Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lcss20

Impact of 12-year-long rice based organic farming

on soil quality in terms of soil physical properties,
available micronutrients and rice yield in a typic
Ustochrept soil of India

Amrit Lal Meena , R.N. Pandey , Dinesh Kumar , M.L. Dotaniya , V.K. Sharma ,
Geeta Singh , Bharat Prakash Meena , Amit Kumar & Chandra Bhanu

To cite this article: Amrit Lal Meena , R.N. Pandey , Dinesh Kumar , M.L. Dotaniya , V.K. Sharma ,
Geeta Singh , Bharat Prakash Meena , Amit Kumar & Chandra Bhanu (2020): Impact of 12-
year-long rice based organic farming on soil quality in terms of soil physical properties, available
micronutrients and rice yield in a typic Ustochrept soil of India, Communications in Soil Science and
Plant Analysis, DOI: 10.1080/00103624.2020.1822386

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2020.1822386

Published online: 05 Oct 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 18

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=lcss20
COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS
https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2020.1822386

Impact of 12-year-long rice based organic farming on soil quality in

terms of soil physical properties, available micronutrients and rice
yield in a typic Ustochrept soil of India
Amrit Lal Meenaa, R.N. Pandeyb, Dinesh Kumarc, M.L. Dotaniyad, V.K. Sharmab, Geeta Singhe,
Bharat Prakash Meenaf, Amit Kumara, and Chandra Bhanua
a
Division of Organic Agriculture Systems, ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Meerut, India; bDivision
of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, India; cDivision of Agronomy, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi,
India; dICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Bharatpur, India; eDivision of Soil Chemistry and Fertility,
ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, India; fCrop Production Unit, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Long-term use of chemical fertilizers has been known to degrade the various Received 27 March 2020
soil physico-chemical properties. Incorporation of crop residues (CR) along Accepted 8 June 2020
with biofertilizers (BF) is an important practice from improving the physico- KEYWORDS
chemical properties of soil. Laboratory analyses were conducted during 2015 Biofertilizers; bulk density;
on soil samples collected from an on-going long-term experiment “Nutrient crop residues; nutrients;
management in rice based organic farming systems,” in progress since 2003. organic carbon; organic
Over the 12 years of study a significant improvement in bulk density, water- farming; phosphorus;
holding capacity, aggregate stability, hydraulic conductivity, and soil pH was sustainable yield index
observed under conjoint application of organics, CR, and BF in farmyard
manure (FYM)+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF treatments. The data further deli­
neated maximum soil organic carbon build-up was recorded in the com­
bined application of organic nutrient sources as compared to manures alone
treatment. The data further indicated that DTPA extractable copper, zinc,
manganese, and iron in soil recorded a significant increase in all the manures
applied treatments under rice-wheat-mungbean and rice-wheat cropping
systems over the initial level. The integrated use of organics and crop
residues in combination with biofertilizers recorded significant higher rice
grain and straw yields over the rest of the treatments. Organic manures in
combination with crop residues and biofertilizers supported high rice grain
yield and straw biomass and sustainable yield index (SYI), with lower values
of coefficient of variance. In conclusion, the conjoint application of organics,
crop residues, and biofertilizers can enhance not only rice crop yield but also
yield stability and sustainability.

Introduction
The rice-wheat cropping system is the predominant cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP) of
India. It is covering almost 13.5 million hectare (Mha) area which provides food and nutrition to
400 million people (Naresh et al. 2018). However, imbalanced and imprudent use of chemical fertilizers,
agro-chemicals, faulty irrigation practices, adoption of intensive agriculture, and decreased use of organic
manures in the past three decades had induced the stagnation in wheat and declined rice productivity,
negative macro, and microntiurents balance, depletion of soil organic carbon, fatigued natural resource
base, deterioration of soil physical properties (Singh, Kumar, and Sharma 2015) and soil degradation in
IGP (Das et al. 2014; Dhaliwal et al. 2019; Jat et al. 2017). Indiscriminate uses of agro-chemicals are

CONTACT M.L. Dotaniya mohan30682@gmail.com ICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Bharatpur 321303,

