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Modelling and simulation of steam turbine processes: Individual models for

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Article  in  Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Dynamical Systems · December 2008

DOI: 10.1080/13873950802384001

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Journal: Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Dynamical Systems
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes
Article Type: full paper

Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes:

Individual Models for Individual Tasks
GERTA ZIMMER*

Siemens Power Generation, P11M3, Postbox 101755, D-45466 Mülheim, Germany

Abstract:

Within power plants several physical, chemical, and mechanical processes are conducted to transfer the
energy, stored in fossil fuel, into electrical energy. This energy conversion is divided into several stages.
Hitherto the largest conventional power plants employ steam turbines as prime movers to drive a generator.
Hence a steam turbine is one module to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. And thus it is one link in
the chain of energy conversions with the aim of generating electrical energy.

Today, steam turbine industry faces numerous challenges concerning efficiency, commissioning time, start-up
times, operation, availability, safety, cost effectiveness, etc. Many of these tasks can be supported by
simulating the transient operational behavior of the turbine in advance. For example the commissioning time
can be shortened if the turbine controllers are initialized with well-tuned pre-set parameters, cost effectiveness
can be increased by setting aside unnecessary devices and exactly determining material specifications, safety
may be increased by predicting the impacts of failures and thus taking the necessary precautions.

Different tasks require different details regarding the employed turbine simulation model. Thus, the turbine
controller may be well tuned with less complex simulation models of turbine, generator and electrical grid,
whereas detailed studies of failures, mainly the transient behavior which mal lead to serious damages, may
require detailed modeling of the turbine-internal thermodynamic processes.

Here a brief overview of models which simulate the transient thermodynamic behavior of a steam turbine is
presented. Three different approaches will be introduced and compared with respect to different operating
situations. Here special attention is directed towards the time dependence of critical states, mainly turbine
speed and pressure development in certain areas. The first model is based on a simple, linear approach and is
suitable of giving a quick overview. The second one incorporates more details and is useful if the operating
point is close to the design point. Finally, the last model incorporates mass and energy balances as well as the
major nonlinearities. Hence it depicts the turbine behavior over a large range of operating points.

Keywords: steam turbine, transient behavior, thermodynamic model, dynamic simulation

AMS Subject Classification: 00A69, 37M05, 68U20, 80A20, 93A30, 93C15, 93C83

*
Corresponding author. E-mail: gerta.zimmer@siemens.com
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

00A69 General applied mathematics

37M05 Simulation
68U20 Simulation
80A20 Heat and mass transfer, heat flow
93A30 Mathematical modeling (models of systems, model-matching, etc.)
93C15 Systems governed by ordinary differential equations
93C83 Control problems involving computers (process control)

1. Introduction

A steam turbine is a module to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. The principal task in operating a
steam turbine is to convert the energy of hot steam into rotational energy. Thus it is one link in the chain of
energy conversions with the aim of generating electrical energy.
In order to produce electrical energy, a series of energy conversions are conducted in fossil-fired power
plants. Firstly, chemical energy stored in the form of fuel and oxygen is transformed into thermal energy by
the process of combustion. In a second step, the heat energy is used to produce superheated steam where the
(potential) energy is stored as steam enthalpy. Turbines are used to transform this potential energy into
mechanical energy. Here, hot steam with up to 300 bar and 600°C is condensed to approximately 0,03 bar
and 25°C. The released energy is transformed into rotational energy, which in turn drives a generator.
Finally, the generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy which is available as electric
current.
Today, the steam turbine industry faces numerous challenges concerning efficiency, commissioning time,
start-up times, operation, availability, safety, cost effectiveness, etc. Many of these tasks can be supported
by simulating the operational behaviour of the turbine in advance. For example, the commissioning time can
be shortened if the turbine controllers are initialized with well-tuned pre-set parameters, cost effectiveness
can be increased by setting aside unnecessary devices and exactly determining material specifications,
safety may be increased by predicting the impacts of failures and thus taking the necessary precautions.
Different tasks require different details regarding the employed turbine simulation model. Thus, the turbine
controller may be well tuned with less complex simulation models of turbine, generator and electrical grid,
whereas detailed studies of failures may require detailed modelling of the turbine-internal thermodynamic
processes.
In many applications it is necessary to study the transient behaviour. For example, at a load reception, the
turbine speed rises and has to be intercepted through closing the steam admitting control valves. In this
situation, it is important to know the speed transient in order to determine the necessary reaction time of the
protection system, as well as the resulting peak, the maximum overspeed.
Whereas the transient behaviour of a steam turbines rotational and electrical devices have long been
thoroughly studied, thermodynamic properties of a steam turbine are mainly investigated at steady state
operating points. Only a small number of publications deal with the modelling of transient thermodynamic
behaviour, see [1,2,3] e.g.

