATIO) Conference AIAA 2010-9069

13 - 15 September 2010, Fort Worth, Texas

Prediction of Process-induced Deformation in a

Thermoplastic Composite in Support of Manufacturing
Simulation.
P. Han1, J. Butterfield2, S. Buchanan3, R. McCool4, Z. Jiang5, M. Price6, A. Murphy7

School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK

Digital manufacturing techniques can simulate complex aerospace assembly sequences

using computer aided design (CAD) based, ‘as designed’ forms. The reality of working with
real parts and composite components in particular, is that geometric variability arising from
part forming or processing conditions, can cause problems during assembly as the ‘as
manufactured’ form can differ from the geometry used for any simulated build validation.
In this work a simulation strategy is presented for the study of the deformation behaviour of
a 90°, V-shaped angle manufactured using carbon fibre reinforced polyphenylene sulphide
(PPS) so that ultimately, realistic part forms can be used for simulated build validations. A
custom built thermoforming cell has been developed and used to manufacture a series of
samples to investigate the process-induced shape variation of a composite part based on a
range of fibre orientations and tooling temperatures. A series of thermoplastic composite,
90° samples were manufactured using the cell and the processing conditions were re-created
in a virtual environment and analysed using the finite element method. The simulation
outcomes were used to determine the finished part angle and a comparison of the actual part
geometries with their virtual equivalents, enabled the validation of the simulated conditions
used. The test results show that the final part angle is dependent on fibre orientation with
less deformation relative to the tooling dimensions occurring in samples where the fibre
orientation was dominant through the sample cross-section. Processing conditions also
influenced finished part dimensions as the final sample angles were found to decrease
relative to the tooling dimensions, with increasing mould temperature. The simulation
results show a good agreement with a mean difference of 4.75% when comparing simulated
part angles with those measured from the manufactured samples. A procedure was then
developed for transferring predicted part forms from the finite element outputs to the 3D
CAD for the purpose of assembly validation using digital manufacturing methods.

Nomenclature
Vf = fibre volume fraction
Tg = glass trasition temperature
Tc1 = first crystallization temperature
Tc2 = second crystallization temperature
Tm = melting temperature
ρ = density
E = modulus
_____________________
1
PhD Student, Mech & Aero Eng., Queens University Belfast
2,4,7
Lecturer, Mech & Aero Eng., Queens University Belfast
3,5
Research Fellow, Mech & Aero Eng., Queens University Belfast
6
Professor, Mech & Aero Eng., Queens University Belfast

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Copyright © 2010 by J. Butterfield. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission.
ν = poisson’s ratio
CTE = coefficient of thermal expansion
ΔθE = change of angle in experiment result
ΔθS = change of angle in simulation result

