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Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

ICMPC_2018

Manufacturing, characterization and applications of lightweight

metallic foams for structural applications: Review
Parthkumar Patela, P.P.Bhingoleb*, Dhaval Makwanac
a
M Tech student,Mechanical Engineering Department, IITRAM,, Ahmedabad - 380026, India.
b
Assistant Professor,Mechanical Engineering Department, IITRAM,, Ahmedabad - 380026, India.
c
PhD student,Mechanical Engineering Department, IITRAM,, Ahmedabad - 380026, India.

Abstract

Metallic foam becomes most promising class of material in industrial and scientific area due to advantages of unique
combination of mechanical properties like lower weight, high energy absorbing capacity, high stiffness and high damping
capacity. Metal foams are being used in many industrial applications such as light weight structural applications, bone implants,
filters, electrodes, heat exchangers etc. The purpose of this study is to summarize the fabrication and characterization of metal
foam for bone implant applications. Various biomaterials, fabrication methods of metal foam, aluminium and its alloy foam and
characterization techniques are reviewed in present work.

© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of Materials Processing and characterization.

Keywords: Metallic foam; aluminum; structural applications; biomaterials

1. Introduction
New class of solid metallic foams finding its importance because of exceptional combinations of mechanical and
physical properties. Foams can be defined as uniform dispersion of gaseous phase inside solid or liquid [1]. Highly
porous materials along with foam having cellular structures possess unique and attractive combinations of
mechanical and physical properties which is the main reason that nature frequently use them in various functional
and structural applications like bone, wood etc.[2]. With the rapid growth of aerospace, defence and automotive
field there is need of materials having properties like low weight for better fuel efficiency and high specific strength

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-8266990912;
E-mail address: pramod_bhingole@yahoo.com

2214-7853 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of Materials Processing and characterization.
20392 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402

along with high energy absorption capacity to sustain impact forces [3,4]. Lightweight alloys as well as their foams
have very sound mechanical, electrical, acoustic, chemical and thermal properties so their structural and functional
applications are increasing [4,5]. Metallic foams can be recycled without any waste management issue [6]. One of
the unique advantage of foams is that mechanical properties can be controlled by controlling pore size, density,
geometry and foaming material. Foam structures can be of several types which includes open foams (pores
connected to each other so that matter can pass through them), partially open foams and closed foams (isolated
closed pores filled with any gas). All aforesaid types of foams have different applications. Open cell foams are used
in functional applications (filters, heat exchangers, catalyst supports) while closed cell and partially open cell foams
are used in structural applications (silencer, sound and energy absorbers, bearings, automobile, aerospace, defence,
construction etc.) [2]. Al foam structures possess comparatively high specific strength and stiffness because of less
density than that of solid structures, easy recycling, non-toxic outstanding properties for sound absorption, vibration
and impact energy [7]. Increase in effectiveness of porous materials in biomedical application focused attention of
researchers towards this field.
Foam structures of bioinert (materials which do not having any effect on or response to any biological activity),
bioactive (materials which have effect on or draw response from any living tissue), biodegradable (can be broken
down into simpler forms by biological process), bioresorable (materials which can be broken or absorbed by living
body) or biocompatible (materials having no harmful or toxic effect on any part of living body) are extensively used
in biomedical applications like tissue engineering, scaffolds, body implant etc.[8]. One of the main reason behind
application of foam structures in implants could be facility of adjustment of mechanical properties of foam structure
to compare with that of natural bone by controlling various parameters during foam manufacturing [8,9]. Porous
materials found effective in biomedical applications for drug adsorption and delivery inside body of living being
[10,11]. Application of biodegradable porous polyester based materials were suggested for bone substitution
applications. But they have limitations in terms of strength and relatively low moduli making them unsuitable for
aforesaid load bearing applications [12]. So it is important to develop new material for load bearing bone
substitution application having similar mechanical properties as that of natural bone [8]. Foam structures of
materials like Ti, Ni, SS316, Fe, Zn, Mg and Cu have been used for biomedical applications. In lightweight
materials foam category Ti, Al and Mg are widely used. Al foam structures absorb appreciable impact energy under
quasi-static loading and dynamic loading by large plastic deformations making it ideal candidate for energy
absorbing and construction protecting applications like in sacrificial crash boxes, which are deformable energy
absorbing devices used in automobile systems between chassis and bumper to reduce impact of accidents to
passengers within velocity range of 3-5 m/s [7,13–17]. Al foams are best suitable to be used in non-flammable
constructions for sound and thermal insulation, mechanical damping, acoustic absorption, sandwich cores,
lightweight panels for building and transport designed to resist buckling and impact, vibration control, strain
insulation [19,20,21]. Light Al foam sandwiched between denser outer Al sheets is important application of metallic
foams [9]. Mg have various exceptional properties like high specific strength, high shock absorption capability, low
density, good cast ability and good attributes for recycling makes it favourable option for structural applications
[20]. Properties like vibration damping, sound and energy absorbing capacity makes Mg suitable for functional
applications [21]. In current times, the growth rate of Mg is increasing at about 15pct per year [22]. Mg has exciting
properties of biodegradation and bioresorption [23,24]. So there is large scope of use of Mg foam structures in bone
substitute applications.
This review mainly focused on selecting economic production method, optimizing parameters for selected
manufacturing method with consideration of strength and density and characterization of foam structure of
lightweight material for structural and biomedical applications. There is need to study resultant foam properties
matching with that of natural bone. Al and Mg is considered as lightweight materials. Among these two aforesaid
materials, Al is selected as target material because of easy and safe methods of Al foam manufacturing. Also there is
chance of explosion in manufacturing of Mg foam. Research can be done in future in this field in developing
optimum parameters for manufacturing of Mg foam structures. After introduction of foam structures concept with
their properties and applications, main materials used in biomedical field are discussed in next section. Then
production methods for foam structures are discussed. As this review is focused on Al so a whole section is
dedicated to Al as foam material. In this section methods and processing parameters used in past literature are
reviewed. Last section discusses the characterization methods used in past literature for characterization of foam
structures.
 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402 20393