2. General Set-up

In general, a steam power plant consists of a steam generator (or boiler), the steam turbine itself and a
condenser. Steam with high pressure is produced in the boiler by heating water, which was previously
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

compressed by feedwater pumps, and is then continuously expanded in the turbine until it reaches
condenser pressure and enthalpy. Power transfer from steam to the rotating shaft, and thus to the generator,
is realized by leading the steam alternately through guide wheels, which are fixed to the casing and rotating
wheels, attached to the shaft. A guide wheel together with the corresponding rotating wheel is called a stage.
Due to the ample increase in volume during the expansion, it is not desirable to conduct the complete
expansion in a single turbine. Therefore, in general, several stages are combined to a turbine section. Steam
transition from one section to another gives the opportunity to spread the steam to two flows or to several
identical sections. In general, expansion is divided into high- (HP), intermediate- (IP) and low-pressure (LP)
sections.
In order to increase efficiency, a re-heater is located between the high- and intermediate pressure sections.
At the entrance of the high- as well as of the intermediate-pressure section, the admittance of steam may be
controlled by appropriate control valves.
Finally, the steam turbine controller, or governor, and the protection system supervise the interactions
between demands, internal states and admissible limits.
Figure 1 gives an overview of the elements involved.

steam boiler
generator reheater electric
grid
direction
of flow
control valve

HP IP LP
generator

condenser
turbine p
p
governor n
P

'external requirements'

Figure 1: Elements of a steam turbine power plant - general set-up

All other parts of a steam power plant, e.g. the remaining devices of the steam-water-cycle, boiler control,
generator control and electrical devices, will be neglected in this context.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

From a control point of view, the steam turbine can be regarded as a multi dimensional control system
whose inputs are the lift of the main steam valve, hMV, and reheat valve, hRV, respectively. Outputs are some
internal pressure values pi, the shaft velocity (i.e. the turbine speed n) and the forcing torque tf. The later is
not directly measurable. Instead, the power output P has to be utilized.
The thermodynamic state of the steam at the steam generator outlet as well as inside the condenser together
with the grid frequency depicts the external coupling.
The focus of the subsequent investigation is to determine the necessary level of detail for a model of the
thermodynamic part of the turbine, i.e. the expansion sections between the boiler an the condenser. Firstly, a
general frame was developed to model the boiler, condenser, shaft, generator and turbine governor.
Secondly, differently detailed models of the thermodynamic parts were developed and connected to the said
frame. Thus, the effects of the different thermodynamic models can be studied individually.
Roughly, a steam turbine generates power with the Clausius-Rankine-Process, expanding steam from high
temperature ϑin and high pressure pin to low temperature ϑout and low pressure pout. This expansion is
associated with a loss of specific enthalpy, Δh = hin - hout . The thermodynamic power output of a turbine,
Pth, is directly proportional to the steam mass flow m& and the enthalpy drop Δh
Pth = Δh m& .
Ideal expansion is isentropic, i.e. without any change in the entropy s, see figure 2.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes
300bar 100bar 30bar 10bar 3bar
4000

h (kJ/kg)

600°C

1bar
3600

500°C

400°C

3200 0.3 bar

300°C

200°C 0.1 bar

2800
0.05 bar
100°C

0.02 bar

x=1

x=0.95
2400

x=0.9

x=0.8 x=0.85
6 7 8 S (kJ/kg.K)
Figure 2: Expansion in a steam turbine; - - - ideal expansion; ________ real expansion

Real expansion is polytropic, i.e. with an increase in entropy. Hence

Pth = Δh poly m& = η Δhis m& .
Thus, the ‘real’ thermodynamic power output is less than the theoretical power output, the decrease is
described by the efficiency η.

3. Simulation Models

Since the effects of the different thermodynamic models with respect to predicting the transient behavior of
a steam turbine shall be studied in this paper, the following description of the simulation models is divided
into the thermodynamic description of the turbine, and into the rest of the power plant.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

3.1. Thermodynamic Turbine Models

In order to meet different needs in simulation complexity, three turbine models with different degrees of
complexity were developed.
All thermodynamic turbine models are designed as storage-throttle-systems. Hence, the internal volume of a
turbine is divided into several (steam-) storages which are linked together by throttle devices. Thus, pipes,
valves, and turbine sections are regarded as throttles, whereas the volumes of the devices represent the
storage. This general principle is sketched in figure 3.

throttle storage

steam mass flow

Figure 3: Turbine as a storage-throttle-system

The simplest approach describes the turbine as a linear system, see [1], [3] e.g. An extension takes the
nonlinearities which due to changes of thermodynamic states into account, but still abides the ideal-gas-
behaviour assumption [2]. Finally, the most rigorous model thoroughly considers mass and energy flows as
well as water-steam-properties in detail.