India
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

leading to deteriorated soil health, soil biological diversity, quality of water, food, and fodder due to entry
in the plant, animal, and human body through the food chain (Biswas and Sharma 2008). Thus, there is
a necessity to adopt the practices which maintain soil health and environmental quality in a more
sustainable production system. It helps to provide quality food for the nutritional requirements of human
and animal health. Organic farming come out as an effective measure for the enhancement of sustainable
soil and environmental quality and maintaining ecosystem services of soil (Ram, Davari, and Sharma
2014; Thuithaisong et al. 2011). Optimized use of on-farm resources, utmost use of crop residues, and
minimized use of off-farm inputs can meet the sustainable nutrient management, enhanced soil fertility,
and environmental quality in organic farming. Large-scale incorporation of organic residues in organic
farming results in the buildup of high soil organic matter in organically amended soils that help in
sustaining productivity of any agroecosystem (Dotaniya et al. 2014b; Moharana, Sharma, and Biswas
2017). Bhattacharya et al. (2007) reported an increased soil organic carbon content in long-term
organically managed soils under wheat-soybean rotation. Numerous organic practices, i.e., addition of
compost and manures, crop rotation, biofertilizers, and cover crops not only increase soil organic matter
but also improve soil physico-chemical and biological properties (Naresh et al. 2018; Ouyang, Reeve, and
Norton 2018; Singh, Kumar, and Sharma 2015). Several studies have reported that the continuous
addition of organic manures, green manures, crop residues, and biofertilizers in rice-wheat system
improved soil physical properties, i.e., bulk density, water-holding capacity (WHC), aggregate stability,
and hydraulic conductivity, chemical properties viz. pH (0.3–0.9 units), Electric Conductivity, organic
carbon (32%), available N (47%), P (90%), and K (50%) and biological properties, i.e., SMBC (132%),
DHA (347%) and phosphatases (203%) relative to control treatments (Biswas et al. 2018; Dkhar et al.
2019; Ghosh et al. 2018; Soma et al. 2018; Yadav, Benbi, and Prasad 2019). Improved soil physico-
chemical properties and variation in soil micro-environment as a result of organic amendment addition
have shown significant positive effects on DTPA extractable Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn content in soil (Dhaliwal
et al. 2013). Dhaliwal et al. (2019) observed significant recovery of DTPA extractable micronutrients with
the addition of organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers in soils with alternate drying and wetting
conditions. Conjoint application of FYM, green manures, and biofertilizers, and subsequent microbial
degradation of these amendments significantly improved SOC, N, P, S, and DTPA extractable micro­
nutrients (Dhaliwal et al. 2019). Incorporation of organic manures in conjunction with crop residues and
biofertilizers is known to improve the nutrient availability in soils and crop productivity (Li-Li et al.
2013).Significant improvement in crop productivity and DTPA extractable micronutrients was observed
by several research when 25% to 50% of the recommended dose of nitrogen was substituted through
different organics, i.e., wheat straw, FYM, and green manures in rice followed by wheat crop each year
(Subehia et al. 2013). Walia, Walia, and Dhaliwal (2010) reported a positive correlation of Fe, Mn, Zn,
SOC, and clay with rice productivity in organically amended soils. With these research annotations, the
current study is focused at an experiment on a long-term basis with nutrient management through
organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers in the rice-wheat system on BD, WHC, aggregate stability,
hydraulic conductivity, pH, EC, SOC, N, P, DTPA extractable Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn in soil and their
correlation with rice yield. Further, growing of mungbean crop after wheat and in site incorporation of
its residue before rice and FYM, vermicompost, and crop residue incorporation before each crop may
alleviate the buildup of macro as well as micronutrients for sustainable rice-wheat cropping sequence
under organic farming. Considering these points in view, the present research investigation has been
conducted to know the distribution of macro and micronutrients in a long-term rice-based organic
farming system supplied with organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers.

Materials and methods

Experimental site and soil
Laboratory analysis was conducted during 2015–16 on the soil samples collected from an ongoing
long-term organic farming field experiment project “Nutrient management in rice wheat cropping
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 3

system under organic conditions” in the research farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
(IARI), New Delhi, India (Table 2). The project was associated with basmati rice-based cropping
systems in progress since kharif 2003. The initial three years of the experiment were considered as
transitional periods (2003–2005) and after that, the true organic experiment was started from the
kharif 2006 onwards.
The experiment site is located at an altitude of 250 m above the mean sea level (MSL) on 28.4°
N latitude and 77.1° E longitude. Geographically, it falls under the semi-arid and sub-tropical zone are
characterized by hot summers and cold winters with mean annual precipitation of 750 mm, most of
which is received during the monsoon period of July to September. The annual mean maximum
temperature was 35.2°C while the mean minimum temperature was 18°C during the period of field
experimentation. The climatic variables during the experimental span were obtained from the Agro-
meteorological observatory of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
The experimental field represents the Mehrauli series of Indo–Gangetic Plains which comes under
Inceptisol with alkaline reaction and sandy clay loam texture. Kaolinite, Illite, chlorite, and montmor­
illonite were dominant clay minerals with sub-angular blocky soil structure. Surface soil samples
(0–15 cm) were collected during the start of the experiment and analyzed for mechanical analysis, bulk
density (BD), water-holding capacity (WHC), mean weight diameter (MWD), pH, electrical conduc­
tivity, soil organic carbon, available N, P, and DTPA extractable micronutrients. The various physico-
chemical properties of the initial soil sample were presented in Table 1.

Treatment details
The field experiment was laid out in a strip plot design (SPD) with three replications. Treatments
consisted of two rice-based cropping systems, i.e., basmati rice-wheat (RWCS) and basmati rice-wheat
-mungbean (RWMCS) in strips as main plots (Table 2), whereas, seven combinations of different
organic materials and biofertilizers (BF) viz. farmyard manure (FYM) equivalent to 60 kg N ha−1,
vermicompost (VC) equivalent to 60 kg N ha−1, FYM + crop residue (CR) of preceding crop @ 3 t ha−1
for each rice, wheat and mungbean, VC+CR, FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF, and control (no organics
applied) were applied in rows. Pusa Basmati 1121, HD 2967,, and Pusa Vishal varieties were grown for
rice, wheat, and mungbean, respectively (Table 3). These treatments were applied to both rice and
wheat crops, whereas, mungbean in rice-wheat-mungbean cropping system was grown on residual
fertility and its residue was applied to the subsequent rice crop. Characteristics of various organic
nutrient sources are presented in Table 1a.