2. Materials used in biomedical field

Bone is bioceramic composite of collagen, non-collagenous proteins, minerals, other organic matters and water
with unique combination of fracture toughness and high strength due to it organic-inorganic structure [25–27]. Bone
is identified as either cortical bone (hard outer layer with 10-30% porosity) or cancellous bone (internal spongy
layer with 30-90 % porosity) [26].
Biomaterials are artificial materials used to replace part of any living system and they function with remaining in
contact with living tissue [28]. Bone implants made of biomaterials are used to replace any part in living system.
Bone implants can be of temporary type which degrades over time or it can be of permanent type. Later type of
implants have advantages that it reduces number of surgical operations need to be done [29]. Scaffolds are
temporary implants made of porous biodegradable material [26]. Properties of ideal porous metal used in scaffolds
is discussed in previous literature [30]. Those properties involve biocompatibility [31], non-immunogenic;
osteoconductive (adhesion and growth of bone cells around scaffold); osteoinductive (ability to heal bone) [26];
mechanical strength and properties like Young’s modulus (Young’s modulus of cortical bone is around 15 to 20
GPa and that of cancellous bone is around 0.1 to 2 GPa), compressive strength (compressive strength of cortical
bone is around 100 to 200 MPa and that of cancellous bone is around 2 to 20 MPa) should be similar to natural
bone; scaffold should allow to form blood vessels around it to support transport of nutrient, waste, oxygen [25];
porosity of scaffolds should be in the range of 250-300 µm as optimum value and should be at least greater than 100
µm for better diffusion of nutrients and oxygen for cell requirements [34,35]; scaffolds should contain both micro
and macro porosities because it was recently concluded that those scaffolds perform better than scaffolds having
only one type of porosity [33].
All solid biomaterials are divided into four groups: biometals, bioceramics, biopolymers and biocomposites [34].
Biomaterials from each group are discussed in subsequent paragraphs. Biometals are widely used among all other
group of biomaterials. Because of high strength to weight ratio titanium is used more widely in biomedical implants.
Titanium is used in various forms such as pure titanium, Ti6Al4V alloy, Ti50Ta alloys [38,39]. Most of alloys of
titanium used in biomedical implants are β-stabilized alloys because they aid in bone growth since they have lower
elastic modulus [36]. In earlier times vanadium stainless steel was used for biomedical implants before 1920s. Than
various new alloys of stainless steel like SS304, SS316L, ultra-clean high nitrogen austenitic stainless steels were
used according to required properties ad applications [37–40]. Cobalt alloys generally used for their corrosion
resistance properties in biochemical environment include CoCrMo alloys and CoCrNiMo alloys in which F1058
(40Co20Cr15Ni7Mo) has been used for long time as permanent implant [39,41,44]. Various amalgams are used for
dental fillings which includes silver tin amalgams, high copper amalgams (Cu6Sn5), silver and gold based alloy
amalgams [37]. Rare earth magnets like NdFeB family are used because of their strong magnetic properties for
specialized medical applications [37]. Rare earth magnets are used as dental keepers because the strong
magnetisation helps to keep dental fixtures in place [37]. NiTi alloys because of their special properties like psuedo-