3.1.1. Linear Turbine Model Firstly, each turbine section is described through linear relationships. A
storage is simply viewed as a steam mass storage, hence
m ( t ) = ∫ (m& in (τ ) − m& out (τ ) ) d τ . (3.1)
Furthermore, it is assumed that the pressure in a storage is proportional to the stored mass of steam:
p(t ) = K M m(t ) = K M ∫ (m& in (τ ) − m& out (τ ) ) dτ (3.2)
(3.2) holds true for ideal gases.
Considering the overall turbine, it is widely known that - in steady state operation - the steam mass flow
through the turbine is proportional to the pressure at the first stage (inlet) and that , except at low load
conditions, the power output is almost proportional to the steam mass flow through the turbine. Generalizing
this observation to a turbine section, the following equations are derived to describe the pressure and the
steam mass flow through a turbine section.
m& out (t ) = K p p (t ) (3.3)
Assumptions (3.2) and (3.3) hold true in a wide set of steady state operating points. However, the respective
proportional constants depend on the particularly chosen operating point.
Considering a control valve, steam mass flow through the valve not only depends on the pressure in front of
the control valve, but also on the valve lift and on the pressure behind the valve. Since the valves considered
here are always in front of a turbine section, equation (3.3) holds true for the turbine section subsequent to
the respective valve. Furthermore, it is known (see (3.8), next subsection) that at fixed valve lift and fixed
pressure ratio π = pb/pa, the steam mass flow m& is directly proportional to the pressure pa in front of the
valve. Therefore, the steam mass flow can be approximated by the product of the pressure in front, pa, and a
function of the valve lift hV:
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

m& V (t ) = p a (t ) * char (hV ) (3.4)

The function “char(hV)“ is called the “valve characteristic”. It depends on the mechanical design of the
valve as well as on the thermodynamic range of application. A typical valve characteristic for a control
valve is displayed in figure 4.

Figure 4: Typical control valve characteristic

In general, control valves operate with super critical as well as with sub critical pressure ratios. Figure 4
shows a linear behaviour in the lower part. This is related to a super critical pressure ratio and,
consequently, a critical discharge through the valve. At valve lifts above 25% to 30% pressure ratio as well
as discharge through the valve are sub critical. Hence comparatively large changes in the valve lift result
into relatively small changes with respect to the resulting steam mass flow.

Obviously, the simple modelling approach does not consider any effect associated with change of
temperature and heat flow, respectively.
Rewriting the derived equations as block diagrams results in the plant described by figure 5.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

Figure 5: Linear simulation model for a HP-IP-LP turbine

Control inputs of the plant are the valve lifts hMS and hRS, output is the power P. The states of the linear
model (3.1), (3.3) correspond to the stored steam masses.

3.1.2. Non Linear Turbine Model In a second approach, the idea of the storage being a mass storage
according to (3.1) is maintained, whereas the linearity in steam mass flow is abandoned. Instead, steam mass
flow is modeled according to the thermodynamic standard description, see e.g. [4]. Thus, it is distinguished
between flow through a pipe, a turbine (section) and a valve.
Let p0, v0, and m& 0 denote the steam parameters and mass flow, respectively, at a given design condition.
Assuming ideal gas properties and using T0 for the absolute temperature at design condition, the equation
pv p 0 v 0
= (3.5)
T T0
is obtained. Hence, with T = T0
pv = p 0 v 0 (3.6)
holds true. Steam mass flow through a pipe segment is described by
v 0 ,b p b − p a
m& = m& 0 sign( pb − p a )
(p − p0,a )
(3.7)
vb 0 ,b

With (3.6) , (3.7) is simplified to

pa pa − pb
m& = m& 0 sign( pa − pb ) .
p0 ,a ( p0 ,a − p0 ,b )
p 0 ,b
Let A and A0 denote the free area and the maximum free area respectively of a valve and let π 0 =
p0 ,a
denote the design pressure ratio. With the isentropic exponent κ = κ(pa,va), the critical pressure ratio is
determined through
κ
⎛ 2 ⎞ κ −1
ε cr = ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝ κ + 1⎠
and thus steam mass flow through a valve is described by
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

⎧ 2 κ +1
⎪ ⎛ pb ⎞ κ ⎛ pb ⎞ κ

⎪ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪ ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝ pa ⎠ pb
⎪ 2 κ 0 +1 , ≥ ε cr
⎪ π 0 κ0 − π 0 κ0 pa
2κ pa
⎪
A κ −1 va ⎪
m& = m& 0 ⎨
A0 2κ 0 p0,a ⎪ κ +1
(ε cr )κ − (ε cr ) κ
2

κ 0 −1 v0,a ⎪
⎪ pb
2 κ 0 +1 , < ε cr
⎪ π0 κ0 −π0 κ0 pa
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
Assuming κ ≈ κ0 and using (3.5) once again, steam mass flow through a valve may be simplified to
⎧ 2 κ +1
⎪ ⎛ pb ⎞ κ ⎛ p b ⎞ κ

⎪ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪ ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝ pa ⎠ pb
⎪ 2 κ 0 +1 , ≥ ε cr
⎪ π 0 κ0 − π 0 κ0 pa
⎪
A pa ⎪
m& = m& 0 ⎨ . (3.8)
A0 p0 ,a ⎪ κ +1
(ε cr )κ − (ε cr ) κ
2
⎪
⎪ pb
2 κ 0 +1 , < ε cr
⎪ π 0 κ0 − π 0 κ0 pa
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
According to [4], steam mass flow through a turbine section is, given by

m& = m& 0
p 0 ,a v0 ,a (p 2
a − pb2 )
(p − p02,b )
,
p a va 2
0 ,a

or, once again utilising (3.6), by

m& = m& 0
(p a
2
− pb2 )
(p − p02,b )
2
. (3.9)
0 ,a

Power output of a turbine section is the product of steam mass flow m& and enthalpy-drop Δh which in turn
is the product of the isenthalpic enthalpy drop and the efficiency, Δh = Δhs η. Using ideal gas theory once
again
⎛ κ −1
⎞
κ ⎜ ⎛ pb ⎞ κ ⎟
ΔhS = p v 1− ⎜ ⎟ .
κ − 1 a a ⎜⎜ ⎜⎝ pa ⎟⎠ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Assuming constant efficiency η ≈ η0, κ ≈ κ0, and using (3.5) once again,
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