Table 1. Different physico-chemical properties of the soil before commencing the experiment.
Soil properties Values Methods
Mechanical composition Bouyoucos (1962)
Sand (%) 52.1
Silt (%) 22.5
Clay (%) 25.4
Textural class Sandy clay loam
Bulk Density (Mg m−3) 1.50 Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1948)
Water Holding Capacity (%) 36.4 Keen and Raczkowski 1921
Mean Weight Diameter (mm) 0.472 Yoder (1936)
pH (1:2.5 soil:water ratio) 8.45 Jackson (1973)
EC (dS m−1 25°C) 0.79 Jackson (1973)
CEC (Cmol (p+) kg−1 soil) 14.7 Jackson (1973)
Organic Carbon (g kg−1) 5.10 Walkley and Black (1934)
Available N (kg ha−1) 163.7 Subbiah and Asija (1956)
Available P (mg kg−1) 8.42 Olsen et al. (1954)
DTPA extractable micronutrients (mg kg−1) Lindsay and Norvell (1978)
Fe 21.3
Cu 3.20
Zn 1.24
Mn 8.30
4 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Table 1a. Characteristics of FYM and vermicompost used as nutrient sources in the experiment.
Parameters FYM Vermicompost Rice Straw Wheat straw
pH 7.22 7.13 - -
EC (dS m−1) 1.63 1.92 - -
C:N ratio 26.15 13.10 80.98 101.53
Organic Carbon (%) 14.12 19.78 41.3 39.6
Total Nitrogen (%) 0.54 1.51 0.51 0.39
NH4+-N (mg kg−1) 156 424 - -
NO3− -N (mg kg−1) 224 611 - -
Total P (%) 0.250 1.83 0.0698 0.0486
Olsen’s P (g kg−1) 0.118 0.845 - -
Total K (%) 0.50 0.580 1.47 1.56
NH4OAc K (%) 0.215 0.247 - -
Fe (mg kg−1) 23.61 21.05 440 377
Zn (mg kg−1) 39.92 17.95 106 37
Cu (mg kg−1) 2.56 5.22 59 19
Mn (mg kg−1) 12.13 18.32 42 77

Table 2. Cropping History of the experimental field from 2001 to 2015.

Year Kharif Rabi Summer Remarks
2001–02 Rice Wheat - Conventional Farming
2002–03 Rice Wheat -
2003–04 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) - Transitional Period
2004–05 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) -
2005–06 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2006–07 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic) Organic Farming
2007–08 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2008–09 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2009–10 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2010–11 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2011–12 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2012–13 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2013–14 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2014–15 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)
2015–16 Rice (Organic) Wheat (Organic) Mung bean (Organic)

For biofertilizer application, Blue-Green Algae (BGA), Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB)
(Pseudomonas striata), and cellulolytic culture (Aspergillus awamori, Trichoderma viride,
Phanerochaete chrysosporuim, and Aspergillus wolulens) used in rice crop. However, Azotobacter,
PSB (Pseudomonas striata), and cellulolytic culture in wheat and Rhizobium + PSB in mungbean
crops were applied.

Collection and analysis of soil samples

Surface soil samples (0–15 cm) were collected after twelfth (12) cropping cycles of rice-wheat and rice-
wheat mungbean. Collected samples were processed and analyzed for various soil physio-chemical
properties. A core sampler was used for the determination of bulk density and computed as per the
method developed by Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1948). The method outline by Keen and
Raczkowski (1921) was used to determine the water-holding capacity (WHC). For this, collected
soil samples were equilibrated with water in KR (a box through capillary action); to measure the
maximum water-holding capacity (WHC) and WHC was calculated from the moisture content of the
equilibrated soil. The wet sieving method of Yoder (1936) was used to measure aggregate stability in
terms of mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD). Saturated hydraulic
conductivity, Ks was measured by constant head method (Klute and Dirksen 1986). pH and electrical
conductivity were measured using 1:2.5 soil:water suspension as per the method described by Jackson
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 5

(1973). The rapid titration method as outlined by Walkley and Black (1934) was used to determine soil
organic carbon. Alkaline KMnO4 method as developed by Subbiah and Asija (1956) was used for
available nitrogen. Available P was determined using 0.5 M NaHCO3 (pH 8.5) as outlined by Olsen
et al. (1954). Diethylene triamine pentacetic acid (DTPA) extractant as developed by Lindsay and
Norvell (1978) was used to determine available micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe).
Calculation of indexes:
Some crop indexes were calculated using formulas as outlined by Singh et al. (1990); Ray et al.
(2015) and Ou et al. (2018).
Sustainable Yield Index (SYI) = (Y- σ)/Ymax
where Y was the average rice yield of a treatment, σ was the standard deviation of the treatment, and
Ymax maximum yield of the experiment over the years.
Sustainable straw biomass index (SSI) = (S- σ)/Smax
Where, S is the average rice straw biomass yield (t ha−1) and Smax is the maximum rice straw
biomass (t ha−1) of the experiment over the years
Cofficient of variance (CV) = (σ/Y)*100
Where, σ is the standard deviation of average rice grain yield and straw biomass of different
treatments and cropping systems over the years (t ha−1) and Y is the average yield of grain and straw
biomass (t ha−1) of different treatments and cropping systems over the years.

