Sentence

A meaningful combination of words, subject + predicate.

Assertive or declarative : simple statement
Interrogative : question
Imperative : command, request, interaction
Exclamatory: : feelings.
Practice:

Phrase vs clause
A phrase is a meaningful combination of words do not have subject, verb combination, it could be either with the
subject or the verb, kinds are noun, subject, verb, adverb, adjective and preposition phrase.
A clause is a combination of subject and verb, it could be either an independent or dependent clause.
Parts of speech;
Kind of word on base of their use.
Noun: name of person place or thing, idea or feeling.
Verb: action or state eg. I am, am
Pronoun: word replace noun
Adverb: add something to verb, adjective or some other verb.
Adjective: describes noun, add to it meaning
Conjunctions: joining word, but, and
Preposition: word use with noun or pronoun to describe it
Interjection: sudden feelings, hurrah, alas.
Determiners: that limits the noun. This, that, a, an, the

Noun

Name of person, place, thing, feeling, idea etc.

concrete vs abstract nouns:
All the physical entities can be seen or touched are concrete nouns. Whereas, the abstract nouns are the ideas and
feelings.
Proper noun
Bob goes to the zoo Vs honesty is the best policy. always starts with
Common Vs proper noun. the capital letter
and common do
Common noun refers to a class of something, proper refers to a particular thing. Or owned. not
boy ; Umar ,
restaurant ; McDonalds
day ; Friday
Collective noun
A group of nouns taken as or spoken as a one single body.

A group of Collective noun

criminals Gang
Bees Swarm
Shoes Pair
Keys Bunch
Stairs flight
Fleet A group of boats.

Rules to use
Use them in conversation. Try to learn and use them.

If you forgot, just use the word group or the bunch For good speaking.

Group of criminals ate a bunch of grapes.

Abstract noun:
It denote to some property, or state., apart from noun.
Calmness from calm.
Obedience from obey.
Goodness from good.
Name of subjects or sciences is also abstract noun.
 Countable vs uncountable noun
The noun that can be counted in numbers are countable. We can use the numbers before them.
Five books, 2 balls.
Countable noun Uncountable noun
Books, pen. Ball Water, air, soil. Love, idea advice
Most abstract nouns
Use a/an No a/an, no plural forms
have plurals, eg. Books But units to measure them
A glass of water, a kilogram of soil,
How many? for question How much? for question
How many books, how many apples How much water, how much love
To answer
Use a few with small unknown amount Use a little with small amount
There are a few balls in the ground. A little water in the jug
with large unknown amount with large unknown amount
use many, a lot of use much, a lot of
Some Some
Some computers in my school don’t work. Some tea is left in my cup
Can act as plural Can’t act as plural

More building in my neighbor-hood , and fewer in yours.

Use fever with
I drink more tea and you drink less. countable noun and
less with uncountable
 Noun: Gender
Masculine or feminine.
Common gender: parents, kid, teacher, driver, guid.
Neuter gender: no gender, book, pen, non-living mostly.
Personified: non-living regarded as living , treated as male when strength and violence e.g. sun shed his rays on rich
and poor alike. Feminine when beauty and gentleness, moon has hidden her face behind the cloud.
Pluralized by adding some suffix –ess or entirely changing the word.

Noun: Number

S, -ch, sh, goes with -es at end.

End at O, goes with es
Noun ends at y preceding the : -ies, bully, to bullies
consonant
Noun ending with f or fe, goes –ves or s, calf to calves, chief to chiefs.
Some end at en Ox, child Oxen, children.
Singular=plural Swine, sheep, deer, fishes names, Swine, sheep, deer, fishes
names,
Pair, gross, hundred, thousand, Three dozen eggs,
pair when placed after numerals Two hundred rupees.

Instruments having two points, Scissors, spectacles

Some dresses Trousers, jeans, shorts
Some others: Riches, assets, thanks
Noun having s at ending, like plural Subjects name Mathematics, physics, arts, is a
but are singular good subject.
Diseases News of death is shocking.
Some games Measles, mumps, hepatitis, is
infectious disease
Billiards is my favorite game

People Both Some people are coming,

Japan have different peoples.
Proper noun not compound of man, Musalman, Brahman Musalmans, Brahmans.
 Numbers, figures Apostrophe and s He has two 5’s and 3 1’s.
Abstract and substance name are not No plural Health,
countable Copper, iron.