⎛ κ 0 −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎛ pb ⎞ κ 0 ⎟
⎜ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
Δh = Δh0 ⎜⎜ ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎟ (3.10)
κ 0 −1 ⎟
⎜ ⎛ p 0 ,b ⎞ κ 0 ⎟
⎜⎜ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ p 0 , a ⎠ ⎠
is obtained. Thus with (3.9) and (3.10) the power output P is obtained as
κ 0 −1
⎛p ⎞ κ0
1 − ⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟
P = m& Δh = P0
(p a
2
− pb2 ) ⎝ pa ⎠
(p 2
0 ,a − p02,b )
⎛p ⎞
κ 0 −1
κ0
.
1 − ⎜⎜ 0,b ⎟
⎟
⎝ p0,a ⎠
Using the equations derived above, a non linear simulation model for a HP-IP-LP turbine in form of a block
diagram is developed as depicted in figure 6.

Figure 6: Non linear simulation model of a HP-IP-LP turbine

The steam flow through the re-heater was modelled as the flow through a pipe. Consequently, transient
effects of heat transfer are neglected.
Note that the derived system has the same control inputs hMS and hRS, and output P as has the linear system,
depicted in figure 5. The states of the non linear model also correspond to the stored steam masses.
Coupling to the environment is given through the steam generator pressure and the condenser pressure. Thus
through the condenser pressure the non linear model features one more ‘input’ than the linear model.

3.1.3. Rigorous Turbine Model As soon as operating conditions are considered which entail changes in
temperature, the above models will not be capable of providing reliable predictions. Hence a turbine model
is required which is capable of precisely describing the thermodynamics inside the turbine over the whole
range of relevant operating points. Since the existing turbine models [1,4] did not meet the requirements, a
rigorous model was developed by SIEMENS (patent pending). This rigorous model uses the non linear mass
flow equations (3.7) to (3.10), and considers mass as well as energy storage capacities. Hence, the mass
balance (3.1) is augmented an energy balance:
t

m(t ) = m 0 + ∫ (m&
0
in (τ ) − m& out (τ ) ) dτ

t
(3.11)
U (t ) = U 0 + ∫(
0
Q& (τ ) + m& in (τ )hin (τ ) − m& out (τ )hout (τ ) dτ )
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

In particular, the re-heater is modelled more precisely by considering the heat-flow Q& which is required to
lift a steam mass flow m& from the enthalpy ha at the entrance to the enthalpy hb at the exit. Accordingly,
this heat flow is equal to
Q& = m& (h a − hb ) .
V U
Since the specific volume is equal to v = and the specific internal energy equals u = , a complete
m m
description of the state of the steam inside the storage is obtained. That means, by using the steam-water-
tables, the properties p, v, h, x, e.t.c. are directly accessible. Hence, the storage model features mass flows as
well as energy flows, in terms of m& h or Q& , as inputs and delivers the steams thermodynamic state as the
output.
Instead of continuing to apply the simplified equations for steam mass flow through a pipe, a valve or a
turbine section, the rigorous descriptions of the throttle elements are enhanced by featuring the exact
equations (3.7), (3.8) and (3.10).
Additionally, power output of a turbine can be rendered more precisely by using
Δh poly = η Δhis with Δhis = ha − hb ,is = ha − h( p b , s ( p a , ha ) ) .
The isentropic enthalpy drop Δhis, which corresponds to the pressure drop from pa to pb, is directly accessed
via the steam water tables.
Thus, opposite to storages, throttle elements require the steam states of the neighbouring storages as inputs
and provide mass- and energy flows as outputs.
Hence, although having different internal realizations and supplying mode details, the simulation model for
the rigorous turbine description, depicted in figure 6, looks very similar to the nonlinear simulation model in
figure 7.

Figure 7: Rigorous simulation model of a HP-IP-LP turbine

Another advantage is that the rigorous description allows for modelling condensation and evaporation
without further efforts. Condensation occurs whenever energy is extracted below the condensation level, i.e.
enthalpy drops below h”(p). On the other hand, whenever energy is supplied, water starts to evaporate as
soon as the enthalpy rises above h’(p). When h”(p) is exceeded, evaporation is completed.

3.2. Remaining Components

All remaining components of the water-steam cycle and the turbine-generator, such as boiler, condenser,
turbine shaft, generator, as well as the controller- and protection-system, will be described by fairly simple
models.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

3.2.1. Boiler and Condenser Models In this context, a boiler as well as a condenser is simply a constant,
namely a pressure or a constant steam state, providing pressure and enthalpy.