Statistical analysis
All the data pertaining to soil properties were analyzed in strip plot design using SAS and SPSS
software and the least significant difference (LSD) values were tested at 5% of the significance level
(p = .05). The correlation between different soil properties with rice grain yield was performed in
SPSS16.

Result and discussion

Soil properties after twelfth RWMCS and RWCS cycles
Soil bulk density (BD)
Bulk density is an important physical characteristic of soil as it plays an important role in root
development and as an index of soil compaction (Mitran et al. 2018). In the present study, soil BD
was significantly reduced from initial values (1.50 Mg m−3) in FYM+CR+BF (1.43 and 1.44 Mg m−3)
and VC+CR+BF (1.40 and 1.41 Mg m−3) after the twelfth cycle of rice-wheat-mungbean (RWMCS)
and rice-wheat cropping systems (RWCS) (Table 4). The addition of mungbean and subsequent
incorporation of its residues to succeeding rice crop showed lower bulk density values in RWMCS
(1.48 Mg m−3) as compared to RWCS (1.50 Mg m−3). Incorporation of organic matter in organically
amended soils leads to a decrease the bulk density as organic matter addition improves the soil
aggregation, flocculation of clay minerals, soil structure, water-stable aggregates, soil compactibility,
and soil porosity through the release of bacterial glue and other soil particle binding agents and thus,
resulted decreased bulk density organic nutrient treatments as compared to control (Kaje et al. 2018;
Mitran et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2014).

Water-holding capacity (WHC)

The application of organic nutrient sources either alone or in combinations showed a significant effect
on the water-holding capacity (Table 4). The highest WHC was recorded in treatment VC+CR (56.3%)
followed by VC (55.3%), FYM+CR (54.5%), VC+CR+BF (54.7%), FYM+CR+BF (53.2%) and FYM
(52.4%) in RWMCS. Similarly, in RWCS the trend was: VC+CR+BF (56.0%)> VC+CR (55.9%)> FYM
+CR (54.9%)> FYM+CR+BF (53.6%)> VC (52.2%)> FYM (51.1%) (Table 4). In both the cropping
systems, treatments comprise VC either alone or combination with crop residues, and biofertilizers
 6
A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Table 3. Details of treatments (manures, crop residues, and biofertilizers) applied in the experimental field.
Treat-ment Rice Wheat Treat-ment Rice Wheat Mungbean
No. Organic Nutrients Organic Nutrients No. Organic Nutrients Organic Nutrients Organic Nutrients
Manures & Biofertilizer Manures & Biofertilizer Manures & Biofertilizer Manures & Biofertilizer Manures & Biofertilizers
Compost Compost Compost Compost Compost
1 FYM - FYM - 2 FYM - FYM - -
3 VC - VC - 4 VC - VC - -
5 FYM + CR - FYM + CR - 6 FYM + CR - FYM + CR - CR
7 VC + CR - VC + CR - 8 VC + CR - VC + CR - CR
9 FYM + CR BGA + FYM + CR Azotobactor 10 FYM + CR BGA + FYM + CR Azotobactor CR Rhizobium +
Cellulolytic + Cellulolytic + PSB
culture + PSB Cellulolytic culture + Cellulolytic
Culture + PSB Culture +
PSB PSB
11 VC + CR BGA + VC + CR Azotobactor 12 VC + CR BGA + VC + CR Azotobactor CR Rhizobium +
Cellulolytic + Cellulolytic + PSB
culture + PSB Cellulolytic culture + Cellulolytic
Culture + PSB Culture +
PSB PSB
13 -Control -Control -Control -Control 14 -Control -Control -Control -Control -Control -Control
*Cellulolytic culture contained four fungi: Aspergillus awamori, Trichoderam viride, Phanerochaete chrysosporuim and Aspergillus wolulens (These cultures were inoculated at the time of residue
incorporation in soil).
* Azotobacter, Rhizobium and PSB (Pseudomonas striata) were used to inoculate the seeds as per the treatments.
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 7

recorded a higher magnitude of WHC over FYM treatments. Soils with a high content of organic
matter showed higher WHC as compared to other soils devoid of organic manure application. It has
been observed that the addition of organic matter through various organic sources increases the stress-
tolerant in the soils. Kaje et al. (2018) indicated that the permanent wilting point (θwp) has been
delayed in organically amended soils during drought conditions. Our results were in line with many
previous studies which reported that the addition of cattle manure, FYM, vermicompost, crop
residues, and green manures in soils increased the soil structure, soil aggregation, number of micro
and macro pores and thus increase water-holding capacity (Mitran et al. 2018; Nagar et al. 2016).
Higher WHC in the present study was observed under vermicompost (VC) treatments as compared to
FYM treatments which showed that type of organic matter also affects the WHC. The high organic
matter content of vermicompost as compared to FYM increased the number of micro-pores in VC
treatments which were responsible for higher WHC in these as compared to FYM treatments (Kaje
et al. 2018). WHC of biofertilizers added treatments (FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF) were found at
par with FYM+CR and VC+CR treatments, which might due to the rapid mineralization of added
organic matter and subsequent release of carbon in biofertilizers added treatments (Mitran et al. 2018).