I. Introduction
I t is anticipated that composite materials will play a key role in the development of next generation transport
systems through the remainder of the 21 st century. As well as delivering key in-service performance requirements,
modern material systems must also offer more sustainable solutions to their life cycle management. The need for
more sustainable transport systems is driven by industrial and environmental requirements ranging from product
weight reduction, enhanced structural performance and energy efficient processing to the recovery and re-use of
materials or structures at the end of a product’s service life. The use of simultaneous and concurrent engineering
concepts available in manufacturing simulation software systems can play an essential role in the evaluation of
manufacturability at the initial stage of product development. Unlike traditional metallic components, composite
structures exhibit more complicated geometric behaviours based on their complex processing history as the
assembly of a structure within the material supplements the eventual assembly of parts into a completed product.
There is therefore a need for assembly process simulation methods which take account of these behaviours.
Realistic composite geometries can then be used to inform tolerance allocation during product design and
manufacturing planners are also better informed thereby improving the likelihood of achieving tolerances as parts
are formed and products are assembled.
Process-induced deformation in composite parts is a common phenomenon occurring mainly due to the uneven
stress distribution or gradient as forming forces and thermal cycles are applied during manufacture. Residual
stresses that develop in fibre-reinforced composite parts that are processed while confined to a process tool, often
lead to dimensional changes such as warpage and spring in / out when the part is de-moulded[1]. The most common
effect of residual stresses in composite products is the deformation of angled and curved parts [2]. With a typical
positional tolerance specified at ±0.2mm[3] for an aerospace application, it is important the behaviour of angular
features is understood so that it can be controlled in order to achieve the design tolerance. In terms of basic material
behaviour, the change in shape of a composite structure during cooling is the result of the materials’ anisotropy as it
shrinks during cooling. This originates from the difference in thermal behaviour between the fibre and matrix
elements. For laminated composites, the factors which influence spring-in behaviour could be attributed to tool-part
interaction, thermal and fibre volume gradients during cooling, ply stacking sequence, symmetry of lay-up,
processing conditions, environmental effects, part enclosed angle, part thickness, tool radius and so on [4].
Process-induced deformations mainly affect the dimensional control of finished components and this can lead to
increased costs as parts become more difficult and therefore more time consuming to fit in place during assembly.
Bottom lines can be affected as manufacturers require concessions leading to price reductions or in critical cases
manufacturers have to absorb costs as non-compliant parts are scrapped[5]. Take the spring-in deformation of angled
parts for example, the change of the enclosed angle of a 90° corner section relative to the original mould dimension,
is nearly 1° to 3° for continuous fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) composites [6]. If no allowance is made for this
shape variation during assembly through the use of fixturing or shims for example, then there will be problems in
achieving design tolerances. Alternatively the prediction of the final part angle using the methods presented here
would enable the designer to tailor the material system or processing conditions to control the angle to within the
required tolerance.
Compared to thermosetting systems, whose deformation behaviour has been widely studied [7], thermoplastic
composites have a relatively high melting temperature (280°C for PPS) [8] and a high melt viscosity (1400Poise at
310°C/1200s-1 condition for PPS) which can cause problems with resin flow during forming. As a result, after the
forming and subsequent cooling of composite laminates from the processing temperature to the service temperature,
residual stresses arise due to the significantly higher shrinkage of the matrix compared with the fibres[2]. This type
of residual stress formation is present in all fibre-reinforced polymers, due to their inherent inhomogeneous nature [9].
Depending on the part geometry, the constitutive behaviour of the material and the forming process employed,
changing primarily 2D sheets of raw material into 3D curved geometry may lead to relatively large, undesirable
deformations[10].
Numerical modelling and simulation is becoming increasingly popular to study composite processing. This is
due in part to the increased freedom one has in terms of reinforcement geometry and distribution, interface, and

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mechanical properties, and in part due to advances in computational power and user-friendly codes[11]. The finite
element method (FEM) has been widely applied to the numerical modelling of composite thermoforming processes.
O’Bradaigh et al.[12, 13] developed a finite element formulation with a fibre inextensibility constraint for continuous
fibre composites to simulate sheet forming processes. Based on this FEM formulation, the diaphragm forming
process of uniaxial composite plies was analyzed. The macroscopic deformation mechanics was successfully
predicted by assuming a Newtonian flow for the composites. Hsiao et al.[14] developed a FEM model including flow,
heat transfer and residual stress to analyze the thermoforming process of composite laminates with woven fabric
microstructures. A global-local numerical methodology is presented to predict macroscopic and microscopic
deformation mechanics during processing.
For analysis tools, although increased complexity and detail in simulation models, such as full 3D process
simulation, typically leads to more accurate predictions, the more detailed and complex the model is, the more time
consuming it is to set-up, run, and analyze the results. Hybrid two-dimensional process / three-dimensional
structural (2D/3D) numerical analysis can be used for the modelling of composite part manufacturing, as long as the
3D structure allows appropriate division into cross-sections for the 2D process analysis. The approach avoids the
need to develop a full 3D process model, significantly reducing the computational effort yet retaining much of the
detail required for accurate analysis[5].
The objective of this work is to cover the current gap between conventional part design methods and final
assembly simulation platforms for composite components by simulating thermoplastic composite processing. The
choice of a thermoplastic based material system for this work is based on its more favourable characteristics when
considering its sustainability relative to the more commonly used thermosetting materials. In order to broaden the
structural applications for carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastics their behaviours during manufacture must be
characterised so that designers and manufacturing planners can fully understand and predict how they will perform
as they are formed and assembled. The method presented here will predict simulated ‘as manufactured’ part
geometries for a simple 90°, V-shaped angle and the approach used to transfer this data to the 3D CAD environment
for the purpose of completing an assembly simulation. This work represents the first step in a process intended to
create an additional layer of simulation methods which needs to be defined, validated and integrated within a digital
manufacturing framework to enable composite part form prediction, as shown in Figure 1.