3.2.2. Mechanical Devices: Shaft and Valve Model A momentum balanced system yields the equation to
determine the variation of angular velocity of the shaft
dω
Θ =∑ M f − ∑ M br . (3.12)
dt
P
Using ω = 2π n and M f = ,
ω
dn 1 ⎛ P ⎞
= ⎜ − ∑ M br ⎟
dt Θ2π ⎝ 2π n ⎠
is obtained. The braking torque Mbr consists of the frictional torque of the shaft and the torque which is due
to the generator load. The friction depends on the speed n and is determined by a plant specific
characteristic.
The mechanical part of a valve is simply described by a limited integrator. The value of the integral
corresponds to the valve lift. The integrand consequently corresponds to the velocity, which in turn is
determined by the valve controller. The valves free area is determined by a characteristic h2A(hV), which
maps the lift to the corresponding discharge area.:
d
hV = K (hd (t ) − hV (t ) )
dt
AV = h 2 A(hV )
The characteristic depends on the mechanical layout and is individual for each valve. In general, it is tried to
construct a valve with a linear characteristic, i.e. A = KV*h.

3.2.3. Electrical devices: Generator and Electrical Grid Models A simple generator model considers the
slip between turbine speed n and grid frequency f to determine the polar wheel angle ε. The generators
braking torque MG,br is the sum of a damping torque, which is proportional to the slip σ = n-f, a forcing
torque, which is proportional to the sine of the polar wheel angle, and an internal loss, which depends on the
speed n. The corresponding torque MG,f onto the electrical grid is the braking torque without the internal
losses (see [5])
ε = ∫ (n(τ ) − f (τ ) ) dτ
M G ,br = K 1 sin(ε ) + K 2 ( n − f ) + K 3 n
M G , f = K 1 sin(ε ) + K 2 ( n − f )
The electrical grid is either modeled by a constant frequency f, or by a system analogously to (3.12), which
would slowly react to unbalance in forcing and braking torques, i.e. a system with a huge inertia. The latter
model is used to study a turbine controllers response to the demand of frequency support in the electrical
grid.

3.2.4. Turbine Governor and Protection System The turbine governor controls the speed of the turbine as
well as the power output. In principle, it operates in two different modes: ramp-up and load. In the first
mode, the turbine governor solely operates as a speed controller. In the second mode, the turbine speed is
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

mainly fixed by the frequency of the electrical grid. Here the governor operates on a characteristic,
combining design speed and design load. That is, the controller mainly responds to the demands of the load
dispatcher, but also reacts automatically to maintain the design frequency of the electrical grid. In both
modes, the governor is designed as a PI-Controller.
In general, a protection system is designed to issue a trip-signal once a monitored mode leaves an admissible
area.
A turbine, however, features yet another device, a failure mode detection system. This system is mainly
designed to detect a load rejection. That is, the turbine as well as the generator are operating properly, but
the electric connection between the generator and the electrical grid has been lost. In this case, the generator
still supplies electrical energy to operate the turbine auxiliary systems, e.g. the coal mills and the pumps.
The governor has then to switch to “speed control” since the turbine speed is no longer fixed by the
frequency of the electrical grid.

3.3. Complete Power Plant Model

A complete power plant, consisting of a steam turbine, controller, valve actuators, shaft, generator and grid
coupling is modelled according to figure 8:

Figure 8: Simulation model of a HP-IP-LP power plant in SIMULINK

Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

For simplicity, the water-steam system has been neglected. Thus the condenser, which in itself represents a
complex, dynamic system, is not modelled but give as a constant steam state, i.e. pressure and enthalpy, the
same holds true for the steam generator. The complete feed water system in between is omitted.
The sub-model “HP-IP-LP turbine” can be given by either of the three previously discussed thermodynamic
turbine models. The remaining components, turbine controller, shaft, valve actuators e.t.c., remain the same,
regardless of the thermodynamic details of the utilised turbine model.
The model, lined out in figure 8, thus may be used to study the impacts of the degree of thermodynamic
details.

4. Investigated Operation and Failure Modes

The three outlined approaches to describe turbine thermodynamics as well as their range of application will
be exemplified by reference turbine models, each model built with the outlined level of detail. The
surrounding elements, shaft, generator, grid, turbine governor, and control valves, will be the same for all
three models. Different operating conditions and failure modes, respectively, will be considered and
simulated with the three differently detailed turbine models. If available, the simulation results will be
compared to actual plant data.
The level of detail which is required for standard tasks as well as some necessary failure investigations, will
be discussed.

4.1. Operational Modes

During commissioning, numerous tests are conducted and documented. Here the records of three standard
commissioning tests of a certain HP-IP-LP steam power plant were selected to compare simulation data to
turbine data.
The utilized commissioning records were provided in form of monitoring charts. Those plots not only depict
the subsequently analysed data, but also numerous other variables. Figures 8, 10 and 12 which provide the
plant data are cut-outs of the original plot. Unfortunately, the resulting quality turned out to be somewhat
poor.