Aggregate stability
Mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD)
Soil aggregate stability is ascribed by mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter
(GMD) and data on MWD recorded a significant effect of organic nutrient management on MWD
and GMD). The MWD varied from 0.52 mm (control) to 0.88 mm (VC+CR+BF) and 0.49 mm
(control) to 0.85 mm (VC+CR+BF) in RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 4). Treatment VC
+CR+BF recorded an increment of 69.2% and 73.5% in MWD over control in RWMCS and
RWCS, respectively (Table 4). When compared with manures alone treatments, VC+CR+BF
showed 8.64% and 8.97% higher MWD over VC alone in RWMCS and RWCS. Similarly, FYM
+CR+BF observed 8.86% and 9.21% higher MWD over FYM alone in RWMCS and RWCS. In
RWMC system, treatment VC+CR+BF recorded 34.6% higher GMD over control followed by
FYM+CR+BF (27.8%), VC+CR (17.9%), FYM+CR (15.4%), VC (3.1%), and FYM (1.2%). Similarly,
in RWCS the trend was: VC+CR+BF (35.7%) > FYM+CR+BF (28.7%) > VC+CR (18.5%) > FYM
+CR (15.9%) > VC (3.2%) > FYM (1.3%) (Table 4). The order of MWD and GMD was in
accordance with that of SOC content showing that enhancement in aggregation status of soil was
through enhanced organic carbon in soil resulted from organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers,
which acted as the binding agent. The addition of FYM and VC along with crop residues and
biofertilizers resulted in better soil aggregation as compared to other treatments which showed
a close relationship between organic matter status of soil and aggregation. The higher MWD and
GMD in organically amended soil had shown the addition of fresh organic residues (Hydrolysable
and water-soluble substrates) and available carbon resulted in the production of microbial poly­
saccharides that increase aggregate cohesion and enhanced the microbial activity in these soils and
thus increased binding of aggregates (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2010; Karami et al. 2012; Mitran et al.
2018). However, higher MWD and GMD in vermicompost treatments as compared to FYM
treatments were due to their biochemical composition.

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)

Data on saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) are depicted in Table 4 which revealed that it was
significantly affected by different organic nutrient treatments. Overall the combined application of
organic manures brought significant variation in Ks values with the following trend in both the
cropping systems (RWMCS and RWCS): VC+CR+BF > FYM+CR+BF > VC+CR > FYM+CR > VC >
FYM (Table 4). Treatment FYM+CR+BF showed 39.5% higher Ks over FYM in RWMCS, whereas VC
+CR+BF showed 34.1% increased Ks over VC alone in this cropping system. In RWCS, FYM+CR+BF
and VC+CR showed 41.7% and 30.8% higher Ks over FYM and VC treatments, respectively. Saturated
8 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Table 4. Long-term (12 years) effect of nutrient supply options on bulk density (BD), water-holding capacity (WHC), aggregate
stability (mean weight diameter and geometric mean diameter), and saturated hydraulic (Ks) conductivity under RWMCS and RWCS
in an Inceptisol.
CS_Treat Control FYM VC FYM+CR VC+CR FYM+CR+BF VC+CR+BF Mean
BD (Mg m−3) (Initial Value = 1.50)
b d
RWMCS 1.58 1.53 1.51e 1.48 f 1.46 g 1.43 h 1.40 j 1.48AB
RWCS 1.60a 1.57 c 1.53d 1.49 f 1.46 g 1.44 h 1.41i 1.50A
Mean 1.59A 1.55B 1.52 C 1.48D 1.46E 1.44 F 1.41 G
WHC (%)(Initial Value = 36.40)
RWMCS 47.62 f 52.41de 55.27ab 54.51abc 56.30a 53.24 cd 54.74abc 53.44A
RWCS 44.78 g 51.10e 52.22de 54.86abc 55.90a 53.61bcd 55.98a 52.64B
Mean 46.20E 51.75D 53.75 C 54.68BC 56.10A 53.43 C 55.36AB
MWD (mm) (Initial Value = 0.472)
m j
RWMCS 0.52 0.79 0.81 h 0.83 f 0.84d 0.86b 0.88a 0.79A
RWCS 0.49 n 0.76 l 0.78 k 0.80i 0.81 g 0.83e 0.85 c 0.76B
Mean 0.50 G 0.77 F 0.79E 0.81D 0.82 C 0.84B 0.86A
GMD (mm) (Initial Value = 1.490)
RWMCS 1.62 l 1.64 j 1.67i 1.87 f 1.91e 2.07 c 2.18a 1.85A
RWCS 1.57 n 1.59 m 1.62 k 1.82 h 1.86 g 2.02d 2.13b 1.80B
Mean 1.59 G 1.61 F 1.64E 1.84D 1.88 C 2.04B 2.15A
Ks (cm h−1) (Initial Value = 0.220)
m k
RWMCS 0.21 0.38 0.41i 0.50 g 0.53e 0.55 c 0.57a 0.45A
RWCS 0.19 n 0.36 l 0.39 j 0.48 h 0.51 f 0.53d 0.55b 0.43AB
Mean 0.20 G 0.37 F 0.40E 0.49D 0.52 C 0.54B 0.56A
Where; BD = Bulk Density; WHC = Water Holding Capacity; MWD = Mean Weight Diameter; GMD = Geometric Mean Diameter;
Ks = Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity; RWMCS = Rice-Wheat-Mungbean cropping system; RWCS = Rice-Wheat cropping system;
Initial value = Initial values before start of experiment; * Different lower case and upper case letters within rows and columns
indicate that they are significant according to LSD Test (P = 0.05)

