NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Department of Chemical Engineering

Materials and Metallurgy (ME-209)

 NAME: MOHAMMAD OSAMA
 ROLL NO: CH-18043
 CLASS: 2ND Year (SPRING SEMESTER) SEC: A
 GROUP NO: 03
 GROUP TOPIC: STEEL INDUSTRY
 MY SUBTOPIC:

LEENAH SIDDIQUI
AQSA SHABBIR
MOHAMMAD OSAMA
RABIA BINT ZAHID
 NED UNIVERSITY
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 MOHAMMAD OSAMA (CH-18043)

CONVERTER REFRENCES:

 An overview
 Process
 Material selection
 Refractory material
 Bessemer converter on the basis of refractory lining
 Why we use basic process instead of acidic process?
 Selection of refractory lining material
 Properties of refractory lining material
 Modeling procedure
 Temperature profile along the converter height
 Temperature profile distribution at fixed position
 Tuyeres
 Modification of Bessemer steel converter
CLO 1
Identify the Engineering materials, their properties and selection of best one.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/bessemer-process
https://www.garmendale.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/sir-
henry-bessamer.webp
https://www.britannica.com/technology/bessemer-process
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/steel/how-to-
manufacture-steel-7-step-process/46745
http://pratclif.com/mines/iron%20carbide/steel.converter.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
https://patents.google.com/patent/us2977108
https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-
0016003287901165/first-page-pdf
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/bls/bls_0298_1922
.pdf
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/steel/how-to-
manufacture-steel-8-processes-metallurgy/41530

CLO 2
Assess the Defects of material and the mechanism of deformation and fracture
 INTRODUCTION
STEEL INDUSTRY
Steel industry is the industry in which the iron is processed and converted into steel. The steel industry
grew in terms because of the need for stronger and easily produced metals. Technological advances in
steel making started in the last half of 19 th century, this advancement helps in modern economies
dependent on rails, automobiles, and a variety of different steel products.
Iron working started in 3500 BC in Armenia. The BESSEMER PROCESS created by henry Bessemer in
England in 1850s, and it allowed production of low cost steel, then OPEN- HEARTH PROCESS introduced in
United States in1988 made it easier to use domestic iron ores. It dominated steel industry till 1960 till the
time it was converted to BASIC OXYGEN PROCESS, which produces steel faster, and ELECTRIC- ARC
FURNACE PROCESS that makes it possible to produce alloys such as stainless steel easily and to recycle
scrap steel.

PROCESS
The process starts by the iron ore, coke and lime being fed into a blast furnace to produce molten iron,
(the coke fed in the blast furnace came from coke oven where coal is converted into coke) molten iron is
mixed with recycled steel scrap and it is further processed in a basic oxygen furnace to make steel. The
electric arc furnace melts the recycle steel scrap, the molten steel then formulated to desired chemical
composition by secondary processes. The refined steel is then casted into variety of shapes by continuous
casting methods. The solidified shapes then processed into finished products by various processes
including hot rolling, cold rolling, annealing and coating to form our desired process.

EQUIPMENTS TO BE COVERED
• COKE OVEN
• BLAST FURNACE
• ELECTRIC- ARC FURNACE
• ROLLING MILLS
• HEAT EXCHANGER
 CONVEYOR BELT
 BESSEMER CONVERTER

COKE OVEN
Coke oven is a type of thermal equipment. In it the coal to coke transformation occurs. Coke is used as a
fuel in the blast furnace. Each oven is rectangular and may be 13 to 15 meters long, 4 to 7 meters high and
400 to 450 millimeters wide. The oven linings are built entirely of silica bricks. Here the coal is heated to
about 1200◦C in the coke oven. This process is referred to as a ‘dry distillation’ because these coke ovens
are oxygen free so it not burns only just it improves impurities. After heating up the coal into coke, the coke
Reference:
http://www.seaisi.org/file/The%20Making%20of%20Iron%20&%20Steel.pdf
http://buildindustrialpakistan.blogspot.com/2013/07/coke-oven-by-product-plant-pakistan.html

MATERIAL SELECTION
The present improvements relate to coke oven in general and more specially to coke oven of the type
comprising cooking chambers and their heating walls that are formed by refractory material.

 REFRACTORY MATERIAL:

The refractory brick is a block of refractory ceramic material. The refractory brick is built to
withstand with the high temperature and also have low thermal conductivity. They must be
chemically inert and have the resistant to thermal shock.
For example:
Oxides of aluminum (alumina), silicon (silica) or quartz, magnesium (magnesia) etc. most used
refractory material another is calcium oxide (lime).
 CERAMIC:
 SiO₂ is also called as quartz.
Reference:
https://top-seiko.com/common/pdf/guide.pdf https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?
ArticleID=1114
I. As quartz has the high melting point then other above metal.
II. Metals are not used because of their thermal conductivity greater.
III. Its thermal conductivity is very small as compared to metals copper and silver so that no heat is
lost so we take quartz.
IV. As it with stand with high temperature and also its thermal expansion is small if copper and
silver use, they easily expand as they have high thermal expansion.
V. Other metals copper and silver not stand at 1250◦C as this is the desired temperature in coke
oven as compare to quartz.

 CERAMIC TO CERAMIC COMPARISION:

Here we have many ceramic materials but we choose quartz because of some properties shown in
below graph.

COMPARITIVE THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE GRAPH:

Thermal shock resistance is the property of
material to withstand with the fluctuation and
rapid changes in the temperature.

 Quartz has the high thermal shock

resistance as compare to aluminum oxide
and silicon carbide.
 If we take other material like aluminum
oxide it not bare the fluctuation of heat and
may the failure occur in our system.
 It withstands with the rapid change in temperature.
 Quartz not abruptly breaks by the temperature fluctuation.
 It easily uses in the parts that experience extreme swings in
 Temperature.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY COMPARISON GRAPH

Thermal conductivity is the property of material to conduct heat in the system.

I. Quartz has very low thermal conductivity as compare to the other ceramic material shown in above
graph like aluminum oxide.
II. If we take aluminum oxide or silicon carbide so the conductivity occurs and our choice of insulator
fails.
III. It behaves as that of an insulator.
IV. That is why it becomes our material of choice as it has very low thermal conductivity
V.
 THERMAL EXPENSION COMPARATIVE GRAPH

Thermal expansion is basically rate of expansion of the

material in response to the change in temperature.
I. Quartz has very low rate of thermal expansion.
II. That’s why it undergoes little change in shape.
III. It retains shape even at response of high temperature.
 REACTIVITY OF QUARTZ:

I. Silicon dioxide is not very reactive compound as compared to other compounds like aluminum
oxide.
II. The polarity of molecule makes it stable.
III. That’s why it is chemically inert or use as the refractory material inside the coke oven.