4.1.1. Turbine Governor Test: Speed Control Firstly, a turbine governor test with respect to speed
control is investigated. The test is conducted by following a trajectory with two steps, nominal speed to
102% speed, and then back to nominal speed.
Figure 9 depicts details of data obtained during commissioning of a power plant. The recorded values of
turbine speed and valve lift will be compared to data obtained by simulating the according process. Since
the data are only available as a printout, the quality of the figure is a bit poor and some other data, which are
not relevant in this context, are visible as well. In order to enhance understandability, the employed data
were bolded.
Since the axes of the original diagram had to be cut, some relevant values were specified.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes
1/s

3060

turbine
speed %
15 main steam
14.6 % valve lift
3000 10

5 6.8 %

200 220 240 260 280 300 320 s 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 s

Figure 9: Turbine governor test: speed control (plant data);

left (in red) turbine speed, right (in black) corresponding main steam valve lift

Figure 10 shows the results of the turbine test procedure and simulation with the three different turbine
models.

Figure 10: Turbine governor test: speed control, simulation results

As can be seen on the left hand side of figure 10, the linear model follows the speed set points, but mirrors
the details very poorly, whereas both the non linear and the rigorous model display the real plant behaviour
regarding overshoot and settling time almost perfectly. In fact, no difference between the speed of the non
linear and the rigorous model is visible.
The fact that all three models follow the speed set-point very well is not astonishing; the speed set-point is
the controlled variable and hence included in an according feed-back loop.
Regarding the valve lift, the results of the linear model are obviously out of range. This is mainly due to the
fact that most of the assumptions made for the linear model do not hold at low load conditions.
Minor differences are noticeable in valve lift for the non linear and the rigorous approach, but the
correspondence of stationary value and overshoot regarding is still very good in both cases.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

4.1.2. Turbine Governor Test: Ramp-up Another test for the speed controller is the ramp-up of the
turbine from turning speed to design speed. Here the turbine speed has to follow a ramp. The allowable
transient is in the range of 100 – 900 rev/min². Normally, the gradient is set to values between 500 and 700
rev/min².
Figures 11 and 12 depict a turbine ramp-up from 800 rev/min to design speed of 3000 rev/min, i.e. 50 Hz.
Figure 11 gives details of data, recorded at commissioning. Thus the same drawbacks as already
encountered for figure 9 have to be faced.

1/s
3000

2000
turbine main steam
speed valve lift
%
10
9.1 %

6.8 %

5
1000

0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 s 100 120 140 160 180 200s

Figure 11: Turbine governor test: ramp-up (plant data)

left (in red) turbine speed, right (in black) corresponding main steam valve lift

Figure 12: Turbine governor test: ramp-up, simulation

In this case, all three simulation models follow the ramp very well. This is not surprising, since the speed is
the controlled state component and the controller acts upon the individual models (virtual) measurement.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

Once again, it can be noticed that the simulation results of the valve lift which were obtained with the linear
model do not match the real data very well. In contrast, the nonlinear and the rigorous model display fairly
accurate quantitative predictions of the valve lift as well.

4.1.3. Turbine Governor Test: Load rejection A very important and crucial test for the turbine governor
is a load rejection. Here the turbine is run at partial or full load and the connection to the electrical grid is (at
test conditions!) deliberately shut off. Consequently, the mechanical system is no longer in an equilibrium
with respect to torque. Since the braking torque of the grid is lost, the shaft will accelerate.
Now, the turbine controller should intercept the turbine at nominal speed, either idling (no load at all) or
with house load, i.e. the generator is still running and supplies electricity to the electrical devices of the
turbine and the plants auxiliary systems.
Figure 13 depicts plant data of a load rejection from 66% load to idling with an excited generator. Once
again, the diagram depicts details of a commissioning printout. Thus the drawbacks which were already
addressed in the context of figures 9 and 11 apply here, too.

1/s
3111 /s = 103,7 %
3120
turbine
speed

3060

3000 15,2 s

100 106 112 118 s

Figure 13: Load rejection, plant data

Unfortunately, the available monitoring chart does not depict the time horizon until the speed is permanently
back to nominal speed.
As the in the previous sections, the commissioning scenario was simulated with all three types of simulation
models. The results are depicted in figure 14.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

Figure 14: Load rejection, simulation results

Simulation results which display a load rejection from 66% load to idling (with a still exited generator) once
again display a fairly good match between simulation data and plant data during the first 20 seconds after
separation from the electrical grid. The linear model displays a maximum speed of 105%, which
overestimates the real speed by approximately 1%. The non linear model overestimates the maximum speed
by roughly 0,4%. An almost perfect match is reached with the rigorous model. Not only is the maximum
speed met exactly, but also the time when maximum speed (2,1 sec) is obtained, as well as the time when
the turbine speed is firstly back to nominal (synchronous) speed (15,3 sec), are almost identical for plant
data and simulated data.
In all cases investigated so far, the linear model roughly displays the turbine behaviour as long as the
controlled outputs, i.e. speed and/or power output are concerned. Internal quantities, valve lift for example,
are poorly mirrored with respect to the absolute values, but are still more or less correct with respect to the
direction and to the direction of change of the valve movement. By contrast, the non linear as well as the
rigorous model not only depict the turbine behaviour, but also simulate the corresponding valve lift fairly
precisely.
The standard turbine operation modes discussed above obey the assumption of isothermal conditions.
Hence, it is fairly reasonable that the nonlinear and the rigorous model display very similar results since the
investigated cases in fact operate at almost isothermal conditions.