hydraulic conductivity (Ks) is closely associated with the magnitude of large pores in the soil.
Incorporation of organic matter through organics and crop residues indicated a significant positive
effect on soil biological activity, improved soil aggregation, decrease in bulk density, effective pore
space, and volume. The decrease in bulk density under organically treated soils would amend the soil
total porosity and pore size distribution and thus result in higher Ks values. Similar findings were
observed by Karami et al. (2012) and Rasoulzadeh and Yaghoubi (2014). The addition of mungbean as
green manure in RWMCS showed higher Ks values in these soils as compared to RWCS which
indicated that the addition of green manures increased organic carbon concentration and reduction in
bulk density in these soils which resulted in higher Ks values.

pH
The pH of the soil under different organic nutrient treatments varied from 8.29 (control) to 8.0 (FYM
+CR+BF) and 8.29 (VC+CR) to 8.15 (VC+CR+BF) in RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 5). All
the organic treatments showed significantly lower pH values from the initial pH value (8.45) (Table 1).
Conjoint application of organic manures and inclusion of mungbean in RWMCS showed significantly
lower pH values over RWCS. However, the magnitude of decrease in soil pH varied from 2.4% (FYM)
to 5.3% (FYM+CR+BF) in RWMCS whereas in RWCS, the rate of decrease in soil pH was 2.1% (FYM)
and 3.6% (VC+CR+BF) over the initial value (8.45). Continuous long-term incorporation of organic
matter in soil and subsequent microbial decomposition might be attributed to the release of aromatic
and aliphatic hydroxyl organic acids and carbon dioxide (CO2) during the decomposition of organic
matter and thus resulted in lower pH values (Dotaniya et al. 2016; Hati et al. 2008; Srinivasarao et al.
2014, 2018) in FYM-treated plots.
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 9

Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a measure of salinity or soluble salts in soil; ranged from 0.463 dS m−1 (VC
+CR+BF) to 0.517 dS m−1 (FYM+CR) and 0.447 dS m−1 (VC) to 0.463 dS m−1 (VC+CR+BF) in
RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 5). However, no significant difference in EC was recorded
among the different organic nutrient treatments in both the cropping systems. Many previous long-
term studies were conducted at various locations showed no significant changes in soil salinity in most
of the soils, whereas Ustochrept soil showed increase in EC from the initial values of 0.20 to 0.80
dS m−1. Organic manures played the role of buffer in soil and mineralization and decomposition of
organics release free cations, resulted in the stability of the soil reaction and EC (Srinivasarao et al.
2018; Tembhare, Dwivedi, and Tiwari 1998).

Soil organic carbon (SOC)