 CORROSION RESISTANT:
I. Silicon dioxide is corrosion resistant as it has the silicon in it
II. As we know silicon is highly show resistance to corrosion by this property it also used in stainless
steel to increase its resistance to corrosion.
III. The graph shows the corrosion rate / year of silicon content as we use quartz for the refractory
material inside our coke oven.

DEFECTS IN MATERIAL:
 DEFORMATION:

I. Deformation is a kind of defect.

II. We selected ceramic ‘quartz’ because it has a high thermal shock resistance.
III. It stands even at abrupt change in temperature.
IV. No cracks occur if the temperature of process will be within the melting point range of material but
will cause deformation if unusually the change in temperature increases its melting point range and
the initiation of the cracks in material leads to fracture due to sudden change in temperature due to
environmental conditions or impurities present in material which can adversely affect the
temperature required for process.
V. The ceramic ‘quartz’ is brittle and it will surely fracture as it crosses its yield point limit and deform
itself without any indication.
Reference:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19680002476.pdf
https://www.slideserve.com/inari/stress-and-strain-aspects-of-rock

 DIFFUSION MECHANISM:
I. The pure samples of ceramics contain a number of impurities and porosity, porosity means it has
void spaces in between it.
II. The void spaces present in the ceramic material leads to the diffusion phenomenon.
III. The diffusion is the phenomenon that takes place due to the concentration gradient and this
phenomenon increase with the increase in temperature.
IV. As the temperature required in coke oven is high so this phenomenon can easily takes place.
V. Diffusion is important in the sense that it can change the applications of ceramic material as it
controls the mass and charge transport

Reference:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19680002476.pdf
 CREEP FAILURE:

I. Creep failure occurs when our material is put at high temperature and the stresses are also applied.
II. It is more severe in those materials that are subjected to heat for a long period of time and increases if
it is closed to their melting point.
III. At high temperatures and stresses, it has been proved that creep would occur due to grain boundary
sliding where the adjacent grains are replaced by one another.
IV. Creep rate increases with porosity and as we know that porosity is present in ceramic material so there
is chance of creep failure also.
PHASE DIAGRAM
BLAST FURNACE
BRIEF OVERVIEW
It is a type of metallurgical furnace that is
used for smelting of different industrial
materials like steel, iron, copper, brass etc.

 It is a large steel structure lined with

refractory firebricks.
 It has a narrow top and downwards
the diameter increases gradually.
 The furnace is fed from the top
through a charging hole.

The height and the hearth diameter of the

furnace is shown as

REFERENCE:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace
REFRACTORY
MATERIAL
The refractory brick is a block of refractory
ceramic material. The refractory brick is built to
withstand with the high temperature and also
have low thermal conductivity. They must be
chemically inert and have the resistant to
thermal shock.
For example:
Oxides of aluminum (alumina), silicon (silica) or
quartz, magnesium (magnesia) etc. most used
refractory material another is calcium oxide
(lime).
IMPORTANT REFRACTORY MATERIALS
& APPLICATIONS

WHAT IS BLAST FURNACE MADE OF?

Also called Heat Ovens they are made of bricks of Magnesium Oxide or of any other refractory material.
Magnesium oxide is commonly used for lining of furnaces 

WHAT TEMPERATURE CAN A FURNACE WITHSTAND?

Furnace can withstand a temperature range of 900 to 1300 degree Celsius (or sometimes 2000 to 2300
degree Celsius also) depending upon stove conditions.  
What properties enable Magnesium oxide to be used as a
refractory lining in a furnace?

Magnesium oxide is used as a lining material. Due to its high melting point it resists easily the high
temperature of the furnace. F following are its major properties that makes MgO a good refractory material.

 Good Corrosion Resistance e.g. Basic Steelmaking Slag, Sodium Hydroxide, 

 High Thermal Conductivity
 Low Electrical Conductivity
 Transparency to Infrared
 Figure 1: MgO doped with ZnO2

REFERENCE:
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4701/9/12/1297/htm
http://www.chemguideforcie.co.uk/section92/learningef.html#:~:text=Magnesium%20oxide
%20is%20used%20to,high%20temperatures%20in%20a%20furnace.

STAINLESS STEEL
Another common material used for the lining of furnace is stainless steel which contains 12-30 % Cr
and Ni.
Its physical properties are as follows. 
 High corrosion resistance
 Higher strength and hardness as compared to plain carbon mild steel
 Can bear high temperature of 870 degree Celsius (Austenitic steel containing 18% Cr)
 They are highly ductile (Annealed Austenitic steel has ductility around 60-70%)
 Figure 2 in the above curve structural steel has the highest strength percentage but stainless steel is preferred due to the
high proportion of Carbon in it which helps in resisting damage

REFERENCE:
https://www.nickelinstitute.org/media/1816/stainlesssteelsheetliningofst
eeltanksandpressurevesselsl_10039_.pdf
DEFECTS IN STAINLESS STEEL 
 Despite of the durability ring made of stainless steel can dent
 Due to the hardness and stiffness of the material it is difficult to make rings for use in furnace
 Its highly expensive
 The failure analysis in 430-grade stainless steel is shown below
 Figure 3 Defects in Stress Strain figure of Austenite Steel

REFERENCE:
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-stainless-steel-2

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stressstrain-behaviour-of-the-duplex-stainless-steel-together-
with-the-assumed-material_fig7_240366874

PHASE DIAGRAM
 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE:
An Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc. Industrial arc
furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity (used in foundries for producing cast
iron products) up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Arc furnaces used in research
laboratories and by dentists may have a capacity of only a few dozen grams. Industrial electric arc furnace
temperatures can reach 1,800 °C (3,272 °F), while laboratory units can exceed 3,000 °C (5,432 °F).

MATERIAL SELECTION:
POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT:

 Normally a step down transformer is connected with vacuum circuit breakers, a tap changer for
electrode voltage control and a furnace transformer.
 This connection is made up of silicon rubber wireswhich is connected with water cooling panels which
connects the furnace transformer with graphite electrode.

 Silicone rubber insulated cables have outstanding thermal range with some suitable for high
temperaturesup to 200oC and lows down to -90°C.
 Silicone rubber cables also have excellent flexibility. Whilst silicone rubber insulation doesn’t offer the
same mechanical toughness and cut-through resistance when compared to most other elastomers, this
can be compensated for with the addition of a glass fiber braid and silicone varnish. 
 REFERENCE
www. Eland-cables.com

REFRACTORY LINING:

Refractory are those materials which withstand high temperature without a significant change in chemical or
physical properties.

