BCS2223 Chapter 1 - Preliminaries

26-May-22
BCS2223 PROGRAMMING
PARADIGM
Rusdi Md Aminuddin
Associate Professor
T: +603 8689 7518 F: +603 8800 7111
E: : rusdi.aminuddin@unimy.edu.my
Toll Free: 1-300-88-5008 URL: http://www.unimy.edu.my
#FutureBeginsAtUNIMY
University Malaysia of Computer Science & Engineering
(UNIMY)
Blok 12, Star Central, Lingkaran Cyber Point Timur,
63000 Cyberjaya, Selangor.
Copyright 2022 Rusdi Md Aminuddin, Associate Professor, UNIMY BCS2223 PROGRAMMING PARADIGM Slide 1-‹#›
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Lecturer Profile
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CHAPTER 1
Preliminaries
1.1 Reasons for Studying Concepts
of Programming Languages
BCS2223 1.2 Programming Domains
PROGRAMMING 1.3 Language Evaluation Criteria
PARADIGM 1.4 Influences on Language Design
1.5 Language Categories
1.6 Language Design Trade-Offs
1.7 Implementation Methods
1.8 Programming Environments
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1.1 Reasons for Studying Concepts of
Programming Languages
Increased capacity to express ideas

Improved background for choosing appropriate
languages
Increased ability to learn new languages
Better understanding of the significance of
implementation
Better use of languages that are already known
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1.2 Programming Domains (1/2)
Computers have been applied to a

myriad of different areas
From controlling nuclear power plants to
providing video games in mobile
phones.
Because of this great diversity in
computer use, programming languages
with very different goals have been
developed.
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1.2 Programming Domains (2/2)
Few of the areas of computer

applications domains
Scientific Applications
Business Applications
Artificial Intelligence
Web Software
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1.2.1 Scientific Applications (1/2)
 The first digital computers (late 1940s and early 1950s) were
invented and used for scientific applications.
 Typically
Used relatively simple data structures
Required large numbers of floating-point arithmetic
computations.
Common data structures were arrays and matrices
Common control structures were counting loops and
selections.
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1.2.1 Scientific Applications (2/2)
 The first language for scientific applications was fortran.

 Algol 60 and most of its descendants were also intended to be
used in this area,
 Efficiency is the primary concern, no subsequent language is
significantly better than fortran, which explains why fortran is still
used.
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1.2.2 Business Applications (1/2)
 The use of computers for business applications began in the

1950s.
 Special computers were developed , along with special
languages.
 1960, The first successful high-level language for business was
COBOL (ISO/IEC, 2002)
 There have been few developments in business application
languages outside the development and evolution of COBOL.
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1.2.2 Business Applications (2/2)
Business languages are characterized by

facilities
for producing elaborate reports,
precise ways of describing and storing decimal
numbers and character data, and
the ability to specify decimal arithmetic operations.
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1.2.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI) – 1/2
AI is a broad area of computer applications

characterized by the use of symbolic rather than numeric
computations.
Symbols, consisting of names rather than numbers, are
manipulated.
More conveniently done with linked lists of data rather than
arrays.
Requires more flexibility than other programming domains.
For example, ability to create and execute code
segments during execution is convenient.
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1.2.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI) – 2/2
 1959, The first widely used programming language developed for AI

applications was the functional language Lisp (McCarthy et al.,
1965)
 Early 1970s, an alternative approach appeared— logic
programming using the Prolog (Clocksin and Mellish, 2013)
language.
 More recently, some AI applications have been written in systems
languages such as C, Scheme (Dybvig, 2009), a dialect of Lisp, and
Prolog
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1.2.4 Web Software
 The World Wide Web is supported by an eclectic collection of

languages,
 Markup languages, such as HTML, which is not a programming
language,
 general-purpose programming languages, such as Java.
 Embedded programming code in an HTML document for dynamic Web
content, some computation capability is often
 scripting language, such as JavaScript or PHP (Tatroe, 2013).
 There are also some markup-like languages that have been
extended to include constructs that control document
processing
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1.3 Language Evaluation Criteria – 1/4
1.3.1 Readability - Ease in which programs can be read and

understood, not only efficiency.
1.3.2 Writability - Is a measure of how easily a language can
be used to create programs for a chosen
problem domain.
1.3.3 Reliability - A program is said to be reliable if it performs
to its specifications under all conditions
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1.3.1 Readability - Ease in which programs can be read

and understood, not only
efficiency.
 Cost and ease of maintenance is determined in
large part by the readability of programs
 Characteristics that contribute to the readability
overall simplicity
orthogonality,
data types,
syntax design
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1.3.2 Writability - Is a measure of how easily a language

can be used to create programs for a
chosen problem domain.
Most of the language characteristics that
affect readability also affect writability
Characteristics that contribute to the
Writability
Simplicity and
Orthogonality, and
Expressivity
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1.3.3 Reliability - A program is said to be reliable if it

performs to its specifications under all
conditions
Characteristics that contribute to the Reliability
 Type Checking,
Exception Handling,
Aliasing,
Readability and Writability
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Simplicity – 1/2
 A language with many basic constructs is more difficult to learn than

one with a smaller number.
1. Readability problems occur whenever Programmers often learn a
subset of the language that are different subset from reader
familiarity.
2. Feature multiplicity— having more than one way to accomplish a
particular operation.
 Example, in java, a user can increment a simple integer variable in four
different ways:
count = count + 1
count += 1
count++
++count
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Simplicity – 2/2
3. Operator overloading - a single operator