Nominative case: nominate the beneficiary of verb. \

It answer what
When a noun is used as a subject of verb.
e.g. aslam threw the stone. Here the stone is the noun of verb. It answers that on what the verb acted.
Objective case: beneficiary of object.
It answer whom.
I bought cap for Ali.
Accusative case: noun after preposition.
He hide under the table: table came after preposition under.
Rama gave the ball. Vs Rama gave Hari a ball.
Ball is direct object, Hari is indirect object.
Possessive case: it answers whose.

Singular Apostrophe and s Ali’s car

Plural with s Only apostrophe Girls’, boys’
Plural without s Apostrophe and s Men’s
Avoid hisses apostrophy Mathematics’
When noun of several words, Only lst one Mathew jane’s
Two noun Mathew and jane’s
Connected noun with separate Ali and aslam’s. Rahim and
possession karim’s etc.

It comes with name, personified objects, space and time,

With trade, relation, or profession, denote the building place or thing.
e.g. he went to his uncle’s: uncle’s house.
He is at the carpenter’s: at carpenter workshop.
Possession vs of
Remember that the possession is used for the ownership.
Enemy’s defeat is no better than defeat of the enemy.
PM’s reception: reception held by PM.
Reception of PM: reception held for PM.

Apposition:
Ahmad, the captain, made 20 runs
Here ahmad and captain are used for one person. The captain is describing the noun. Called apposition.
Noun that describes the other noun.

Adjective
Anything in the sentence that defines the noun
Attributive acjective:
Adjective used with the noun. E.g. he is a lazy boy.
Predicative:
Used in predicate part or with verb. E.g. the boy is lazy.
She is afraid of death.
I am quite well.

It answer
Predicative and
atrributive
Adjective of quality (what type) Aslam is a clumsy fellow.
(discriptive) Give the quality of noun. This wine is good,
Thing with its origin. Pakistani mangoes.
Adjective of quantity (how much) Much water, less rice,
I ate some rice no intelligence
Adjective of number Give exact number, one, two etc. Five fingers
(cardinal and ordinal) How many Few cats
In what order First day of school
Some boys are clever
Indefinite number Do not denote to exact number Few, all, many, no
adjective
Distributive number Denote to or specify a single Each of you will die,
adjective body India inspects every man.
every, either, neither
Demonstrative adjective (which) This boy
Point out someone That tree
These mangoes
I don’t appreciate such
behavior
Interrogative Question what is this game
Asking. whose agent are you
which fruit is the sweetest
What for general What are you doing
Which for selective. Which game are you playing.
What is this game, which one.
Emphasizing adjective That emphasize He is his own master
This is the very thing we
want
What Exclamatory What an idea
What a genius
Changeable according to This –these This girl, these girls.
number. That –those That car, those cars.
Comparative degrees.

Positive Mere the subject is having the Good, little

quality.
Comparative The dgree of quality is compared Better, lesser
here between two. Made by adding er
superlative Denote the most highest rank in Best, least
the quality. Made by adding est
Most intelligent or least dull
mind.
Laziest or least industrious.
For a single syllable Er and est
for more than one More and most Beautiful,
syllables Fearless, condensed
end in ing, ful, less ed
Er is used when same Ali is braver than ahmad
thing is compared
When different things are Ali is more brave than
compared stronge.
Iron is stronger than any Iron vs all other
other metal
Iron is strongest of all Iron vs iron as well
metal
Than is used with older He is my elder brother
Not with elder or eldest Ali is older than Aslam.
Nearest/ next Nearest for the shortest or the Mumbai port is nearest to
closest thing Europe
Next is for the subsequent or His house is next to post
consecutive thing office

Senior, junior, inferior, are followed by to Inferior to,

superior, prior, anterior
and inferior
Some Some is used in affirmative I need some water.
For request and offer May I have some water.
Would you like to have some.
Any Any is used mostly in negative or I don’t want to accompany
interrogative sentences. any of you on this trip.
For affirmative with if Do you have any issues?
If you need anything you can
tell
Each Weaker Five boys were seated on
For less than two things each bench.
For a group with definite number
Every It is stronger Every seat was taken
Used for more than two things
For a group with indefinite
number
Little Not much He showed little concern for
Thus have negative meanings his nephew.
He showed little mercy to the
vanquished.
A little Some but not much There is a little water in the
Positive meaning jug.
incomplete A little tact would have saved
the situation.
A little information is a
dangerous thing.
The little Not much, but all that one have The little information he had
 was not reliable.
The little knowledge of
carpentry stood him in a good
stead.
Few Not much, hardly any Few people can keep the
Thus have negative meanings secret.
Few men are reliable.
A few Some but not much A few Parsees write Jugrati
Positive meaning accurately.
incomplete
The few Not much, but all that one have The few clothes he had were
all tattered and torn.
The few friends he had were
all very poor.