REFRACTORY FOR ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE ROOF:

High Alumina Bricks are commonly used in electric arc furnace roofs, and the alumina content is between 75%
and 85%.

MATERIAL SELECTION:

Compared with silicon bricks, high-alumina bricks are characterized by high fire resistance, good thermal shock
resistance, and high compressive strength.
Due to the abundant domestic bauxite resources, high alumina bricks have become the main Electric Arc
Furnace refractory material of roofs, and their service life is about 2-3 times that of silicon brick furnace roofs.

Alumina Silicon
Fire Resistance 1750 ~ 1790 ° C 200 ~ 300 ° C
Thermal Shock 500°C 200°C
Resistance
Compressive Strength 690 ksi 0.029 - 0.856 ksi
2 REFRACTORY MATERIAL FOR EAF- FURNACE WALL:

 Electric Arc Furnace wall is divided into general furnace wall, slag line area and hot spots near the arc.
Generally, the Electric Arc Furnace wall is mainly made of magnesia carbon bricks.
 The slag line area and hot spots are the weak links of the Electric Arc Furnace wall.
 Because the life of the furnace wall mainly depends on the degree of damage to the hot spot, the
Electric Arc Furnace Lining in this area should be paid special attention.

REFRACTORY MATERIAL FOR EAF- FURNACE:

 The EAF furnace bottom and the bank slope constitute the melting pool, which is the place where the
charge and molten steel are collected.
 When the furnace bottom lining reacts with the slag and iron oxide to form a metamorphic layer,
during the reduction, it can also become loose due to the reduction of some of the components, which
often causes floating due to the intrusion of molten steel.
 Therefore, the masonry or knotted lining of this part should have the advantages of uniform overall
performance, tight masonry, good high temperature performance, high strength, erosion resistance,
erosion resistance, good thermal shock resistance, and stable volume.
 The knotted lining is made of good magnesia carbon bric

REFRACTORY MATERIAL FOR TAPPING:

 The current method of eccentric tapping at the bottom of the furnace is used to change the furnace body
from a tilting type to a fixed type, and a tapping hole is provided at the eccentric position of the bottom of
the furnace to replace the tapping slot.
 Its advantages are: eliminating tilting equipment, expanding the area of the water-cooled wall, mitigating
the damage of the furnace lining, appropriately reducing the tapping temperature and shortening the
tapping time, thereby reducing the cost.

 The eccentric tap hole brick is a bitumen-impregnated fired magnesium brick, the tube brick is a
magnesium carbon brick with a resin-bound carbon content of 15%, and the end brick is a magnesia-
carbon brick with a resin-bound carbon content of 10% -15%. It is 15% ALO-C-SiC brick. In order to make
the tapping smooth, olivine-based coarse sand is often used as the drainage material.

MATERIAL SELECTION:

Magnesia carbon bricks have the following advantages:

I. Good high-temperature performance.

II. Strong slag resistance.
III. Good thermal shock resistance.
IV. Low creep at high temperature.
V. Good anti-stripping ability.
 VI. Anti-stripping performance.
VII. Good wear resistance.
VIII. Good thermal conductivity.

The

thermal conductivity of magnesia carbon brick at different temperatures can be observed as follows:

ELECTRODE:
The electrode of Electric Arc Furnace is generally made up of graphite.

MATERIAL SELECTION:
I. Graphite material has better electrochemical stability. This type of electrode has low loss ratio.

II. Graphite electrode is easy to process and the processing speed is obviously faster than that of copper
electrode.

III. Graphite is light in weight and has good thermal & electrical conductivity
Reference
www.alumina-bricks.com.

DEFECTS IN MATERIAL:
SILICON RUBBER WIRES:
DEFORMATION:

 Deformation is a kind of defect.

 We selected “Silicon Rubber Wires” because it has a high thermal shock resistance.
 It stands even at abrupt change in temperature.
 Other material have defect that they deform upon high temperatures.
 So we take silicon rubber wires rather than ethylene propylene rubber or normal rubber.

VACANCY DEFECT:

 Vacancy defect occurs when we have unstable compounds with some void spaces.
 Silicon rubber wire is a stable compound.
 So, no vacancy diffusion occurs that is why we take it as best material for our desired formation no defect
take place.
 No diffusion means no grain boundaries occur.

CREEP FAILURE:

 Creep failures occur when our material is put at high temperature and the stress are also applied.
 We select silicon rubber wires as it can bear high temperature.
 It not deforms at high temperatures so the creep will not occur.
 If we take other material creep occurs due to high temperature application the atomic spacing takes
place.

HIGH BRICKS ALUMINA:

DEFORMATION:

 Deformation is a kind of defect.

 We selected “High Alumina Bricks” because it has a high thermal shock resistance.
 It stands even at abrupt change in temperature.
 Other material have defect that they deform upon high temperatures.
 So we take high alumina bricks rather than magnesium bricks or normal bricks.

VACANCY DEFECT:
 Vacancy defect occurs when we have unstable compounds with some void spaces.
 Alumina brick is a stable compound.
 So, no vacancy diffusion occurs that is why we take it as best material for our desired formation no defect
take place.
 No diffusion means no grain boundaries occur.

CREEP FAILURE:

 Creep failure occurs when our material is put at high temperature and the stress are also applied.
 We select alumina bricks as it can bear high temperature.
 It not deforms at high temperatures so the creep will not occur.
 If we take other material creep occurs due to high temperature application the atomic spacing takes
place.

MAGNESIA CARBON BRICKS:

DEFORMATION:

 Deformation is a kind of defect.

 We selected “Magnesia Carbon” because it has a high thermal shock resistance.
 It stands even at abrupt change in temperature.
 Other material have defect that they deform upon high temperatures.
 So we take silicon rubber wires rather than dolomite or normal magnesium.

VACANCY DEFECT:

 Vacancy defect occurs when we have unstable compounds with some void spaces.
 Magnesia carbon is a stable compound.
 So, no vacancy diffusion occurs that is why we take it as best material for our desired formation no defect
take place.
 No diffusion means no grain boundaries Deformation is a kind of defect.
 We selected “Magnesia Carbon” because it has a high thermal shock resistance.
 It stands even at abrupt change in temperature.
 Other material have defect that they deform upon high temperatures.
 So we take silicon rubber wires rather than dolomite or normal magnesium.
 Vacancy defect occurs when we have unstable compounds with some void spaces.
 Magnesia carbon is a stable compound.
 So, no vacancy diffusion occurs that is why we take it as best material for our desired formation no defect
take place.
 No diffusion meansno grain boundaries
 occur.

CREEP FAILURE:

 Creep failure occurs when our material is put at high temperature and the stress are also applied.
 We select Magnesia Carbon as it can bear high temperature.
 It not deforms at high temperatures so the creep will not occur.
 If we take other material creep occurs due to high temperatureapplication the atomic spacings takes
place.