The soil organic carbon, an indicator of soil fertility was positively and significantly influenced by the
addition of organic nutrient sources and cropping systems. Conjoint application of manures along
with crop residues and biofertilizers significantly improved SOC under FYM+CR, VC+CR, FYM+CR
+BF, and VC+CR+BF treatments over FYM and VC alone treatments. In RWMCS, these treatments
showed 26%, 20%, 53%, and 45% higher SOC over FYM and VC alone treatments. Similarly, in RWCS
the magnitude of increase was 30%, 25%, 54%, and 53% for these treatments over manures alone
treatments (Table 5). Practicing rice-wheat cropping system without application of manures, crop
residues, and biofertilizers (unfertilized control) as well as incorporation of manures alone (FYM and
VC) for 12 years recorded significantly lower (~24%, 4%, and 9%) SOC content in these treatments
over the initial level (5.10 g kg−1) (Table 1). The effects of organic fertilization on SOC stock were
similar to SOC content. In RWMCS, treatments applied with manure, crop residues, and biofertilizers
(FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF) recorded 62% and 80% higher SOC stock over unfertilized control
plots whereas, in RWCS, the magnitude of increase was 75% and 97% in these treatments (Table 5).
Combined application of manures and crop residues (FYM+CR and VC+CR) increased SOC stock by
~27 and 24% over sole applied FYM and VC, respectively. When SOC stock of FYM+CR, VC+CR,
FYM+CR+BF, and VC+CR+BF was compared with FYM and VC alone in both the cropping systems,
FYM+CR and FYM+CR+BF showed 26% and 52% higher SOC stock over FYM alone in RWMCS;
similarly, these treatments recorded 27% and 60% higher SOC stock over FYM alone in RWCS.
Contrarily, VC+CR and VC+CR+BF of RWMCS observed 24% and 50% higher SOC stock than VC
alone whereas, these treatments observed an increment of 24% and 54% in SOC stock over VC alone
under RWCS. In general, organic fertilization impact on SOC can be correlated to the amount of
biomass returned/produced to the soil and its humification rate. In the current study, conjoint
application of organic, crop residues, and biofertilizers enhanced carbon sequestration. This higher
sequestration of carbon was likely as a result of an increased amount of organics and plant residues,
direct application of organic matter through these organic sources, and higher humification rate
constant. Long-term incorporation of organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers increased SOC
through organic matter in these manures and through enhanced organic matter in crop residues.
Application of crop residues and biofertilizers along with FYM stimulated microbial diversity and thus
added higher organic matter content through these organic sources resulted in higher SOC in FYM
+CR+BF treatments followed by others which ultimately resulted in higher rice production in these
treatments (Bhattacharya et al. 2007; Bhattacharyya et al. 2013; Dhaliwal et al. 2019; Kumar, Swain,
and Ghosh 2018; Mitran et al. 2018). The presence of more stabilized carbon and wider C:N ratio of
VC resulted in lower SOC under VC treatments as compared to FYM treatments. Inclusion of
mungbean in rice-wheat cropping system added fresh organic matter with a lower C:N ratio which
resulted in higher biomass and reduced summer fallowing in RWMCS over RWCS and ultimately
higher WBC and crop production (Das et al. 2017; Dey et al. 2016; Mandal et al. 2013). Continuous
anaerobic conditions in paddy soils lead fungi and actinomycetes as dominant microorganisms in
these soils. These organisms mostly attack stable part of organic matter. Thus, the addition of a high
amount of organic matter through FYM, VC, crop residues, and biofertilizers and slow rates of
10 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Table 5. Long-term (12 years) effect of nutrient supply options on different soil properties under RWMCS and RWCS after harvest of
rice crop in an Inceptisol.
CS_Treat Control FYM VC FYM+CR VC+CR FYM+CR+BF VC+CR+BF Mean
pH (Initial Value = 8.45)
RWMCS 8.29a 8.25abcd 8.17 cd 8.22abcd 8.19bcd 8.00e 8.03e 8.16B
RWCS 8.24abcd 8.27ab 8.26abc 8.21abcd 8.29a 8.26abc 8.15d 8.24A
Mean 8.27A 8.26A 8.22A 8.22A 8.24A 8.13B 8.09B
EC (dS m−1) (Initial Value = 0.790)
de cd
RWMCS 0.470 0.477 0.493b 0.517a 0.470de 0.473 cde 0.463ef 0.48A
RWCS 0.483bc 0.457 fg 0.447 g 0.453fg 0.490b 0.453fg 0.453fg 0.46B
Mean 0.48BC 0.47D 0.47 CD 0.49A 0.48AB 0.46DE 0.46E
SOC (g kg−1) (Initial Value = 5.10)
g e
RWMCS 4.11 5.04 4.88 f 6.37bc 5.87 cd 7.70a 7.10ab 5.87A
RWCS 3.68 h 4.72ef 4.42fg 6.15 c 5.52d 7.26ab 6.75b 5.50B
Mean 3.89 G 4.88E 4.65 F 6.26 C 5.69D 7.48A 6.93B
Carbon Stock (Mg C ha−1)
R-W-M 17.8 f 18.9e 21.4d 23.8 c 26.5bc 28.8b 32.0a 24.2A
R-W 15.7 g 17.2ef 20.1e 21.9d 24.9 c 27.5b 30.9ab 22.6B
Mean 16.7 G 18.1 F 20.8E 22.8D 25.7 C 28.1B 31.5A
Available N (kg ha−1) (Initial Value = 163.7)
g de
RWMCS 217 231 247a 236bcd 238bc 243ab 242ab 236A
RWCS 226ef 234 cd 226ef 221 fg 243ab 238bc 226ef 230B
Mean 221D 232BC 236B 229 C 240A 240A 234B
Available P (mg kg−1) (Initial Value = 8.42)
f e
RWMCS 14.7 16.7 17.9d 19.2 c 20.0bc 20.6b 23.2a 18.9A
RWCS 12.7 g 15.7ef 17.1d 18.3cd 19.2 c 20.2b 22.4ab 17.9B
Mean 13.7E 16.2DE 17.5 CD 18.8BCD 19.6BC 20.4AB 22.8A
Where; EC = Electrical Conductivity; SOC = Soil Organic Carbon; N = Nitrogen; P = Phosphorus; RWMCS = Rice-Wheat-Mungbean
cropping system; RWCS = Rice-Wheat cropping system; Initial value = Initial values before start of experiment * Different lower
case and upper case letters within rows and columns indicate that they are significant according to LSD Test (P = 0.05)

decomposition under anaerobic conditions led to higher carbon stocks in these treatments as
compared to other treatments. High cellulose and lignin content, wide C:N ratio of added organic
amendments slowed down the microbial activities in FYM+CR and VC+CR treatments and increased
carbon stock. Our results were corroborated by many previous studies conducted in India and across
the globe (Lima et al. 2009; Ding et al. 2012; Bhattacharyya et al. 2010, Bhattacharyya et al. 2013; Gaind
and Singh, 2013; Liu et al. 2014; Ghosh et al. 2018; Hazra et al. 2018).