Sunday, January 9, 2022

Adjective formation:
Normal End at r or est Fine, finer, finest
Happy, happier, happiest
One syllable end at consonant with Double the con. And er or est. Big, bigger, biggest
a vovel Red, redder, reddest.

Two syllable Usually take more and most. Beautiful, more and most.
When compare two attributes in No use of er. He is happier than rich,
one person. He is more happy than rich.
Use of other. Iron is stronger than any other
metal.

Iron is stronger than any metal.

It means iron is stronger than its
own. As iron is also a metal.

Farther vs further Distance vs distance and I have to go farther/further

additional He made no further excuses.
Latin based words end in or Use to instead of than. Interior, posterior,
He is senior to me. Senior, junior,
Wall is posterior to house. Superior, inferior
Prior.
Position of adjective:
Before and after noun, single attributive mostly before, more than one or explaining the meaning mostly after.
A good boy. Night dark and stormy. Sikh, man with turban.
Use of some adjective
Some Any
Mostly positive and affirmative, mostly negative and interogative.
I ill buy some mangoes. I will not buy any mango
Question for offering, Do you need any money.
You need some water? Positive with if
If you need any money, let me know.
Each Every
Particular totality Indefinite totality
Five bys on each bench. Every men is a liar.

Little/ few A little/a few The little/ the few

Not enough (hardly any), negative Not much, positive Not much, but all that is.
Little knowledge is dangerous There is still a little water left, you The Little investment you have is
He showed little mercy to the may have it and vanish your thirst. not enough for this business.
vanquished.

the ing and ed adjectives

ing adjective are the cause wheseas, the ed adjectives are the effect
the movie was boring so we were bored.
Avoid using comparative adjectives along superlatives.
He is more taller than ali. (more and taller are giving the same meaning so its wordiness)
The determiners re the grammer words used as adjectives.
My, our, own, his and her
This, that, these, those,
What which, whose
quantity
articles
order of adjectives:
determiners my, your, this, a/an, one
opinion good, bad, beautiful
size big, small, huge
shape round, square, triangle
age old, new, latest
color blue, grey, white
origin Spanish, French, Sindhi
material cotton, woolen, wooden
purpose cleaning, sports car
DOSSACOMP
French, blue, small, old, cotton, beautiful and round,…. Tablecloth
I have a beautiful small round old blue French cotton tablecloth
Yesterday I met a well-dressed young Japanese lady
James owns two expensive yellow German sports cars
The few poems he has written are all of great excellence. (conditional)

Articles

The adjectives a, an and the, are usually called as articles. These are the demonstrative adjectives.
Indefinite articles Definite articles
These articles usually do not specify the person of It normally specifies the subject.
interest or the subject.
a and an The
A doctor was called. He saw the doctor
An umbrella was purchased.
It means a specific doctor.
It means any doctor or any umbrella.
Used before singular countable noun Used before singular countable noun, plural countable
A book, un ambulance and uncountable nouns.
The book
The books

Consonant sound
A book
A year
A University (yew)
A cow is a useful animal
(any, represent the class)
A Ramu kaka was there
(vague certainty)
A day will come.
(common noun)
The beauty
Vowel sound Particular person
Already referred
An orange, an inkpot
An hour, an heir A singular noun represent a whole class
An honest The banyan is a kind of fig tree
Proper names and places
The ganga, the pacific
Unique things (the sun)
Before noun to give it the abstract sense
At-last the warier in him arouse
Comparative sand superlatives.
Ordinals: the first prize goes to.
Superlatives: the latest or highest rank.
Musical instruments: he liked the flute.
Emphasis: the boy shoot last night.
Comparison: the more you want, the lower you ll get.

Article omission
Sometime for man and woman, man is the only animal uses fire.
Articles are omitted sometimes before names and abstract nouns.
Sugar is bad for health. gold is a precious metal.
General sense: children like chocolates.
Before name of relations: father, mother, uncle, aunt. Father is calling you.

Article repetition

One person Two persons

I have a black and white dog. (one dog two traits),
No. of person. I have a black and a white dog. (two dogs)

He is a better mechanic than clerk, (one person)

He is a better mechanic than a clerk. (two persons)
 Compare The secretary and the treasurer are absent.
The secretary and treasurer is absent

Rules for use of articels

Select between a, an and the.
1: use a/an when talk about some person or thing unknown to listener.
Use the when talk about some person or thing known to listener.
e.g. I have two computers, a PC and a desktop. The PC is more expensive than the laptop.
The man in the grey suit is my boss.