REFERENCE:
www.alumina-bricks.com.

PHASE DIAGRAM

HOT ROLLING MILL

PROCESS OVERVIEW:
The primary function of hot rolling mill is to reheat the semi-finished steel slabs of steel nearly to their melting
point, then roll them thinner and longer through several successive rolling mill stands driven by motors
totaling 77,000 horsepower, and finally cooling up the lengthened steel sheets for transport to the next
process.

The hot mill rolls slabs weighing up to 30 tons between 30 inches and 74 inches. Steel slab 8 to 9 inches thick
and up to 36 feet long is rolled into strip as thin as 1/16 inches and up to the half-mile in length. Coils are
produced with a 30” 850 and 1000 pounds-per-inch-width (PIW), respectively. The mill supplies coil for each of
CSI’s remaining operations, as well as a finished product for the shipment directly to CSI’s costumers.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVIY
 Graphite has a high thermal conductivity as compared to carbon and other metals.
 Its melting point ranges between 2600 to 3000 C.
 If we take carbon or any other metal instead of graphite, there is a possibility of that material to
meltdown and deformed as our desired steel entering into rolling mill have very high temperature.
 So graphite would probably be selected because of having high melting point and good thermal
conductivity.

REFERENCE:
https://www.cfccarbon.com/news/thermal-properties-of-graphite-thermal-conductivity.html

REFERENCE:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Khalid_Lafdi2/publication/223289119/figure/fig1/AS:393962239086594@147093
9325146/Thermal-conductivity-comparison-of-graphite-flake-filled-polymers-versus-carbon-nanofiber.png
THERMAL LINEAR EXPANSION:
 It is a property of a material which expands its length after receiving heat
 Linear thermal expansion of graphite is very low as compare to carbon and other metalloids.
 The thermal expansion is negative up to 400 with a minimum at 0C
 It is possible that this observed negative thermal expansion is due to internal stress associated with a
large expansion.
 The first graph shows the thermal expansion of graphite in “c” and “ab” directions while the second
graph shows the comparison between stainless steel and carbon(and both have higher thermal
expansion than graphite

REFERENCE:
https://www.cfccarbon.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/fig.3.12-thermal-expansion-of-the-graphite-crystal-in-the-
ab-and-c-directions..jpg

COMPARISON OF GRAPHITE WITH OTHER METALS:

Mechanical properties of a material like toughness, rigidity, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and many
others play an important role while selecting material

MATERIAL CARBON GRAPHITE STAINLESS STEEL

TITANIUM

HARDNESS 86-388 70 295-326 MPA 251.57

SHEAR
MODULUS 11.5 43 GPA 1.7-11.5 10.6

MELTING 4099 C 2600-3000 C 3800-3950 1510 C

POINT

TENSILE 276-1882 220 MPA 4.8-76 MPA 515-827

STRENGTH

MODULUS 190-210 116 GPA 4.1-27.6 MPA 190-210 GPA

ELASTIICITY

 The hot steel which is about to enter in rolling mill is approximately at a temperature of 1700-1800 C,
so the melting point of the material should be far greater than that. As we can see in the table,
titanium cannot be used.
 Graphite has highest shear modulus among all metals.
 Melting point of carbon is highest amongst all but its thermal is less than steel and graphite.
 Graphite has highest thermal conductivity amongst all.

SELECTION FOR THE BEST ONE:

As we have already had comparison of different metals or metalloids through graphs and tables. Hence we
conclude that the graphite is precisely the best selection for hot rolling mill equipment because of having
suitable properties. Depending up on the size of industry, other material can use for rolling mill equipment like
cast iron, casted steel etc.

CORROSION RESISTANCE OF GRAPHITE:

As steel is passing through a rolling mill, water is sprayed at high pressure over the steel to wash its surface for
moderate duration. So it is necessary that the material of rolling mill should resist the corrosion.

 Gray cast iron is mainly consist of graphite

 As we can see in the given table that gray cast iron is non corrosive in nature.
 We also have other metalloids which are non-corrosive in nature like stainless steel but its few
weaker properties than graphite like tensile strength and thermal conductivity.

DATA COLLECTION FROM:

PEOPLE STEEL MILL
AISHA STEEL MILL
AGHA STEEL MILL

DEFECTS IN MATERIAL:

DIFFUSION:
Diffusion, in the atomic perspective means the step wise migration from lattice to lattice. In solid matter, the
particles are tightly packed with each but in vibration motion, so they also can change their positions.

 The diffusion of point deflects in graphite is observed to be at high temperature molecular dynamics.
 Basically, this high temperature provides energy to atoms of graphite to switch their positions.
 After switching its positions, there will be vacancy or interstitial space formation.
 When the lattice contains local mixture of vacancies and interstitials both recombine and large cluster
can form.
 At high temperature, the graphite layers bend which has effect of enhancing defect motion and
changing the stability

REFERENCE:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0008622319307857
REFERENCE:
https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0008622319307857-fx1.jpg

DEFORMATION:
 One of the most important defects in graphite that we encounter is because of not handling the raw
material carefully.
 It is like chunk of the material is breaking
from parent material.
 And this damage leads it to the level where it
starts having cracks.
 And if this damage is not discovered
sooner, the damaged material is
manufactured into a flawed component.
 Another deformation damage can also
occur in the graphite is because of
improper mixing of raw materials.
 If the raw materials are not mixed properly
then cracks can be form anywhere in block
or rod.

REFERNCE:
https://www.semcocarbon.com/blog/graphite-material-quality-3-graphite-defects

CREEP FAILURE:
  Measurements of creep failure rate of graphite are measured during the temperature of 2270 to
3270K.
 It also depends upon the stresses applied to it. When stress reaches to the critical limit (the strength of
copper) the copper material, creeping failure occurs.
 It is testified that while applying a pressure of between 500 to 5500psi, creep rate measured from
3exp-8 to 2exp-4.
 So, like all other materials graphite also have some defects like cracks and creep failure.
 The given graph shows the creep failure and crack with respect to time and change in temperature.

REFERENCE:
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959JAP....30..148W/abstract

REFERENCE:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mahmud_Dwaikat/publication/226970070/figure/download/fig1/AS:341430196
293634@1458414710331/Effect-of-temperature-on-creep-strain-in-structural-steel-T-1-T-2-T-3.png

HEAT EXCHANGER EQUIMENT

PROCESS OVERVIEW:
In the production and transformation of alloys and metals (ordinary and stainless steel, titanium, aluminum,
etc.), heat exchangers are used for cooling, heating, and temperature hold of various baths.