Part Design Layer

Structure Redesign CAD Model Input

Material Reconfiguration Material

(redesign composite properties, ply thickness, ply angle…...) Configuration

Process Simulation &

Deformation Prediction

Fixture NO Tolerance
Fixture Rectify Simulation Fixture Design
Redesign Achieved?

YES
Additional Layer for Real
Part Geometry Definition
YES Is Fixture Load Required to Restore Shape
Enough to Cause Damage Structurally?

NO

NO Tolerance
Achieved?

YES

Output for Assembly Simulation Layer

Digital Manufacturing

Figure 1. Proposed Methodology for Composite Component Shape Prediction.

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 With these prediction and simulation technologies, digital manufacturing platforms will help engineers and
process planners to plan and deliver fully optimised manufacturing data for composite structures to the production
environment quickly and efficiently. Composite part forming and product assembly simulation can therefore be
included in the design process from the earliest conceptual stage ensuring high levels of part and product accuracy
through to production. To achieve this aim, a simulation method which can effectively predict deformation
behaviour of thermoplastic composite materials during manufacturing, must be established.
This paper addresses how the deformation behaviour of a V-shaped, thermoplastic composite angle can be
predicted using finite element methods. A simple angular form has been used for the work to narrow the range of
geometric influences which could affect final part shape. The simulated results have been compared to practical
tests to validate the tools and methods used. The main aim of the work is to develop a means by which virtual
methods can be used to predict the behaviour of composite parts so that more realistic part forms can be employed
during simulated build validations in a digital manufacturing environment. The work will also identify the affects of
processing parameters including material system (layup angles), tool geometry and processing conditions on the
finished dimensions of the V-shaped sample thereby informing the process of tolerance allocation for angled
features in thermoplastic composite parts as well as other design and production related decisions including mould
or fixture design.

II. Method
A Material System
A thermoplastic composite system has been chosen as the experimental material in this case because, compared
to thermosetting matrices, thermoplastics offer superior toughness and durability while offering the potential for
more cost-effective manufacturing methods[15]. Significant attributes include higher heat resistance, greater impact
strength and in the context of the current work, better recyclability relative to current composites incorporating
thermosetting polymers. The major benefits in processing thermoplastic composites compared to thermoset
composites are the unlimited shelf life, the relatively short processing time (available for rapid forming) [10], and their
ability to be remelted and reprocessed (recyclability). These advantages make them particularly attractive from both
the economic and sustainability points of view. The selection of a thermoplastic composite will in turn support the
application of this more sustainable material type to broader structural applications in the development of future
transport systems.
The fact that thermoplastics can be re-melted has also led to the development of novel manufacturing
technologies where materials showing voids or defects can be reconsolidated to eliminate the defects. Under similar
circumstances a thermoset would be rejected or scrapped. Complex three-dimensional parts can be shaped or
formed from a flat consolidated sheet[16, 17].
In this work PPS was chosen as it is emerging as a leading thermoplastic matrix material for aerospace
components[18]. Test samples were manufactured from a commercially available pre-consolidated thermoplastic
laminate system consisting of continuous carbon fibre (T300) reinforced PPS supplied by TenCate Advanced
Composites (material trade name, CETEX® PPS).