elasticity and shape memory effect with superior corrosion resistance, wear resistant, biocompatibility makes them
best suitable for biomedical implants like synthetic bone plates, wire for the bone marrow cavity, dental implants,
hip prostheses, blood filters, and endovascular prostheses [45,46,47]. Precious metals Pt, Au, Ag and their alloys
often used in dentistry applications because of their good ductility, castability and corrosion resistance [40].
Tantalum used for X-ray marker and stents because of its low magnetic susceptibility and excellent X-ray visibility
[40]. Biodegradable alloys found their potential application in biomedical applications. Among them Mg based
alloys (including Ca-, Al-, RE- based alloys) [23,43–48] and Fe based alloys (including pure iron, Mn- based alloys)
were proposed [11,49–51]. Biodegradable materials degrade inside body environment along with bone healing
process. So main advantage of using biodegradable material in implant application is that it reduce surgery needed
to remove implant material after bone healing process. Open porous structure allow body fluids transport and
growth of new tissue as shown in Fig.1 [52].
Bioceramics have high corrosion resistance, low cytotoxicity and high biocompatibility so they are best suitable
to be used in biomedical implants. Bioceramics can be categorized into bioinert (alumina, zirconia), biodegradable
(tricalcium phosphate), bioactive (hydroxyapatite, bio-active glasses, glass ceramics) and porous for tissue ingrowth
(hydroxyapatite coated metals, alumina) [53]. Amorphous phase alloys with non-ferrous system or Bulk Metallic
20394 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402

Glass (BMG) found their importance in biomedical applications because of their excellent biocompatibility
properties, high wear resistance, high strength and superior corrosion resistance [54]. Various types of BMG
systems like Ti-based, Zr-based, Fe-based, Mg-based, Zn-based, Ca-based and Sr-based alloying systems are used
as per requirements [6,60]. BMG foams fulfill the requirements related to physical and mechanical properties for
biomedical applications [55]. Biopolymers are used in biomedical applications because of their close similitude to
natural polymeric tissue components. Various polymers used in biomedical applications include polyamides
(nylons), cellophane, polyethylene, polypropylene, cuprophane, polyacrylates, fluorocarbon polymers, rubbers
(silicon, natural and synthetic) and high strength thermoplastics [28,56]. Biocomposites used in biomedical
applications are dental filling composites, carbon fiber-reinforced methyl methacrylate bone cement, ultrahigh
molecular weight polyethylene and porous materials orthopedic implants [28]. Porous structure assist growth of
bone or other tissues through pores as shown in Fig. 1. Biomaterials used in various biomedical applications as
shown in Table. 1 [40,57]

3. Production of foam structures

Research on foam fabrication methods started in 1920s and is going on till today’s date, for fabrication of good
quality foams [9]. Production methods can be classified according to state of material from which foam structures
are made or initial state of materials for foam manufacturing [2,9,19]. Production methods of foams can be classified
as production from liquid metal; solid metal powder; vapour or gaseous phase metal or metal ions. Among these
classification production of foams from liquid metal and solid metal powder are the most described methods in
previous literature. Methods from each classification are discussed in subsequent sections.