 Quench tank water cooling

 Temperature holds of surface treatment baths
 Cooling of particle-laden water before discharge
 Various applications on galvanization lines and process or energy circuits
 Phosphatizing bath cooling
 Water-jacket cooling

REFERENCE:
https://www.barriquand.com/en/heat-exchangers-iron-steel-metalurgy

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
Thermal conductivity is the most important property of a material when it comes to steel production. Because
the product steel is at very high temperature so the material that we selecting should have high thermal
conductivity.

 Copper is known as a good conductor of heat and electricity.

 This happens because the delocalized electrons lying inside the solid lattice of metals have freedom to
move freely in the lattice.
 These would act as transporters of heat and electricity.
 This property is lack in or less in Aluminum, Stainless steel or other metals.
 Form the given graphs; you can clearly understand the high thermal conductive metal is copper.
 Aluminum, stainless steel and other metals also have good thermal conductivity but not as high as
copper because the delocalized electrons present in the copper
REFERENCE:
https://byjus.com/chemistry/thermal-conductivity-of-copper/
THERMAL LINEAR EXPANSION:
Thermal expansion is tendency of a metal to change its length with respect to the change in temperature,
through heat transfer. This property is measured by co-efficient of linear expansion.

 As we have discussed in the thermal conductivity of copper that it has lattice solid structure which
makes it high thermal resistant material.
 This property makes copper to bear high temperature.
 So it can bear high temperature and does not expands with the change of temperature
 Given graph shows the low co- efficient of linear expansion of copper as compared to aluminum,
stainless steel and other metals.

REFERENCE:

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Thermal-expansion-of-CuBe-alloy-compared-to-some-metals-titanium-copper-
alloys_fig3_233756832
COMPARISON OF COPPER WITH OTHER METALS:
Mechanical properties of a material like toughness, rigidity, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and many
others play an important role while selecting material

MATERIAL ALUMINUM COPPER TITANIUM

MELTING POINT 660.32°C 1087 C 1,668°C

HARDNESS 160–350 235–878 638
SHEAR MODULUS 25 GPA 46 GPA 45 GPA
TENSILE STRENGTH 90 MPA 220 MPA 275-690 MPA
MODULUS OF 69 GPA 110 GPA 107 GPA
ELASTICITY
CO-EFFICIENT OF 23^-6 /C 17^-6/C 9-13^-6 /C
THERMAL
EXPANSION
THERMAL 164 W/m-C 395 W/m-C 19 W/m-C
CONDUCTIVITY
YOUNG MODULUS 0.75^5 1.20^5 1.10^5

 As we can clearly see from the above given properties of different material.
 Copper has highest tensile strength, highest thermal conductivity.
 It has lowest co-efficient of thermal expansion which is the best case in steel making, it shows that
material can bear high temperature and will not deform at particular high temperature.
 Copper has all such properties which are suitable in heat exchangers while making steel.
REFERENCE:
https://www.totalmateria.com/Article16.htm

CORROSION RESISTANCE COMPARISON:

Corrosion is usually defined as a failure of metals due to moisture, chemical and electrochemical processes.
One of the most outstanding properties of copper metal is its corrosion resistance. The copper quickly reacts
with environment and forms a film of surface oxidation.

REFERENCE
http://www.farmerscopper.com/blog/copper-metals-exceptional-resistance-to-corrosion/

SELECTION OF MATERIAL:
As we have already had comparison of different metals or metalloids through graphs and tables. Hence we
conclude that the copper is precisely the best selection for heat exchanger equipment because of having
suitable properties.
Depending up on the size of industry, other material can use for heat exchanger like stainless steel etc.

DATA COLLECTION FROM:

PEOPLE STEEL MILL
AISHA STEEL MILL
AGHA STEEL MILL

DEFORMATION:
Deformation refers to the change in size or shape of an object. Depending up on the type of and material, size
and geometry of an object and the types of forces applied. The deformation can of different types.

 In copper the terrace atoms are displace towards the bulk and step corner atoms are majorly outward.
 The terrace edge (TE) and surface corner (SC) are displaced the most.
 The magnitude of displacement of (SC) and (TE) are 0.013nm and 0.004nm which are equal to the 3.6%
and 1.2% of the lattice perimeter.
 Copper has FCC lattice, the FCC has crystals have closed packed plane and directions are preferred for
slip.

REFERENCE:
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep42234
REFERENCE:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Normal-stress-strain-curve-for-copper-showing-the-yield-stress-that-occurs-
after-the_fig10_234943569

DIFFUSION MECHANISM:
From an atomic perspective diffusion means a stepwise migration of atomic lattice to atomic lattice. In solids,
the atoms are tightly packed but are in continuous motion. So they also can change their position.

 To jump from lattice to lattice, atoms need some energy and this energy is transferred by thermal
energy.
 Diffusion can also happen in single material like atoms jumping from one side to another side. This is
called SELF DIFFUSION.
 The BCC and diamond structures of copper are identified to be an unstable.
 This instability can be because of very high temperature.
 This high temperature excites the atoms of copper and they switch their position and produce vacancy
diffusion.
 As the heat exchanger will bear high temperature from hot steel. There is possibility that diffusion can
take place.

REFERENCE:
https://www.gia.edu/doc/Cu-diffusion-Emmett.pdf

CREEP FAILURE IN COPPER:

Creep is the plastic deformation the metals that occur when external forces are applied. Creep depends on
stress level, its duration time and the temperature (which is different for each metal)

 In heat exchangers, heavy steel are going in to get cool down. These heavy weight steel apply stress on
copper atoms.
 After a long duration of passing steels over copper material, the copper will start deforming.
 Although we take care of the weight age of steel passing through heat exchanger.
 But in the end of the day it will start having the phenomenon of creeping because no material is ideal
so is the copper.
 So at point, copper also has this defect of creep failure.

REFERENCE:
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/045/2/V45.N02.A06.pdf
This graph shows the creep failure generally of every material with the passage of time.

REFERENCE:
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/creepofmetals-140904121636-phpapp01/95/creep-of-metals-5-638.jpg?
cb=1409833045

PHASE DIAGRAM
CONVEYOR:
Conveyors are used for the transportation of the heated slabs, billets, sheets etc. For this purpose, we have to
choose the material that withstand with the high heat of the billets so we need special alloys to handle the hot
material also the material strength should be higher than that of the billets because of the safe side like not
deformation occurs in our material.
REFERENCE:
https://media.istockphoto.com/photos/hot-steel-on-conveyor-in-steel-mill-picture-id502096160?
k=6&m=502096160&s=170667a&w=0&h=vqZ5j3YO6C6yRrfEdUxA-zywr9dDC5XyysjbhlTOZ28=

MATERIAL SELECTION:
The best material for the conveyor is based on its elastic modulus, yield strength, high temperature bearer so,
the material to be selected is stainless steel due to its yield and tensile strength by which it is not deform after
applying the load and by bearing the high temperature of the product that is billets.