B Sample Design
The deformation behaviour of a composite part during processing is relatively complex, as described section 1.
The factors which influence the deformation of the laminate could be attributed to processing conditions (thermal
and mechanical), material configuration (material properties, ply stacking sequence and symmetry of lay-up), and
part-tool shape[2, 4]. To study the deformation related to forming mould temperature and ply lay-up, a simple 90°,
angled component was chosen as the demonstrator geometry for this work, see Figure 2. This test sample
configuration was chosen to eliminate other geometric factors such as curvature, on finished part shape. The
performance of the part during forming was based simply on the final angle of the finished sample relative to the
original mould shape.
The laminate supplied by Tencate consisted of 6 plies of woven 5 harness satin CF reinforcement embedded in a
PPS matrix, consolidated to 50% fibre volume fraction (V f). Samples used for the experiment cut from the laminate
measured 100mm 15mm wide by 1.86mm thick. Two different layup configurations were investigated. These were
[(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)]S and [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S respectively.

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 Thermoforming Trim the Edges

Figure 2. Experiment Sample from Pre-consolidated Laminate to V-shape Final Part.

C Forming Procedure
One of the major attractions to thermoplastic based composite systems is the potential rapid processing rates[19]
that they offer compared to existing thermoset systems that require much longer processing times.
Thermoforming[20, 21] is a family of process’s that can be used to process thermoplastic based composite materials by
the combined action of heat and pressure. Within this family, a variety of techniques exist which could be used to
form parts using thermoplastic composite materials. They include matched-die press forming, rubber pad press
forming, diaphragm forming, hydroforming, autoclave/vacuum forming and rubber pad press forming. In its
simplest form, thermoforming is a three stage process, involving heating of the raw material blank, coupled with
thermal de-consolidation, followed by part forming and re-consolidation in a matched tool, with the final process
step part ejection from the tool. Matched-die press forming is presently the most widely used forming technique[16].
In this work an experimental manufacturing cell was developed in-house. The manufacturing cell, as shown in
Figure 3, contains of all the major features of an industrial manufacturing setup. The system consists of a heating
station, a forming station (30kN universal testing machine) and a matched mould tooling rig. The equipment offers
full control over the process by monitoring important data such as tool temperature, composite material temperature
and forming force. This data forms essential input data in downstream computer based simulations of the process.
In this work the emphasis was on producing a demonstrator component that would allow the characterisation of the
spring in angle associated with changes in key process parameter settings, which led to the design and development
of a V-shape forming tooling, as shown in Figure 3. The matched mould tooling was designed with an open V angle
of 92°, this decision was based on previous literature where it was shown that a mould angle of 92° can produce a
finished internal angle of 90°[7].

D Processing Cycle
Different mould ‘cooling’ temperatures were employed to investigate the effect of mould temperature on the
deformation of the 90o angle of the V-shape part. Each sample configuration i.e. layup sequence was investigated at
three different mould temperatures including 170°C, 150°C and 130°C. The main purpose of this work is to
simulate different production scenarios therefore, it was important to include a range of mould cooling temperatures.
This ensured that the subsequent simulation work could echo the test conditions and their resulting affect on the
final shape of the test sample.

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 In order to consistently form the V-shape parts a processing profile (figure 4) that was guided by the
manufacturer’s instructions[22] was employed. A sample was heated in the infrared oven until reaching the forming
temperature (320°C) then transferred and indexed into the mould. The mould was subsequently closed causing the
pliable sample to take up the ‘V-shape’. The formed part was held in the mould at 2.3MPa for 180 seconds and then
removed to cool to ambient room temperature.

Press Machine

IR Oven
Forming Moulds
Top Mould

Bottom Mould

Figure 3. Thermoforming Rig Used to Form 90 o, V-shape Composite Samples.

Figure 4. Temperature Profile Measured for a Sample During Thermoforming Experiment.