symbol has more than one meaning
4. Very simplicity (too simple), likes assembly
language programs less readable.
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Orthogonality – 1/4
Orthogonality in a programming language means

that a relatively small set of primitive constructs can
be combined in a relatively small number of ways to
build the control and data structures of the
language
Orthogonality is closely related to simplicity: The
more orthogonal the design of a language, the
fewer exceptions the language rules require
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Orthogonality - 2/4
Example in C language
a + b means that the values of a and b are
fetched and added together
However, if a happens to be a pointer and
b is an integer, it affects the value of b
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Orthogonality – 3/4
The presence of adequate facilities for defining data

types and data structures in a language is another
significant aid to readability
For example, suppose a numeric type is used for
an indicator flag because there is no Boolean
type in the language i.e. flag = 1 means true
Much easier to read if there is a Boolean type i.e.
flag = true
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Orthogonality
 The syntax, or form, of the elements of a language has a

significant effect on the readability of programs
Special words
Readability are strongly influenced by the forms of a language’s
special words (for example, while, class, and for)
Uses end if to terminate a selection construct and end loop to
terminate a loop construct
Another important issue is whether the special words of a language
can be used as names for program variables.
 For example, FORTRAN allowed key words like do and end as a variable
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Expressivity – 1/2
Expressivity in a language can refer to several

different characteristics.
In a language such as APL (Gilman and Rose,
1983),
There are very powerful operators that allow
a great deal of computation to be
accomplished with a very small program.
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Expressivity – 2/2
Some language has relatively convenient ways of

specifying computations.
For example, in C, the notation count++ is more
convenient and shorter than count = count + 1.
Also, the and then Boolean operator in Ada is a convenient
way of specifying short-circuit evaluation of a Boolean
expression.
The inclusion of the for statement in Java makes writing
counting loops easier than with the use of while, which is also
possible.
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Reliability 1/3
 A program is said to be reliable if it performs to its

specifications under all conditions
Type checking is simply testing for type errors in a
given program, either by the compiler or during
program execution. Type checking is an important
factor in language reliability
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Reliability 2/3
Exception Handling - The ability of a program to

intercept run-time errors (as well as other unusual
conditions detectable by the program), take
corrective measures, and then continue is an obvious
aid to reliability.
Ada, C++, Java, and C# include extensive capabilities for
exception handling,
but such facilities are practically nonexistent in some widely
used languages, for example C
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Reliability – 3/3
Aliasing - Loosely defined, aliasing is having two or

more distinct names in a program that can be used to
access the same memory cell.
It is now generally accepted that aliasing is a dangerous
feature in a programming language.
Most programming languages allow some kind of aliasing
For example, two pointers (or references) set to point to the
same variable
programmer may not aware that changing the value pointed
to by one of the two changes the value referenced by the
other
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1.3 Language Evaluation Criteria
Copyright 2022 Rusdi Md Aminuddin, Associate Professor, UNIMY BCS2223 PROGRAMMING PARADIGM
Slide 1-‹#›
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1.4 Influences on Language Design – 1/3
 Computer Architecture - The basic architecture of computers has

had a profound effect on language design.
 Most of the popular languages of the past 60 years have been
designed around the prevalent computer architecture, called
the von Neumann architecture
These languages are called imperative languages.
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 In von Neumann architecture, Programming Languages manipulate memory
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 Programming Design Methodologies-

 The late 1960s and early 1970s
Large part by the structured-programming movement
Influence both the software development process and programming
language design
 1970s - the new software development methodologies
Top-down design and stepwise refinement.
 In the late 1970s,
A shift from procedure-oriented to data-oriented program design
methodologies began
 Began in the early 1980s - the latest step in the evolution of data-
oriented software development,
Which , is object-oriented design
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1.5 Language Categories
Programming languages are often categorized into four

bins:
imperative,
functional,
logic, and
object oriented
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Tutorial 1
Discuss the following categories of Programming

Languages
imperative,
functional,
logic, and
object oriented
 Includes in your discussion
The characteristic of each of the categories
Domain it is used for
Example of the Programming Languages
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Two of the primary components of a

computer
Internal memory - used to store programs and
data and
Processor
Three common implementation
Compilation
Pure Interpretation
Hybrid Implementation Systems
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Compilation
Slide 1-‹#›
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Pure Interpretation
Slide 1-‹#›
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Hybrid
Implementation
Systems
Slide 1-‹#›
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26-May-22

Increased capacity to express ideas

Computers have been applied to a

Few of the areas of computer

 The first language for scientific applications was fortran.

 The use of computers for business applications began in the

Business languages are characterized by

AI is a broad area of computer applications

 1959, The first widely used programming language developed for AI

 The World Wide Web is supported by an eclectic collection of

1.3.1 Readability - Ease in which programs can be read and

1.3.1 Readability - Ease in which programs can be read

1.3.2 Writability - Is a measure of how easily a language

1.3.3 Reliability - A program is said to be reliable if it

 A language with many basic constructs is more difficult to learn than

3. Operator overloading - a single operator

Orthogonality in a programming language means

The presence of adequate facilities for defining data

 The syntax, or form, of the elements of a language has a

Expressivity in a language can refer to several

Some language has relatively convenient ways of

 A program is said to be reliable if it performs to its

Exception Handling - The ability of a program to

Aliasing - Loosely defined, aliasing is having two or

 Computer Architecture - The basic architecture of computers has

 Programming Design Methodologies-

Programming languages are often categorized into four

Discuss the following categories of Programming

Two of the primary components of a

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