4.2. Failure Modes

Secondly, some turbine failure modes shall be investigated.
Failures modes with a reasonable probability of occurrence have to be anticipated and, consequently,
sufficient measures have to be provided to protect the turbine and the adjacent devices in case the failure
really occurs.
Since the majority of possible failures never occur, there is no adequate data base to compare the simulation
results to plant data.

4.2.1. Pressure protection Pressure protection will shut down the turbine once a critical pressure (with
respect to a certain device) is reached. In this context, simulation results are used to identify necessary
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

protection measures beforehand. One protection measure is to predict the resulting maximum pressure and
design the devices accordingly. An other measure would be to determine a sufficiently small automation
delay, which ensures that the pressure remains below an admissible level.
In general, there is a certain pressure and temperature drop along the steam path. Main steam, which enters
the HP section with 260 bar and 540°C, will be expanded to around 60 bar and 350°C.
Now it shall be assumed that the main steam valves start to open while the cold end of the re-heat system,
that is the piping system leading to the boiler, is blocked. Thus, the main steam supply is operating and
hence main steam is supplied to the HP section, whereas the discharge is blocked except for the sealing
leakages. Hence, the HP section as well as the reheat section, which is designed for a significantly lower
pressure than the main steam generation section of the boiler, will be supplied with high pressure steam.
Consequently, the pressure will rise until pressure protection will issue a shut down, and the main steam
valves are closed as well.
Figure 15 displays the simulated rise in pressure at the exhaust of the HP-section.

Figure 15: Simulated operation of the pressure protection system, development of the HP-exhaust pressure

Again, it can be seen that the nonlinear and the rigorous model display a similar behaviour with respect to
the dynamic pressure development in the first seconds, whereas the linear model is completely out of range.
Concerning the long term development, certain differences between the non linear model and the rigorous
model become obvious. The calculated pressure for the non linear models starts to decrease approximately
three seconds after the pressure protection tripped the turbine. The pressure calculated with the rigorous
model increases for approximately three minutes.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

The reason for the different development becomes obvious if the temperature development in the HP-
exhaust is considered as well. The non linear model is designed for isothermal processes, whereas the
temperature in the HP-exhaust rises significantly above the design temperature. See figure 16 to view the
temperature increase inside the cold reheat.

Figure 16: Simulated operation of the pressure protection system, development of the HP-exhaust
temperature

Furthermore, it is investigated how different delay times in the automation system will result in different
maximum pressures. In order to do so, the above described set-up was run for the three different models
utilizing various delay times. Figure 17 depicts the resulting pressure for the tree different models in
dependence of the applied delay time.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

Figure 17: Simulated operation of the pressure protection system, development of the HP-exhaust pressure,
depending on the automation delay time

The allowable pressure limit with respect to the piping material is 47 bar. Thus, relying on the results of the
linear model, one would be forced to operate with an overall delay time of less than 50 ms. Due to the 55 ms
reaction time of the stop valve’s servo, this it impossible.
Relying on the results of the simulation results of the non-linear model, an overall reaction time of 325 ms
would be sufficient. The simulation outputs of the rigorous model resulted more conservatively into a
required maximum delay time of less than 300 ms.
Ignoring the requirements of the linear model, the overall delay time of the considered plant was restricted
to 255 ms. With the restriction of the fixed stop valve reaction time of 55 ms, this was achieved by using a
pressure transducer with 100 ms delay, a fast automation cycle, accounting for another 100 ms.
it can be seen that the resulting maximum pressure rises by 2 bar when the delay time is raised by 100 ms.
Hence, the material of the turbine casing and piping determines the required delay time. If the piping system
sustains 50 bar, 200 ms reaction time is sufficient. If the material limits are reached at 47 bar, a faster
reaction, and thus the shorter delay time, is necessary.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

4.2.2. Evaporation Finally, some effects of evaporation will be studied. Here a turbine with steam
extractions to condensation pre-heaters is considered. The condensation occurs at a pressure which is
slightly below the pressure of the extraction point. Consequently, a pressure drop inside the turbine could
cause a reversal in the direction of flow and, subsequently, evaporation out of the condensate vessels. Thus
the turbine might be accelerated by the reversed extraction steam. In general, non return valves protect the
turbine against steam mass flow out of the condensate vessels and thus against undesirable acceleration.
Fast closing of the control valves, which happen at load rejection for example, is accompanied by a pressure
drop. It was stated in paragraph 4.1.3. that the turbine governor should be capable of intercepting the turbine
at nominal speed. If steam evaporating out of the pre heaters is supplied to the turbine, it might gain
additional momentum and subsequently accelerate to trip speed or, even worse, to over-speed.
If the turbine controller fails, the turbine is protected by the “over-speed protection system”, which
automatically issues a turbine trip if the speed exceeds trip speed, which is usually set to 110% nominal
speed. The over-speed protection system is designed to ensure that the turbine speed remains below over-
speed, which is usually 120% of nominal speed.
Hence, those extractions which might be critical with respect to the maximum allowable speed have to be
identified and protected through redundant non return valves.
Since the rigorous model is the only one which can handle the effects of condensation and evaporation
without further efforts, the subsequently displayed calculations were only conducted with the rigorous
turbine model.