Table 1. Application of various biomaterials at various body parts of human body [40,57]

Devices Material used

Bone plate, screw, pin, wires
Orthodontic wire filling
Cranioplasty
Artificial joint in orthopedic
Spinal fusion
Artificial hip, knee, elbow, shoulder
Intramedullary nails
Artificial eardrum
Artificial valve in cardiovascular
Stent
Alveolar & Mandibular bone replacements
Craniofacial plate and screw
316L SS, Ti, Ti6Al4V, Co-Cr alloys
316L SS, CoCrMo, TiNi, TiMo, AgSn(Cu), amalgam, Au
Polyethylene, PMMA, Ti, HAP, HAP cements, TCP
CoCrMo, Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al7Nb
Bioglass, Hydroxyapatite (HAP), Tricalcium Phosphate (TCP)
316L SS, Ti, Ti6Al4V, Co-Cr alloys, High density Alumina, Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
316L SS, Ti, Ti6Al4V, Co-Cr alloys, polysulphone-carbon fibre composites
316L SS
Ti6Al4V
316L SS, CoCrMo, Ti
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PYFE) – carbon composite, Porous Al2O3, Bioglass, HAP
316L SS, Ti, Ti6Al4V, CoCrMo

3.1 Foam manufacturing from liquid metal

Foam can be manufactured from liquid metal by direct foaming or by indirect foaming with the help of casting
around solid space holding fillers. Some methods of foam manufacturing are discussed in subsequent sections

3.1.1 Direct foaming by blowing agents

This method is most explored in literature among all methods of foam manufacturing [3,6,13,14,58–62]. This
method mainly used for foaming of Al and its alloys, though other metals can be foamed by this method. In this
method, metal is melted and suitable viscosity enhancing material is added to increase viscosity of melt. Graphite or
stainless steel stirrer can be used for uniform mixing. Then Blowing agents are added for blowing of gas for
foaming. Metal hydrides, metal carbonates or metal oxides are generally used as blowing agents. Blowing agent
 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402 20395

with decomposition temperature matching with melting point of metal is generally chosen for better quality of
resultant foam [16]. After uniform mixing of blowing agent with molten metal, temperature of mixture is increased.
As soon as the temperature is reached to decomposition temperature of blowing agent, it starts to blow bubbles of
gas which are trapped inside melt. After gas entrapment in liquid melt, it is suddenly cooled to avoid any effect of
gravity during solidification. Shinko wire Co., Japan has patent of this method and it commercially manufacture Al
foam under trade name ‘ALPORAS’[63]. Various parameters which can affect foam quality in direct foaming
method are amount of viscosity enhancing agent, amount of blowing agent, stirring time, holding time after blowing
agent addition, temperature at which viscosity enhancement agents and blowing agents are added, solidification
method and time etc. Titanium hydride powder is generally used for fabrication of porous aluminum and other alloy
and it is most popular process for melt processing routes and powder metallurgy routes [64]. By adding titanium
hydride (1.6 %wt) at 680°C in aluminiun alloy melt, Decomposition of blowing agent will occurs at high
temperature and it releases the hydrogen [64–68]. During decomposition of titanium hydride, chemical reaction as
per equation (1) may occurs [64,69]. Dong-Hui Yang et. al. carried out the fabrication of Mg foam by use of calcium
carbonate as a blowing agent [70,71]. Exothermic reaction as per equation (2) occurs within the temperature range
of 575-750 ºC [71].
TiH2 = Ti + H2 (1)
Mg + CaCO3 = MgO + CaO + CO (2)

Zirconium hydride, Magnesium hydroxide and dolomite can also be used as a blowing agent [64,70]. Chromium
nitride and strontium carbonate is also used as a foaming agent to manufacturing of porous steel [72]. Foam
structures made by direct foaming are shown in Fig.2. Foams manufactured by direct foaming technique have
superior energy absorbing capacity and have highly isotropic and homogeneous cellular structure [16]. So it can be
concluded that direct foaming technique is excellent candidate for studying mechanical variability [17].