E Experimental Design
Six scenarios with the two different layup configurations (section II B) and three different mould temperatures
were tested. 10 samples are made using the thermoforming rig for each scenario to decrease the influence of
random error. After forming, the composite parts were trimmed to their final shape to release the residual stress
caused by the unformed edge constraints, as shown in Figure 2. The laminate sample was heated between infrared
heating panels to the forming temperature of 320°C[22]. The samples were held in the oven until the centre of the
laminate reached the forming temperature this took approximately 60 seconds. Once heated, the sample was

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transferred into the forming system where it was shaped to the geometry imposed by the mould tool. The forming
pressure applied in the experiment was 2.3 MPa. The part was maintained at a constant temperature provided in the
moulds 60 – 180 seconds after transfer and before demoulding. Other aspects of the All Island program are looking
at material development and optimal processing conditions. A range of mould temperatures has been used in this
case in an attempt to encourage differing sample behaviours after de-moulding. As the main purpose of the work is
to simulate different production scenarios it was important to include a range of tooling conditions to ensure that the
subsequent simulation work could echo the test conditions and their resulting affect on the final shape of the test
sample. The different mould temperatures, 130°C, 150°C and 170°C, were chosen to cover a range between two
crystallisation temperatures of PPS, as shown in Table 1, and this can minimize the complexity caused by setting
mould temperatures across typical matrix temperatures.

Table 1. Characteristic Temperatures of Neat CETEX ® PPS[23]

Tg Tc1 Tc2 Tm
Material
(glass transition) (first crystallization) (second crystallization) (melting)
PPS 90°C 120°C 240°C 280°C

F Sample Inspection
Inspection of the final V-shape geometries was carried out using a non-contact coordinate measuring machine
(CMM). Both the inner surface and outer surface angles were measured for each sample. For each side, the angle
was calculated using two planes which were defined using 20 sample points on each surface. This facilitated the
accurate determination of the sample angle avoiding the possibility of errors arising from single angular
measurements which would have been possible using a vernier protractor for example. The measurement of
multiple surface points also facilitated the creation of 3D CAD models representing the test samples.

G Simulation Model Set Up

A 2D approach has been applied to the analysis used for part shape prediction using COMPRO which is a
commercially available simulation platform. It is equipped with capabilities which enable the consideration of
process parameters as a part is formed so that final geometric form can be determined. Primarily developed for
thermosetting material systems, the analysis in this case was modified to take account of the thermoplastic properties
of the test material. Hybrid 2D process / 3D structural simulations were used to model the composite part forming
process. Compared to a full 3D finite element analysis, this method required significantly less computational effort
both in terms of modelling and processing. As there are no lateral constraints at the corner of the V-shape, the 2D
process analysis was considered to be a valid representation of the relatively narrow sample.
In order to perform a simulation using COMPRO, a detailed problem description is needed by the code. The
input information required to model a given problem include 6 aspects. For each of them, there is a corresponding
COMPRO input file which must be created to fully describe the model. After having generated the required input
files it is necessary to specify the group of input files which form the simulation project, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Project Configuration with Input Files in COMPRO Environment.

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 The modules used to create the COMPRO simulation model are listed below.
1) Mesh Model
The mesh which was constructed using 2D plane strain elements which were modelled to represent the
experimental sample and mould shape, see Figure 6. As the cross section is symmetric, only half of the section was
modelled.

V-shape Composite Part

Symmetry Line

Moulds

Figure 6. Finite Element Model Representing One Half of the V-shape Test Sample.

2) Layup Definition
For each composite material region, the number, thickness, and orientation of the plies within that region must
be defined.
3) Process Cycle
In order to simulate the forming condition used for the experiment, a batch of simulations were executed with
different process cycle models and ply layup configurations which reflect the range of experimental mould
temperatures and fibre orientations detailed earlier in this section. The process cycle model simulating the
experiment is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Process Modelled in COMPRO for Sample Forming Conditions.