STAINLESS STEEL:
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron. It contains varying amount of carbon, silicon, manganese, chromium etc.
Nickel and molybdenum are also added to increase the corrosion resistance. They use for many purposes
including domestic, in industries like in chemical and pharmaceutical, oil and gas for piping assemblies.
Medical purposes for sensors etc.

DIFFERENT MATERIALS PROPERTIES:

 Stainless steel has the highest elastic modulus than the carbon steel and zircon ceramic so that it cannot
fracture or rupture by the amount of load applied when the billets come over it until it is less than its yield
strength.
 Whereas both the carbon steel and ceramic have less modulus may be by the fluctuation in the weight of
the billets they can be fracture before stainless steel.
 Also, the table shows us about the yield strength and tensile strength both are higher of stainless steel
than that of carbon steel and ceramic.
 That’s why we select stainless steel as its strength is high to bear the loads so that it not gets deform fast.
 Melting point is one another important factor in selecting the material of conveyor as temperature of the
billets is also point of consideration.
 As we know that conveyor have to take the billets that is at very high temperature above 1350◦C so we
have to select the material that with stand with this high temperature.
 Melting point of carbon steel is not good because it is too close to the billet high temperature.
 Also, carbon steel is brittle and will not show any indication before fracturing which can be very harmful
for the employees as well as a financial lost.
 Ceramic has the very high temperature but it also falls in the brittle material so it is not suitable for the
economic point of view.
 It’s not good for us that our material thermally deforms due to the high temperature of billets so the
stainless steel is here which has less thermal expansion.
COMPARISION OF STAINLESS STEEL WITH CARBON STEEL:
 COMPARISON GRAPH OF STAINLESS STEEL AND CARBON STEELON THE BASIS OF STRESS AND
STRAIN:
Reference:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan_Medina73/publication/270968941/figure/download/fig3/AS:733460805210
115@1551882091473/Comparison-of-stress-strain-curves-for-stainless-steel-and- carbon-steel-coldrolled-and.png

 Stainless steel is a ductile material. It is our choice that we select ductile material so that if the material
shows any necking so we are able to correct it or replace it within time without causing any serious
damage to the process as well as environment.
 Carbon steel is a brittle material as we see in the graph so we don’t know when it ruptures so that it is
not our material of choice.
 Carbon steel break before it goes to plastic deformation phase as it is a brittle material.
 May it harm us as it breaks suddenly without indication of necking.
 Stainless steel indicates the necking property so that without its breakage we do change it.
 Stainless steel has more elastic limit than the carbon steel.
COMPARISON OF STAINLESS STEEL AND CARBON STEEL ON THE
BASIS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:

Reference:
https://cr4.globalspec.com/PostImages/201108/Thermal_conductivity_od_stainless_steel__103718CC-D177-674E-
34D7565660542EC1.jpg

I. Stainless steel is less thermal conductive but it is more thermal resistant as compared to carbon steel.
II. As the stainless steel protect itself from deformation by the low thermal conductivity when the heated
billets come upon it.
III. Carbon steel deform by taking or conducting the heat from the heated billets so not good for us.

COMPARISON OF CERAMIC AND METALS:

Reference:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Comparison-of-thermal-expansion-coefficients-of-metals-and- ceramics-
18_fig2_308373329

I. Stainless has more thermal expansion than the ceramic but other point is that the ceramics not bear
the high stress and strain.
II. Stainless steel is ductile so that its elastic modulus is more than the ceramics.
III. Ceramics are the brittle materials they break very easily.
IV. As we can see by the graph that the stainless steel has more thermal expansion but on the contrary
ceramics not bear high load as their modulus of elasticity is small.
V. Here the elastic modulus matters more than the thermal expansion so that’s why we still select the
stainless steel.

CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DURABILITY:

I. With the right mixture of alloy elements, it is possible to get a stainless steel that can resist corrosion.
II. Due to the less corrosion occurring in stainless steel it becomes the choice or our material.
III. As the oxygen present in the air but due to the coating of stainless steel by chromium oxide the inner
metal iron not get corrode.
IV. This layer of chromium oxide is very corrosion resistant which prevents the rust formation.
V. Stainless steel is a durable metal allowing it to withstand the wear and tear of everyday activities.
VI. It is due to the invisible layer of chromium that prevents oxidation with the atmospheric air.
VII. So that it is the wonder metal of choice in many purposes.

Reference:
https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:990918/FULLTEXT01.pdf

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/docs/documents/1170/oxygen-steel-pipe-corrosion-diagram_degF.png
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/docs/documents/1170/oxygen-steel-pipe-corrosion-diagram_degF.png

DEFECTS:
 FATIGUE FAILURE:
 Fatigue failure occurs due to repeated and cyclic load.
 The fatigue crack growth behavior is generally consistent with that of stainless steel.
 Because it is here applicable as a conveyor and subjected to cyclic and fluctuated stress and load not in
a single application of load and high and low temperature as well.
 There is a stress level at which fatigue should not occur.
 The fatigue stress is less than the yield stress of the static load.
 Due to this crack are initiated on our material and after some time the final failure occur.
 But it is good about the stainless steel as it is a ductile material so that we come to know about the
failure or rupture by indication given by the necking property and cracks.

FATIGUE LIFE OF STAINLESS-STEEL GRAPH:

REFERENCE:
https://www.mdpi.com/materials/materials-10-00689/article_deploy/html/images/materials-10-00689-g011.png

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
I. The environment has also an important effect on the defects.
II. As out conveyor made of stainless steel is open to atmosphere.
III. So, the humidity, contaminants like sulfur dioxide, chlorine, nitrogen oxides etc. may affect out
stainless steel.
IV. We have to take care about the carburization and sulfidation resistance.
V. Stainless steel is somehow resisted these effects due to its iron converted to the alloy and chromium
present in stainless steel.
VI. Sulfides forming on grain boundaries and then oxidized.
VII. This grain boundaries causing embrittlement of alloy.
VIII. They have highly detrimental effect on the useful life of material.
REFERENCE
https://www.nickelinstitute.org/media/1699/high_temperaturecharacteristicsofstainlesssteel_9004_.pdf

STRUCTURAL DEFECTS:
I. The effect of micro structure is important not only it determines the level of strength and ductility of
material before and during exposure to service condition.
II. It influences the resistance to secondary factors like corrosion, thermal fatigue cracks etc.
III. By the fluctuation in temperature due to cyclic revolution of billets out stainless steel become effected
it may cause the void spaces and ultimately occurs position interchange.
IV. Due to high temperature may be interstitial or impurity and vacancy defects may be occurred due to
smaller elements present in stainless steel get excited by the temperature.