2: Use a/an with non-specific person or thing.

Use the with specific person or thing.
e.g. I want ot buy an apartment.
I want to buy the apartment that we visited
e.g. If you are sick, you should visit a doctor.
What did the doctor say?

3: use a/an to mention the category or type of person or thing.

My car is a 2018 Honda.
I would like to become a member of your library.

4: to make a general statement, fact or truth.

Teacher should be friendly to students.
A teacher should be friendly to his/her students.
Dolphins are very intelligent.
The dolphin is an intelligent animal
This rule is only applicable to the nouns that can be used plural in multiple form.
I don’t like watching horror movies.
It cannot be generalized. Can’t use a or the horror movie.
5: article omission

No article with proper noun.

but some names has “the” in the name, e.g. the united states of America.
No article with names of games and languages
No articles with some fixed expression
On Sunday/Monday
At office, at work, go to bed etc.
 Pronoun (means: for a noun)
The words used instead of noun to avoid repetition of noun are called pronoun.

Daily.

Take a compulsory subject.

One topic per day.
Take next subject.
Explore dimensionally

Paragraph writing
Paragraph writing by Dorthy and Calrous islam
Paragraph writing by rosemerry
 Noun cases
Possessive case
Out apostrophy and s
Boy’s school. Ahmad’s ball.
But s is omitted for the words with hisses sound. For goodness sake.
In the case of plurals ending in s, just the apostrophy works for the plural. Boys’ school.
When noun Is plural like men or children, use apostrophy and s, men’s room.
For two nouns with connection, ali and ahmad’s house.
For separate possession each noun will have its own s. ahmad’s and ali’s theory are same.
Possession is used for the living things,
Also used for he personified things. Nature’s beauty.

The few poems he has written are all of great excellence.

 Pronoun
Word used in place of noun. i, we, they, you, he, she, it.
First person: speaking: I, we
Second person: speaking to: you him, you, her,
Third person: speaking of. You, he, she, it. (demonstrative pronoun)

First person

Single Plural
Nominative I, We
Possessive My, mine, Ours
Accusative Me Us
Second person
Single Plural

Nominative You You

Possessive Your/yours Your/Yours
Accusative You You
Third person
Single Plural

Nominative He she, it They, these

Possessive His, hers, its. Theirs, their
Accusative Him, her, it Them.

Use of it
With non living It is a book
With animal or baby when no gender or sex. It is a cow. The baby cried as it needs something.
To emphasize It was you who betrayed the investigations.
It is the book I have been looking for years
Impersonal pronoun of Impersonal verbs It rains.
It snows in the evening.
The rain is impersonal verb. Weather or time. It is ten o clock

The collective pronoun will be singular. is taken as The jury has declared its verdict,
 whole unit. Army has to win this battle.

Collective noun plural, when separate individual The jury decided the matter before leaving the seats.
considered. The commetee were devided in their decisions.
Singular and singular = plural Ali and Umar are playing.
PSPBG and SES have shaken hands.
Plural or singular = plural Either the manager or his assistants have made the
mistake.
Good manners You and I
2nd and 1st You and he
2nd and 3rd He and I
3rd and 1st Hari and I
Me is used to answer who, whose The parents are you and me
Nobody will be there for you but me.
Practice required. Personal pronouns.

Compound personal pronouns

Reflexive pronouns self or selves.
The object of verb belongs to subject.
That talk of their own-self.
He hit himself.
We enjoyed ourselves.
Emphatic pronouns put emphasis.
He himself prepared the model.
You yourself explain the situation.

Demonstrative pronouns
Point out at something,
This, that, these , those, it, such.
This vs that.
Close vs far with place
And sentence.
Good and bad offer yourself for choice, this (bad) leads to misery and that (good) leads to happiness.
That or those:
Avoid repetitions, weather of Faisalabad is like that of Belgium.
Indefinite pronouns (noun is not clear)
No-one, anyone, all, some, many, few, one day.
Anyone can live however he likes.
Each of them should give their best.
Distributive pronoun: talk of one out of total.
Each, either, neither.
Each of you will play.
neither of these books is yours.
Either of these planes will crash.
Relative pronoun
Act as pronoun and connects the two sentences.
Who, whom, whose, what. Which, that.
I met Ali who I had not seen for long. Who refers to Ali
this is the boy who was caught red handed.
This is the house which my uncle bought last night. When no gender.
This is the mosque whose floor is white.