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 4) Boundary Condition
A description of the pressure, heat transfer and mechanical boundary and initial conditions.
5) Program Control
Certain fundamental program control information must be provided for a COMPRO run. These control
parameters will inform the program how the solution is to proceed, what is to be solved for and what outputs are
required.
6) Material Properties
One of the most important group of input parameters for the COMPRO model is the set of materials assigned to
the various regions in the model. The material model indicates which materials are to be used in each of the model
regions and descripts the properties to be associated with each material. A large number of different types of
material properties are required by the various computational modules of COMPRO. For composite materials, as
shown in Figure 8, the required properties include:
Density
Specific Heat
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Elastic Properties
Cure Kinetics
Fibre Volume Fraction and Viscosity
Fibre Bed Properties
Matrix Elastic Properties
Cure Shrinkage
Typical properties for the CF/PPS material model at room temperature are shown in Table 2.

Figure 8. Composite Material Properties Modelling in COMPRO.

Table 2. Typical Properties for CF/PPS[23]

Name ρ (kg/m3) E (GPa) ν CTE (E-6/°C)
231 8 27.3 -0.41 4.99
CF 1780 0.256
(long.) (trans.) (shear) (long.) (trans.)
3.8 2.965 1.2
PPS 1350 0.36 52.2
(tensile) (compressive) (shear)

H Data Transfer to CAD Environment

The deformed part shape predicted using the simulation was transferred to the CATIA CAD environment via a

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visual basic interface, using the steps shown in Figure 9. The points shown in Figure 9(a), were located using the
post formed nodal positions from the finite element model processed using COMPRO. Splines and lofts were then
fitted to the points and surfaces were extruded from the sectional data. The upper and lower surfaces were then
simply blended to form a solid Cad model. This shows how simulated part forms could be transferred to the digital
environment for the purpose of assembly validation in digital manufacturing techniques.

a) Simulated Result b) Fitted Splines

c) 2D Surface d) 3D Solid Part Definition

Figure 9. Simulation of Predicted Deformed Part Shape Modelled in CAD Environment.

III. Results
A Finished sample Angles
The final sample angles are shown in Figure 10. For parts formed using the [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)] S ply
orientations, the parts cooled from an initial mould temperature of 170°C were closest to the intended 90 o part angle
(90.53° average angle), followed by the 150°C (90.66° average angle), and 130°C (91.15° average angle), conditions
in sequence. For samples with the [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)] S ply orientations, the samples cooled from an initial mould
temperature of 150°C were closest to the intended 90° part angle (90.05o average angle), followed closely by the
170°C (89.90° average angle), and 130°C (90.22° average angle), conditions in sequence. These results also show
that the [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S ply orientation will result in a sample angle which has less variability across
temperatures than the [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)] S configuration. This is also illustrated in Figure 11 where the
[(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S sample angles across the three temperature. The mould temperature of 150 oC with a ply
configuration of [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S will give a finished part angle which is closest to the required 90 o. These
outcomes illustrate the importance of deformation prediction in composite part manufacturing. The different
combinations of material and processing conditions tested here, have resulted in final part angles ranging from less
than 1° to more than 2°. The [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)] S laminate with 150°C mould temperature should be applied if the
design intent for the V-shape angle is 90°. It can therefore be concluded that the final part dimension can be
controlled by using the material configuration and mould the temperature when using the current thermoforming rig.

B Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Measurements

The degree of crystallinity (DoC) of the formed CF/PPS V-shape component was also inspected through
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). This was carried out to examine the crystallinity level within the polymer
matrix which is affected by the cooling rate and is an important processing condition affecting residual stress
formation[9]. For this work, although the mould temperature can be set as constant, the cooling rates during both
cooling stages (forming temperature to mould temperature and mould temperature to room temperature) are not fully

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controlled. The DSC results show all the samples formed by different mould temperatures crystallize at a similar
level (~26%).

Figure 10. Measured V-shape Angle for Three Mould Temperatures and Two Layup Configurations.

Figure 11. Change in V-shape Angle Relative to original Mould Angle.

C Simulation of 90o Sample Forming Process

The results of the simulations carried out to re-create virtually, the test conditions for the sample forming
processes, are shown in Table 3. These results again demonstrate that deformations will arise for the composite
angles as they are formed and that the shape variation is dependent on material configuration and processing

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conditions.