STRUCTURAL DEFECTS OF STAINLESS STEEL DUE TO DIFFERENT

ELEMENTS PRESENT:

REFERENCE:
https://www.shaalaa.com/images/_4:8ea1029252314b37a3966797b6c77be5.png
 BESSEMER CONVERTER
AN OVERVIEW:
1. The BESSEMER PROCESS was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel
from molten pig iron. And the equipment used for this purpose called BESSEMER CONVERTER
2. This is named after the inventor, the Englishman HENRY BESSEMER.
3. The key principle is the removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through
the molten iron.

REFRENCES:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/Bessemer-process

https://www.garmendale.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Sir-Henry-Bessamer.webp

Process:
1. The process consists of melting cast iron in a large vessel (called a Bessemer converter) and blowing air
through the molten iron from the bottom of the vessel, through nozzles called “TUYERES”.
2. The oxygen in the air oxidizes impurities such as silicon, manganese and excess carbon and forms
oxides, which either escape as gases or form lighter slag which floats on top of the molten iron and can
be separated.
3. The materials used to line the insides of the Bessemer converter vessel also play an important part in
removing some impurities called “REFRACTORY LINING”
 4. After the oxidation is complete, the slag is removed and a precise quantity of carbon and other
elements are mixed into the molten metal to form steel. This molten steel is then poured into molds to
solidify.

CLO-1:
MATERIAL SELECTION:
The Bessemer converter is a cylindrical steel pot approximately 6 meters (20 feet) high, originally lined with a
siliceous refractory. Air is blown in through openings (Tuyeres) near the bottom, creating oxides of silicon and
manganese, which become part of the slag, and of carbon, which are carried out in the stream of air. Within a few
minutes an ingot of steel can be produced, ready for the forge or rolling mill.

1. REFRACTORY LINING:
Refractory, any material that has an unusually high melting point and that maintains its structural
properties at very high temperatures. Composed principally of ceramics.
Most refractories can be classified on the basis of composition as either clay-based or no clay-based. In
addition, they can be classified as either acidic (containing silica [SiO2] or zirconia [ZrO2]) or basic
(containing alumina [Al2O3] or alkaline-earth oxides such as lime [CaO] or magnesia [MgO]).

REFRENCE:
WRITTEN BY:
Thomas O. Mason Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois.
 BESSEMER PROCESS ON THE BASIS OF REFRACTORY LINING:
Depending upon the nature of lining material of converter, this process may be acidic or basic.

1. ACIDIC PROCESS:  
In acidic process:
1. The lining material is acidic in nature such as clay, quartz, etc.
2. It is adopted when iron ores are free from or when they contain very small amount of Sulphur and
phosphorus.
2. BASIC PROCESS:
In basic process:
1. The lining material is basic in nature such as lime, magnesia, etc.
2. It is adopted for pig-iron containing impurities of any type.
3. The basic process is commonly adopted.

REFERENCE: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/steel/how-to-manufacture-steel-7-step-process/46745

 WHY WE USE BASIC PROCESS INSTEAD OF ACIDIC PROCESS?

1. In acidic process silicon, manganese and carbon only are removed by oxidation while in basic silicon,
manganese, carbon, phosphorus and Sulphur can be removed from the charge.
2. The raw material contains low silicon and high phosphorus contents.
3. To remove the phosphorus the bath of metal must be oxidized to a greater extent than in the
corresponding acid process.
4. In the acid process de-oxidation can take place leaving a reasonable time for the inclusion to rise into
the slag and so be removed before casting whereas in basic de-oxidation is rarely carried out in the
presence of the slag otherwise phosphorus would return to the metal.

REFERENCE: http://pratclif.com/mines/iron%20carbide/steel.converter.pdf
 SELECTION OF REFRACTORY LINING MATERIAL:
In this work the conventional lining of the converter was
considered as three different layers. Magnesite brick was used as
inner lining which is the thickest part. Then Dolomite is used as
intermediate lining and the outer part is the body of the Steel
shell.

1. Magnesite brick (magnesium carbonate, MgCO3) is a

high performance refractory, which has high resistance to
high temperature and is specifically designed for use in
steelmaking industry.
2. Dolomite (Mg, Ca) CO3, is almost indistinguishable from
magnesite [11]. In steel refining processes, the use of
dolomite extends the life of refractory linings. In fact
addition of dolomite creates excellent bonding with MgO
particles which provides excellent coating protection in the
refractory lining.

REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf

 PROPERTIES OF REFRACTORY LINING MATERIAL:

For all materials, their densities are assumed to be constant. Thermal conductivities and specific heat
capacities are normally expressed as functions of temperature if the value changes significantly with the
change of temperature. However, in this work they are also assumed to be constant. Density and thermal
physical Properties of the lining materials are listed:
S.No PROPERTIES MAGNESITE DOLOMITE STEEL
1- Density 2910 2876 7840

Kg/m3

2- Thermal conductivity 2.314 5.3 54

W/m-k
3- Specific heat 1515 1030 465

J/kg-k

REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
 MODELING PROCEDURE:
Modeling was performed in two stages:
1. In the first step, the temperature inside and outside of the converter was estimated as fixed
temperature.
2. In the second step, real temperature inside and outside of the converter was considered which was not
fixed in real case.
 First Step:
In this step the converter was considered as heated. The initial temperature of the outer wall was considered
as 300K and the inner temperature of the converter lining was considered as 1923K. In this step the
temperature of the gas, slag and steel were considered as the boundary condition.

 Second Step:
In this step the converter was not considered as heated. The inner surface of the lining from the bottom to top
is in contact with the steel, slag and gas. For this reason the temperature of the steel (Tst), slag (Tsl) and gas
(Tgas) were set as boundary condition.

REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf

 TEMPERATURE PROFILE ALONG THE CONVERTER HEIGHT:

The models are design to show the temperature distribution profiles along the vertical part of the converter
from its bottom to top with increasing time.
The temperature changes in the vertical part of the converter. X-axis indicates the position of the converter
from bottom to top and Y-axis shows the temperature. In the figure there are 3 curves for 2 min, 4 min and 6
min. It is seen that from 2 to 6 min the inner wall temperature is increasing for the steel, the slag and the gas.
But the gas temperature is decreasing from the slag temperature to its lowest temperature in the upper wall.
And it is also seen that at 6 min the slag height is maximum.
 REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf

According to a theoretical review, the slag height decreases after 6 min, which is also seen in the following
diagram. The steel and slag temperature is increasing continuously to its highest temperature and at the end
of first heat after 16 min the steel and slag temperature is the same. Furthermore, the gas temperature
decreases from the slag to the upper wall of the converter. After the first heat (first 16 min) the steel and slag
temperature is the same. Because at the start of the first heat converter was cool. But after the first heat
during oxygen blowing the converter has been heated. Thus, during the second heat after a few minutes of
oxygen blowing the heat is maximum.

REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf
 TEMPERATURE PROFILE DISTRIBUTION AT FIXED POSITIONS:
The model was design to show temperature profiles through the lining at different positions.
1. In this work 4 different positions were selected for a better understanding of this temperature
profile through the lining
2. The temperature changes through the lining of the converter at the position of X= 1.3m for 8
different steps up to 70 heats.
3. This part of the converter is exposed to the steel. Therefore, the maximum point in the diagram is
at the highest temperature.
4. The temperature is decreasing from the hot surface to the bottom through the lining. Plus, in a
particular position the temperature increases with the increasing number of heats.

REFRENCE
https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf

The graph below shows the temperature changes in the bended part of the converter at the height of 2.15m
for 8 different heats up to 70 heats.
1. This part of the converter is exposed to the steel and the slag.
2. The maximum point of all the curves in the diagram is also at the highest temperature.
3. In all steps the temperature is continuously decreasing from that the hot surface through the lining
from the inner to the outer wall of the converter.
4. In a particular position the temperature increases with the increasing number of heats.
 REFRENCE: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/6113.pdf

2. TUYERES:
1. The tuyeres or blast holes are in the bottom.
2. The vessel is generally movable out a horizontal axis through 180°, but occasionally it is fixed.
3. Air is blown in through openings (tuyeres) near the bottom, creating oxides of silicon and manganese,
which become part of the slag, and of carbon, which are carried out in the stream of air.
The tuyeres in a Bessemer's Converter last for a relatively short time and for this reason a spare
bottom assembly is provided. This assembly includes the bottom ring, wind box, tuyere plate, tuyeres
'and a refractory bottom.
REFRENCE: https://patents.google.com/patent/US2977108

 MODIFICATION OF BESSEMER STEEL CONVERTER:

In the ordinary pneumatic steel process there are four elements which are susceptible of essential
modification. These are:
1. Shape of converter
2. Nature of lining
3. composition of metallic charge
4. composition of blast
It maybe possibly thought that two important factors have been omitted. Time and temperature. But they are
involved on the above factors. In the regular Bessemer process the shape of the converter it will be
remembered like bulging vase with tuyeres or blast holes in the bottom. The vessel is generally movable about
a horizontal axis through 180 degree.
REFRENCE: https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-0016003287901165/first-page-pdf

CLO-2:
 VANTAGES:
1. The cost of building a Bessemer converter plant is less than other
2. A Bessemer converter, with its small size and ease of handling, makes it possible to produce small
tonnages of many different grades of steel, actually three grades of steel in less than an hour.
3. The flexibility is all the more attractive in times of slack demand when quick deliveries of small
tonnages are desirable from standpoint of the manufacture
4. Probably because of the higher ferrous oxide content of acid grade, it has peculiar properties of
machinability, stiffness, weldability and sensitivity to cold work. High- Sulphur Bessemer steel
possesses a tremendous inherent advantage by reason of ease of machinability. Bessemer steel,
both hot rolled and cold drawn, is generally stiffer than open hearth steel of equivalent tensile
properties.
REFRRECES: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/steel/how-to-manufacture-steel-8-
processes-metallurgy/41530

 LIMITATIONS OF BESSEMER CONVERTER:

Why Bessemer process has become out dated?

1. This process has got some limitations:

2. Pig iron of selected composition is required to be charged
 3. Phosphorus and Sulphur (to some extent) can only be oxidized by basic Bessemer process.
4. The steel contain high content of nitrogen, because air is blown for oxidation. This provides adverse
effects and make the steel unsuitable for most application such as deep drawing purpose.

 ACCIDENT CAUSES DURING BESSEMER PROCESS:

The statement is already made with regard to open hearths are applicable in a rather large number of cases to
the Bessemer department. This section will therefore emphasize particularly those features of hazard which
are peculiar to the Bessemer process.

1. When the blast is turned into the converter many molten particles are thrown out. Ordinarily these are
not of a size to be particularly dangerous, but at times they may cause serious burns.
2. Screens protecting the workers are now frequently used with good effect, but more important
probably is the adoption of a plan of work which does not require the men to expose themselves as
much as formerly.
3. The second item is the throwing of heavy masses of scrap into the converters. When this was done
directly the men were exposed to great heat and often the masses of scrap would fall to the pit floor,
seriously endangering anyone working there.
4. In the best plants this is now done behind water-cooled screens and through chutes which make a fall
to the floor below nearly impossible.

REFRENCE:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/bls/bls_0298_1922.pdf
DRAW BACK:
1. Bessemer converters did not remove phosphorus efficiently from the molten steel; as low-phosphorus
ores became more expensive, conversion costs increased.
2. The process permitted only limited amount of scrap steel to be charged, further increasing costs,
especially when scrap was inexpensive.
3. Use of electric arc furnace technology competed favorably with the Bessemer process resulting in its
obsolescence.

REFRENCE:
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/steel/how-to-manufacture-steel-8-processes-metallurgy/41530

PHASE DIAGRAM
 MATERIALS & MATELLURGY(ME-209)
ASSIGNMENT RUBRIC

Assessment Unsatisfacto ory Average Good Excellent Sco

Criteria ry (1-4) (5) (6-9) (10) re

Organization The information a pears to Information is Information is Information is

be disorganized. organized, but organized with well- very organized
(25 %) paragraphs are constructed with well
not well- paragraphs. constructed
constructed. paragraphs and
subheadings

Quality of Information has lit tale Information Information clearly Information

nothing to do with or the clearly relates to relates to the main clearly relates to
Content topic. There is no main the main topic. topic. Points are the main topic.
(50 %) analysis. critic Points are made, but analysis is Points are clearly
al insufficiently weak. made.
developed. Analysis is
Analysis is sophisticated
minimal

Formatting Fails to follow for mat Meets format Mee format and Meets all formal
assignment require and and ts mint and assignment
(25 %) incorrect margins, mints; assignment assi emends; requirements and
and indentation; ne spacin requirements; gn margins, evidences
essay needs g generally requ g, and attention to detail;
attention atness correct ire actions are all margins,
of on. margins, spac t; essay is neat spacing and
spacing, and ing tly assembled. indentations are
indentations; inde correct; essay is
essay nt neat
is neat but corr and correctly
may have ect assembled with
some and Professional look.
assembly corr
errors. ect

Total