Who My brother who is a doctor came Many brothers, particular one

to visit me
My brother ,who is a doctor, came
to visit me
That Person, thing,male or female
Some time misplaced for who.
With only, nothing, all, some, any,
none.
What Only for non-living
Nominative and accusative case
Only one brother, an additional
information.
I know the house that he lives in.
He is thee man that I was looking
for.
My father, who is brave man, is here.
There is nothing on earth that can
satisfy the greed.
What a man should do Is hard work.
Any man can do what a man has
done.
As After such This book is not worthy such as
After same Quran.

Same as vs same…that My problem is same as yours.

As mean similar to. I lived in same house that ahmad
That mean exactly the one lived in

As separately, I will go as far as I could.

Adverb
But Replace who not There is no man but wishes to live a
happy life.
Omission When accusative case, Short were the prayers we said.
Answer the which
Place Close to antecedent (Noun) I have read ali’s opinion, who is
brilliant.
I have read opinions of Ali, who is
brilliant.
I lived in avillage near Pune with my
family which consist of my wife and
three kids.
Wealth is not his who has is it, but
his who enjoy
People who are too sharp cut their
own fingers.
It is an ill wind that blows
nobody’s good.

Compound pronoun With ever or so. Pick whichever you like

Whoever, whichever, whoso
Interrogative pronoun Asking for or about.
Nominative who Who are you
Accusative whom, who Who made this
Possessive whose, Whose book is this

Which person and thing

What thing, profession What are you,
Who person
 Verb
tell or assert something about a subject/noun. What is he, what he did/do, what happened to him.
Has been going, is busy. Is sleeping.
Intransitive vs transitive Intransitive: Transfer to some other object.
Transitive shifts the verb to other State he sleeps He ran fast vs he ran on the road.
He waited him Action he is running Direct (what thing) and indirect
He fly kites. Being he is a good boy. objects.
Father gave him a bicycle.
Used reflexively He hit himself
Verb of incomplete predication. He seems….
He seems happy.
Happy the complement of verb
 Active and passive voice
Only transitive verb used in Passive, intransitive verb has no object.

ACTIVE DOER He can/must take action

PASSIVE THE object of being done The action can be taken
by him

Moods of verb
Also called manner or modes.
Indicative, imperative or subjunctive.

Indicative Talking of same

Fact He goes to school
Asking question Will you fly a kite.
Supposition If he worked hard, he
would have succeeded.
Imperative Command do it.
Suggest/ exhortation take care of your health
Entreaty/pray please, have mercy.

Subjunctive Be or were I be
I were
It is time we left
 Tenses
Tempus = time, Zamana.
Present
For vivid indication of The sultan rushes to the capital.
past
Near future Next train is at 7 am.
Perfect continue For the work that still continue
Future
Going to If designed and preparation are made for some I am going to resign the
event job.
When certain
About to Immediate future Don’t leave now we are
about to have lunch
Simple future For an immediate action,
When decide to do at the time of speaking

The verb: Person and Number

Person: First, Second and Third. Number: Singular and Plural

The Infinitives
The base of the verbs, not adverbs. Mostly identified by to (to err is human)

Gerund
Verb having ing and work as subject of verb. Smoking is a bad habit.
Compound gerund: walking-stick, being loved.

Irregular verbs
Not having ed in 2nd and third form.
All 3 same cut, cut, cut
2 same run, ran, run
All differ blow, blew, blown.
Can May
Permission Permission
Possibility in negative and interrogative tense Possibility in positive tense
He cannot go, can he go He may go
 Denote the ability: I can walk. Denote the wish or pray: you may live long.

Could Might
Polite request, could you pass the salt.

Must
Necessity of something You must take medicine
When obligation from speaker, I must read this book
When obligation from somewhere else I have to read this book (recommended)
Ought
Moral obligation or desirability. We ought to respect our parents.
Probability This book ought to be very useful.

Adverb
Word that modifies the verb. Types:
Time Answer when He came yesterday,
Time never returns
Frequency How often He hit the ball 2nd time
Manner How He run swiftly, talk politely
Place Where I reached there, okara
Quantity How much, upto what extent Very clever, too much caring.
Affirmation and negation Surely he will win.
I do not
Reason Hence, therefor, thereforth.
Relative adverb This reason why I study geography