Table 3. Simulated Part Deformations Predicted Using COMPRO

Ply Orientation [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)]S [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S
Mould Temperature 130°C 150°C 170°C 130°C 150°C 170°C
Deformed V-shape Angle 91.07° 90.547° 90.478° 90.207° 90.052° 90.023°
Change of Angle 0.93° 1.453° 1.522° 1.793° 1.948° 1.977°

A comparison of the experimental and simulated results is presented in Figure 12 and Table 4. With a less than
5% mean relative error across all cases, the simulation predicted deformation is in general agreement with the
experimental results detailed in the previous section. The largest difference between experimental and simulated
results was 9.28% for the [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)] S layup configuration at the 130°C mould temperature whereas the
simulation outcome for the [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)] S configuration was within 0.26% of the experimental result for a
mould temperature of 150°C.

Figure 12. Comparison of the Experimental and Simulated Deformation Results.

Table 4. Comparison of the Experimental and Simulated Deformation Results

Ply Orientation [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)]S [(±45)/(0,90)/(±45)]S
Mould Temperature 130°C 150°C 170°C 130°C 150°C 170°C
Change of Angle in
0.851° 1.336° 1.473° 1.777° 1.953° 2.102°
Experiment (ΔθE)
Change of Angle in
0.93° 1.453° 1.522° 1.793° 1.948° 1.977°
Simulation (ΔθS)
Relative Error
9.28% 8.76% 3.33% 0.90% 0.26% 5.95%
(|(ΔθS- ΔθE)/ ΔθE|)

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 IV. Discussion
The need for more sustainable transport systems is driven by industrial and environmental requirements ranging
from product weight reduction, enhanced structural performance and energy efficient processing to the recovery and
re-use of materials or structures at the end of a product’s service life. Although digital manufacturing technologies
are available which can reduce product development time and cost while maintaining or increasing product quality,
published material on their merits is based heavily on metallic based part manufacture and assembly. Research
material on the consideration of composite components and how part variability between the ‘as designed’ and ‘as
manufactured’ forms can be managed digitally, is less widely published. The need for more sustainable transport
systems in the future emphasised more recently by dramatic increases in energy and fuel costs, is driving the
development and use of lighter materials and it is anticipated that composites will play an essential role in the
development of next generation transport systems through the remainder of the 21 st century. The use of advanced
composite materials in modern civil aircraft has increased rapidly because of their net performance advantages in
weight and cost over conventional metallic alternatives. Extensive basic research on composite materials over the
last three decades has promoted understanding of their basic properties. Nowadays, new composite material
systems, as well as delivering key in-service performance requirements, must also offer more sustainable solutions
to their life cycle management because of the change in modern design and manufacturing methods.
The experimental results arising from this work demonstrate that, even for a simple thermoplastic composite
structure, there is a significant process induced deformation ranging from 0.851° to 2.102° in a 90° sample. This
behaviour is difficult to predict using theoretical calculations[24]. The composites’ anisotropy in shrinkage
behaviour, originating from the difference in thermal expansion behaviour of the fibres and the matrix, during
thermal processing cycle is the fundamental reason for the part deformation [25-27]. For different layup configurations
with the same processing conditions, the mismatch between carbon fibre and PPS matrix shrinkage through the
sample thickness, is similar as they have the same number of plies and fibre volume fraction. The out-of-plane
contraction for the laminates is much larger than the in-plane contraction[25], as shown in Figure 13. Therefore, the
reason for less deformation with [(0,90)/(±45)/(0,90)] S layup samples should be the predomination of fibres along
the length of the V-shape part which bear the out-of-plane contraction stress.

a) b)
Figure 13. Schematic of the Spring-forward Phenomenon.[4]
a) before consolidation, in-plane contraction is represented by the dotted arrows, and out- of-plane contraction
by the solid arrows; b) after consolidation and cooling from the processing temperature