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing growth of bone into porous Fig. 2 Cross-section of an aluminium foam manufactured by
structure [9] direct foaming method [73]

3.1.2 Gas injection method

Foam can be manufactured by injecting pressurized gas in melt directly. Control of viscosity of melt in this
process is critical. Viscosity can be controlled by varying temperature of melt or adding ceramics. Gas injection
method is extensively used for foaming of Al and its alloys. This method is not suitable for foaming of materials
which oxidize rapidly like Ti and Mg. Gases which can be used in this method are air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
inert gases, oxygen and even water [10,20,83]. This method for foaming of Al and its alloys is being used by Cymat
Al Co.(originally by ALCAN) in Canada and Hydro Al in Norway [63,74,75]. Advantages of this method includes
large volume of foam can be produced continuously and complex shapes can be produced by selecting proper mould
[9,76].
3.1.3 Solid gas eutectic solidification
Some liquid metal make a eutectic system in hydrogen gas. When material melt into hydrogen atmosphere under
high pressure around 50 atm, homogeneous melt charged with hydrogen is obtained [63,65]. When liquid metal
cooled by reducing temperature and pressure, the melt will be transformed into two phase region i.e. mixture of
20396 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402

solid and gas [63]. Solidification will starts by removal of heat. This method can be used for nickel, copper, Al and
Mg [2,77–80]. Main disadvantage of this method is poor homogeneity [80].

3.1.4 Powder Compact melting technique (Isostatic pressing)

This is powder metallurgical method in which metal powder is used as a material and foaming takes place in
liquid state. Metal powders or alloy powders are mixed. Then powder is mixed with blowing agent such that
blowing agent is homogeneously distributed. Compaction of powder metal is done by hot uniaxial isostatic pressing
[81,82]. After that, temperature is increased up to melting point of metal matrix. Homogeneously distributed
blowing agent start to decompose and it release the gas. Thus, uniform highly porous structure is obtained. The
benefits of this method is many metals and alloy like Al and its alloy, tin, lead, brass, gold can be foamed. Generally
pure Al and its alloys such as 2xxx and 6xxx, AlSi7Mg and AlSi12 are foamed by this method. Composites of foam
and ceramics can also be foamed [2]. AlSi12 can be made by diffusion bonding to alumina plates at 500°C
temperature and pressure of 100 kPa. Al 6061 foam has been bonded to alumina plates by allowing the foam to
expand between layers of ceramics at particular distance [2].

3.1.5 Investment casting method

In this method, a mould template of polymer is fabricated and coating of wax slurry is applied on it. Then
infiltration of molten metal is done. Porous structure is obtained after removal of mould. Al, Mg, AlSi7Mg and
copper can be foamed by this method [83]. From this method, 80-97% porosity can be achieved. Main disadvantage
of this method is higher manufacturing cost.

3.1.6 Spray forming

In spray forming method, liquid metal is first atomized. Spray of fast flying atomized metal is created which is
sprayed on substrate of required shape to obtain dense solid form of metal. If blowing agent powders are added in
atomized spray, it results in release of gas which upon solidification becomes reason of porosity in resultant foam
structure. Main advantages of spray forming method are low oxide content, fine grain size. This method can be used
for steel and copper alloy. Porosities obtain from this method is around 60% s [2,84]. Main disadvantage of this
method is less uniformity in porosity.

3.2 Foam manufacturing from metal powder

In this method, metal powder remains in solid state during processing. Generally sintering and other solid state
operations are used to fabricate metallic foams.