Figure 18: Comparative study: simulated malfunctioning of extraction non return valves (NRV)
left: interception by turbine governor; right: turbine trip at trip speed (110% of nominal speed)

In figure 18 the effects of malfunction of non return valves with subsequent evaporation are studied. The
solid line shows the speed development during load rejection. On the left hand side the speed development
with a properly operating control system, on the right hand side the resulting speed development without
control, but over-speed-trip at 110% speed, is shown.
Under the assumption that the non return valve in the 150 bar extraction line (high pressure section) fails, it
can be seen (dashed lines) that the resulting maximum speed is obviously higher than the maximum speed
with properly operating non return valves. Hence in both cases, the situation does not become critical. The
maximum speed still remains below trip speed (110%) if the control system operates properly, and below
over-speed (120% of nominal speed) in either case.
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

The dotted line mirrors the turbine behaviour if the non return valve in the 20 bar extraction line fails. It is
clearly seen that the maximum speed exceeds trip speed in the case where the controller operates properly.
If the controller fails and a trip is issued at trip speed, the maximum speed would be higher than over-speed,
which is undesirable. Hence, proper operation of the 20 bar line non return valve is mandatory.
Consequently, this valve has to be provided redundantly, i.e. two consecutive non return valves have to be
used.

5. Summary

The preceding sections gave an overview of different approaches to model the transient thermodynamic and
mechanical behaviour of a steam turbine. Three different approaches were presented and compared to plant
data gained at standard tests during commissioning.
For standard situations it could be seen that all three models simulate the turbine behaviour quite well,
although differences concerning the quantitative description were noticeable. Thus, the linear model
displays the turbine behaviour, but already fails to make sufficient precise prediction of the development
with respect to valve lift and pressure. The non linear as well as the rigorous model mirror the
thermodynamics very well as long as isothermal operating conditions are sustained. For non isothermal
operating conditions, only the rigorous model is suitable for simulating the steam turbine.
Subsequently, it was outlined how situations which might occur due to failure modes or malfunctioning of a
single device may be anticipated and evaluated. Hence, if during the turbine development phase simulation
predicts that additional precautions have to be taken, those can be included in the design at an early stage
already. That is significantly more economical than adding additional features, such as a second non return
valve, or exchanging devices with stronger material, or adapting the automation system for faster control
reaction. If quantitative prediction is required in an operation mode which is accompanied with heat transfer
or a change in temperature, it became obvious that only the rigorous model provided reliable results.
Thus, the linear model may be used if a quick overview of the turbine behaviour is required and no
quantitative predictions with respect to the thermodynamic performance are needed. The nonlinear model
additionally simulates the thermodynamic behaviour as well as the behaviour of other devices such as valve
lift, turbine speed etc as long as the isothermal assumption is fulfilled. In case an exact prediction of a
transient operation or a failure mode which is accompanied with a change in temperature is needed, only the
rigorous approach will deliver reliable simulations.

6. Nomenclature

6.1. Abbreviations

HP high pressure
IP intermediate pressure
LP low pressure
NRV non return valve
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

6.2. Notation
h specific Enthalpy (thermodynamical), [kJ/kg]
h lift (mecanical), [m]
m mass, [kg]
m& mass flow, [kg/s]
p pressure, [bar]
P power, [MW]
Q& energy flow
T absolute temperature (thermodynamic), [K]
t time, [s]
u specific energy, [kJ/kg]
U energy, [kJ]
v specific volume, [m³/kg]
V volume,[m³]

ε pole wheel angle, [rad]

κ insentropic exponent
η efficiency
π pressure ratio
ϑ temperature, [°C]
ω angular velocity, [rad/s]
Θ inertia

6.3. Indices
a in front of a section
b after a section
cr critical
0 design value
in flow into a section
out flow out of a section

References

[1] Mathias, G., 1991, Zur Nachbildung anlagenseitiger Störungen bei Dampfturbosätzen, BWK, 43, (9),
403-416.
[2] Ordys, A. W., Pike, A. W., Johnson, M. A., Katebi, R. M., Grimble, M. J., 1994, Modelling and
Simulation of Power Generation Plants, (London: Springer Lecture Notes).
[3] Teichmann, W., 1983, Angewandte Anlagenautomatisierung, (Berlin: VEB Verlag Technik).
[4] Traupel, W., 1988, Thermische Turbomaschinen I und II, (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer).
[5] Weedy, B. M., Cory, B. J., 1999, Electrical Power Systems, (Chichester, New York: John Wiley &
Sons)
Author: G. Zimmer
Title: Modelling and Simulation of Steam Turbine Processes

Erschienen:

Author: Gerta Zimmer a

Affiliation: a Siemens Power Generation, M lheim, Germany
DOI: 10.1080/13873950802384001
Publication Frequency: 6 issues per year
Published in: Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Dynamical Systems, Volume 14, Issue 6
December 2008 , pages 469 - 493
Subjects: Analysis - Mathematics; Applied Mechanics; Dynamical Control Systems; Dynamical Systems;
Mathematical Modelling; Mathematics & Statistics for Engineers; Simulation & Modeling;

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