Meanwhile, the influence of mould temperature on the deformation is more dependent on the composite’s
thermal properties. Because all of the samples have similar cooling rates during processing, the deformation caused
by the thermal shrinkage through the range of temperatures as the samples cool. As all the three sets of tests used
here, set the mould temperature above the sample’s softening temperature, the residual stress arose during the
shrinkage from forming temperature to mould temperature, can still be largely relieved during the forming stage
when the part is confined to the mould. After demoulding, the part will deform because of the thermal shrinkage
during the cooling from mould temperature to room temperature. The samples formed using the 170°C mould
temperature will generate largest the shrinkage when cooling down to room temperature, followed by 150°C and
130°C respectively. Therefore for the same ply orientation, the final bend angles decrease with increasing mould
temperature. However, there is still some deformation which occurs instantaneously as the sample is removed from
the mould and the full principle for the composite part shape variation is sophisticated.
The affects of mould temperature and layup configuration on final part form in the experiment show that less
deformation arise in samples where fibre orientation is dominant along the angle cross-sectional direction and more
deformation arise in samples where a higher mould temperature has been used. In most circumstances, ignoring

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process variants by using the nominally sized CAD model for build validation, could cause a tolerance failure and
costly redesign if mal-formed composite parts make it as far as the assembly environment. An example with
previous experiment V-shape case is shown in Figure 14. The ‘as designed’ form includes nominally sized features
with perfect 90o angles. The simulated CAD form however, now takes into account processing conditions and
material configuration and in predicting the final part angles, is more representative of the final ‘as manufactured
form. The application of the 90° experimental geometry in the formation of a rib section shows that the slight
variation in the angular pieces has meant that the assembly requirement for the angles to be placed back to back is
not possible without the use of fixturing to force the components into the required position. It is at this stage that the
designer can re-run his simulation to obtain optimal part forms by changing process parameters. Alternatively if
fixturing is the only solution, the designer can examine the affect of fixturing forces on the parts so that the assembly
can be completed with minimal impact on any residual forces on the components.
The fundamental motivation for this work comes from the growing need to develop advanced structural
composite applications in a digital manufacturing environment. Furthermore, the function of digital manufacturing,
in simulating and validating product manufacturability, is based on the prerequisite that the digital models used in
the software systems represent realistic part forms. As a typical feature of composite part manufacture is process
induced shape variation, there is a need for assembly process simulation methods which can predict realistic
composite geometries for design purposes which can be delivered to the digital environment for component build
validation during assembly planning.

Figure 14. Assembly Problem Caused by Unexpected Part Deformation in Compsite Rib Section.

This work has achieved this aim by proving that the simulated part performance for a simple 90° sample can be
predicted accurately using FE methods. The FE outcomes can be translated into 3D part definitions which in turn
can be delivered to the digital manufacturing environment. The relationship between layup configuration and mould
tool temperature has also been established.
As the experimental and simulation based work for this paper has focused on simple V-shape angle part, future
work will look at more complex part geometries to extend the method into more practical applications. Other
simulation tools will also be used to overcome simulation limitations, such as the creation of accurate contact
conditions, with COMPRO which was originally designed for thermoset composite simulation.

V. Conclusions
The work shows how manufacturing simulation techniques which have been used mainly for metallic based
component assembly, can be extended to composite applications facilitating the use of realistic part form predictions

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for build validation simulations. An effective simulation method is been established to predict the deformation
behaviour of thermoplastic laminate composite as it is thermoformed. A comparison with a range of physical tests
has shown that at worst, the simulated results for the prediction of the finished angle in a simple 90° angle are within
5% of the practical test measurements. By transferring predicted results to CAD environment, this method can
deliver ‘as manufactured’ part shape to digital manufacturing system for more realistic assembly validation.

Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the Department for Education and Learning (DEL) for funding the All Island
programme as well as the China Scholarship Council for its financial support. We also acknowledge the
contribution of Convergent Manufacturing Technologies Inc. in providing the COMPRO package which was used to
carry out the simulation work for this paper.

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