3.2.1 Sintering of metal powders and fibres

This method includes powder manufacturing, compaction of moulding and sintering. For bronze material,
sintering temperature is around 820ºC and porosities can be obtained around 20-50% [2]. Disadvantage of this
method is very low strength of resultant foam structures. Al and its alloys contain oxide layer. So fabrication
metallic foam of Al from powder or granules is difficult. It can be deformed during pressing operation and break the
oxide layers which create metallic bonding between particles.

3.2.2 Space holder method

In this method, metal powder is alloyed with materials like carbamide, ammonium bicarbonate, dolomite,
titanium hydride etc. Pellets can be made by compaction of powder without using binder material. These pellets are
heated upto melting temperature of space holder material [9,85]. During sintering process, blowing agents are
removed leaving behind space holder particles from the pores. So, highly porous material can be fabricated.
From this method, 90% porosity can be achieved with good strength [9,86]. Advantage of this method is that
complex shape can be fabricated and it is economical. This method is generally used for fabrication of porous steel.

3.2.3 Foaming of slurries

Slurry of metal powder is first made and blowing agents are added. Some additives can also added to improve
flow properties of slurry. This slurry is poured into mould and heated at high temperature. At high temperature,
slurry expands and releases the gas due to decomposition of blowing agents [2]. So, porous structure can be
 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402 20397

obtained. Al foam can be made by slurry of Al powder and orthophosphoric acid with aluminum hydroxide or
hydrochloric acid as a blowing agent. Upto 7 pct relative density can be achieved by this method [2]. Open cellular
metal can be made by this method. Disadvantages of this method include that, cracks may form in porous structure
and poor strength is obtained.

3.2.4 Foaming by rapid prototyping technique

Foaming by rapid prototyping includes 3D printing process for producing sacrificial template. This template can
be used for metallic slurry to produce porous metal structure. Sacrificial template is made layer by layer with a
binder. After one layer of binder, another layer of metallic/ceramic power is created by spray. In this way, entire part
is completed by layers [9,87]. From this method, porous Mg can be generated. Open cellular Mg can be fabricated
by this method [9,88]. Main disadvantage of this method is higher cost.

3.3 Electro deposition technique

In this method, metal used is in form of ions in an electrolyte. The metal is galvanically deposited on polymer
foam by electro-deposition technique [63]. Then it is removed by thermal treatments. Foamed polymer is replaced
by metallic material. So, actual foaming is not occurring in solid state. Also polymer foam require some electrical
conductivity for galvanic deposition initially [2]. From this method, Nickel-Chromium foams can be fabricated.
Density of 0.4 to 0.65 g/cm3 can be achieved by this method, which is independent of average pore size [2].

3.4 Vapor deposition technique

In this method, gaseous metals are used. Polymer precursor is used to define geometry of metallic foam. Metal
vapours are produced in vacuum chamber and allow to condense in precursor. Nickel foams, Nickel carbonyl foams
can be fabricated by this method [2] Densities obtained 0.2 to 0.6 g/cm3 range. There are different methods for
fabricating metallic porous material structures including metallic foam from liquid metal, powdered metal and
metallic ions in electrolyte etc. Metallic foam can supposed to replace conventional parts with respect to its physical
and mechanical properties and also to its economical factors by selecting suitable production methods [63].

4. Aluminum as foaming material

Al foams have attractive combinations of mechanical properties like high efficiency in absorbing energy of
impact due to its high specific strength, lightweight and high specific stiffness [59]. Most commonly used Al alloy
as foaming material as pure Al, 2xxx series and 6xxx series [72,89]. Al foams made from AlCu4 alloy (fractional
porosity 83pct) showed stress amplitude 30 times higher than that of polyethylene (PE, fractional porosity 87pct) in
stress-strain curve [72]. It has been shown that Al foams with addition of alloying elements such as Mg exhibited
higher compressive strength than Al foams with pure Al (99.5 pct purity) [72]. Also because of good foaming
properties and low melting points cast Al-Si alloys are used frequently in foaming process. Baumgartner and Gers
studied comparison of expansion rates of AlSi12 and AlMgSi alloy foaming [90]. The expansion rate of AlSi12 is
high because of very low viscosity of melt while that of AlMgSi expansion rate is low. But temperature range
between pore initiation and foam collapse is high in expansion of AlMgSi as compared to that of AlSi12. So time-
temperature control is not necessarily important in case of AlMgSi alloy. It can be conclude from this observation
that foaming of AlMgSi alloy is easy as compared to foaming of AlSi12 alloy. So AlMgSi is the best choice for
foaming in terms of ease of foaming as well as its superior mechanical properties and applications [90,91]. AlMgSi
alloy is most explored and widely used alloy because of superior corrosion resistance and excellent mechanical
properties. AlMgSi finds its applications in the field of aerospace, automotive (pistons, cylinder liners, bearings) and
constructional applications [91]. Also strength of ultrafine-grained AlMgSi alloy can be enhanced by combination of
cryogenic rolling with warm rolling [92] as shown in below Fig 3 and Fig 4 .
Direct foaming by blowing agent method is best suitable on the basis of better control of process parameters for
foaming of Al. Some concepts and process parameters used in past literature in direct foaming of Al and its alloys is
reviewed here. Foaming with metal hydrides as blowing agent give better value of mechanical properties as
compared to foaming with metal carbonates [6,93]. TiH2 has been used as blowing agent among metal hydrides in
past literature and resulted in better quality foams. TiH2 powder starts to blow with release of hydrogen at 450⁰C,
atmospheric pressure 1 bar and ends at 1668°C (melting point of Titanium) [90]. In direct foaming of Al by casting
20398 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402

Fig. 3. Optical micrograph of closed cell Al foam [13] Fig. 4. SEM micrograph of Al foam sample showing cell [7]

route technique with addition of Ca for viscosity enhancement and TiH2 as blowing agent, Ti and Ca remains inside
foam and forms Al4Ca and TiAl3 precipitates [13] . Literature suggest the effect of pct TiH2 addition on expansion of
AlSi12 foam that there is no effect of addition of TiH2 beyond 1pct on porosity or expansion of foam [16]. So in
practical applications pct addition of TiH2 taken varies from 0.5-1pct. Maximum porosity achieved in literature with
TiH2 as blowing agent in Al was 80 pct and for AlSi12 was 85pct. It was mentioned that porosity can be increased
by adding reinforcement particles or by changing alloying compositions but not by increasing amount of foaming
agent [16]. Foam expansion ratio is around 18.3 (assuming no loss) in Al foaming with 1.5 wt pct TiH2 addition
[60]. But observed foam expansion ratio of only 6.3 found in literature [60].

5. Characterization of foam structures

Various techniques are used to characterize foam structures to get useful information of their microstructure,
morphology, mechanical properties etc. Table 2 summarizes various methods used for microscopically
characterization of foam structures in past. Application of some of the methods are described in this review.

Table 2. Methods of characterization used for foam structures

Method Reference
Optical microscopy [2–6,13,38,39,62]
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [2,4,6,7,25,33,38,39]
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) [2,25,35]
X-Ray diffraction (XRD) [6,25]
X-ray micro tomography [2,29,33]
Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) analysis [25]

Optical microscopy helps to analyse cell microstructure and morphology. Optical microscopy needs sample
preparation which includes cutting, polishing (on emery paper and/or on polishing clothe) and etching with suitable
etchant (depends on foam material) of samples. Pore size and pore distribution can be determined by optical
microscopy [1]. Optical microscope image of one such foam is shown in Fig.4.

Average pore diameter is calculated by considering the pore diameter at different locations on the transverse
direction as well as on foaming direction using the formula L = 1.5/N, where N is the number of cells per unit length
[59]. The cell aspect ratio is ratio of mean cell diameter in perpendicular direction to foaming direction to the mean
cell diameter in the foaming direction [59]. Scanning Electron Microscopy is used to analyse surface and grain
structures which could not be visible by optical microscopy directly with large depth of field. Potential variations on
surface can be detected by SEM [94]. SEM micrograph of Al foam sample is shown in Fig.4. SEM is often
considered as bridge between TEM and optical microscopy. Three dimensional micrograph at all magnifications can
be obtained of rough samples because of high depth of focus and large working distance of SEM [95]. Electron
Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) used to determine structure, crystal orientation and phase of material in SEM.
 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402 20399

Immense range of signals can be obtained which infer diffraction patterns, images and many different types of
spectra from very small area of sample by Transmission Electron Microscopy [96]. Transmission Electron
Microscopes come in different types: HRTEMs, HVEMs, IVEMs, STEMs, and AEMs. X-ray tomography used to
determine three-dimensional density distribution in sample [1]. X-ray diffraction method used to determine
crystalline structure of all components present in sample [6,25]. Various tests are performed on foams to determine
mechanical properties like compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, hardness etc. Tests done in
particular research work depends on target application. Table 3 summarizes various test used in past. Almost all
mechanical properties of foam structure were discussed in literature [19]. Those tests include tensile, compression,
shear, multi-axial, fatigue, creep, hardness, surface strain mapping tests. Also non-destructive resonance frequency
technique for tensile test and damping measurements has proposed in literature [72].

Table 3.Various mechanical tests used in literature

Test Reference
Compression test [2,3,6,7,13,16–19,33,59,61,62]
Tensile test [2,5,19,36]
Hardness test (Vicker’s hardness) [2,3,5,19,35]
Flexural test [97]
Bending test [18,19]
Fatigue test [41]
Friction wear test [36]

As foam structures are mostly used for energy absorbing applications, compression test is most important and
necessary test for foam structures. Also literature reflects this thing as can be seen in Table 3. Compression tests
were carried out in literature with different dimensions of specimens as per material availability and required
accuracy of results. Standards were followed in testing wherever required to do so. One of the main reason behind
use of foam structures in structural application is because of its unique shape of compressive stress-strain curve. The
stress-strain curve consist of three distinct reasons: linear elastic region, plateau region, densification region [7].
Some of the important things to be keep in mind during mechanical testing are noted here. Young’s modulus of Al
foam was determined in literature and it was defined as unloading modulus in stress-strain curve of compression
testing of Al foam [69,70]. Unloading modulus was considered as double that of loading modulus, whereas loading
Young’s modulus was calculated from initial loading region of stress-strain curve of compression curve [59].
Mechanical properties of Al foam mainly depends on cell wall material and presence of gas/fluid inside cells [13–
16]. One of the main reason behind use of foam structures in structural application is because of its unique shape of
compressive stress-strain curve. The stress-strain curve consist of three distinct reasons: linear elastic region, plateau
region and densification region. Plateau stress was found as main parameter in literature for strength consideration
which can be defined as mean stress value form 5pct - 30pct strain during compression [59]. Effect of strain rate on
energy absorption and plastic strength in Al foam manufactured by direct foaming technique was studied in
literature by uniaxial compression tests with sample size with cross section of 25 X 25 mm2 and height of 50 mm for
strain rate sensitivity experiments [13].
6. Conclusions
Metallic foam structures are becoming interesting and important field of research in recent times. Metallic foams
have wider scope in terms of structural, functional, biomedical and chemical applications. Applications of foam
structures in biomedical is increasing due to their open cell structures and blood vessels as well as body fluids can
pass through foam structure. Also artificial bone implants can be made from closed foam structure such that weight
and strength of artificial bone implant made from foam material mimic the strength and weight exactly as of natural
bone. Finally, developing suitable production method with optimal process parameters and suitable characterization
methods for foaming of Al for biomedical application is the further field of research.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge the financial support provided by Department of Science and Technology, Science and
engineering research board (SERB), Government of India (Grant No. ECR/2016/001518).
20400 Parthkumar Patel et al./ Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 20391–20402

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