Available nitrogen
The available N content varied from 210 kg ha−1 (control) to 245 kg ha−1 (VC+CR+BF) and 203 kg
ha−1 (control) to 243 kg ha−1 (VC+CR+BF) in RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 5). Treatment
FYM+CR+BF recorded 5% and 8% higher available N over FYM alone treatment in RWMCS and
RWCS. Similarly, an increment of 4% and 8% was observed with VC+CR+BF over VC alone in these
cropping systems. The availability of N in soils amended with organic nutrient sources depends on the
amount of different organic and inorganic N fractions and their rate of mineralization (Mitran et al.
2018). In the present study, higher available N content in the combined application of manures, crop
residues, and biofertilizers treatments was due to high microbial-induced conversion of organically
bound N into inorganic forms thus resulted in higher rice grain and straw yield under FYM+CR+BF
and VC+CR+BF treatments over the other treatments (Meena et al. 2019). Nagar et al. (2016) and
Hemalatha et al. (2013) also reported that combined application of pigeon pea + black gram, crop
residues, and FYM resulted in higher available N content over other treatments. The inclusion of
mungbean in RWMCS and later on return of mungbean residues into the soil caused higher available
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 11

N content in RWMCS as compared to RWCS. Our results corroborated the findings of Mandal et al.
(2013), Venkatesh et al. (2013) and Hazra et al. (2018).

Available phosphorus
Overall, the value for available phosphorus in 0–15 cm soil layer ranged from 14.7 to 23.2 mg kg−1
(highest) and 12.7 and 22.4 mg kg−1 under unmanured control and VC+CR+BF treatments in
RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 5). RWCS had a higher (23 to 76%) magnitude of increase
in Olsen’s P compared to RWMCS (13 to 58%) under different organic treatments over control in both
the cropping systems. High C:N ratio and anaerobic conditions in paddy soils restrict the microbial
biomass and microbial activity in FYM+CR and VC+CR treatments, thus reduced microbial degrada­
tion of added organic matter, whereas application of lignolytic and cellulolytic microorganisms as well
as phosphate solubilizing bacteria as biofertilizers in FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF induced the
microbial decomposition of added organic matter and released P from these composts. Low molecular
organic acids such as citric acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid released by microbial metabolic process
enhanced the Olsen’s P through organic P solubilization in VC+CR+BF and FYM+CR+BF treatments.
The addition of organic crop residues enhanced the soil available P by mediating soil microbial
population and diversity (Dotaniya and Datta 2014; Dotaniya et al. 2015; Shukla et al. 2013). Our
results were corroborated by many previous findings of Kumar, Rawat, and Yadav (2012), Dui-an et al.
(2013) and Gaind (2014) and Dotaniya et al. (2014a). Legume crops deplete the soil pH in their
rhizosphere during N fixation and this reduced pH solubilized Ca bound P from minerals. Alamgir
et al. (2012) also reported high Olsen’s P soils amended with legume residues.

DTPA extractable micronutrients

Copper (Cu)
Data pertaining to DTPA Cu after the harvest of rice crops are depicted in Table 6. Available Cu
ranged from 3.85 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR) to 4.22 mg kg−1 (VC+CR+BF) and 3.91 mg kg−1 (control) to
4.30 mg kg−1 (VC+CR+BF) in RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 6). Treatments comprising VC

Table 6. Long-term (12 years) effect of nutrient supply options on DTPA extractable copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron
(Fe) under RWMCS and RWCS after harvest of rice crop in an Inceptisol.
CS_Treat Control FYM VC FYM+CR VC+CR FYM+CR+BF VC+CR+BF Mean
DTPA extractable Cu (mg kg−1) (Initial Value = 3.20)
abc def
R-W-M 4.18 4.00 4.09bcd 3.85 f 3.96def 4.11bcd 4.22ab 4.06
R-W 3.91ef 3.96def 4.30a 3.99def 4.03cde 3.91ef 4.30a 4.06
Mean 4.05BC 3.98 CD 4.20A 3.92D 3.99BCD 4.01B 4.26A
DTPA extractable Zn (mg kg−1) (Initial Value = 1.24)
abcd bcd
R-W-M 1.75 1.70 1.69bcde 1.68bcde 1.69bcde 1.81abcd 1.74abcd 1.72
R-W 1.53e 1.84ab 1.88a 1.66de 1.69bcd 1.66cde 1.82abc 1.72
Mean 1.64D 1.77AB 1.78A 1.67 CD 1.69 C 1.74B 1.78A
DTPA extractable Mn (mg kg−1) (Initial Value = 8.30)
efgh fgh
R-W-M 12.15 12.08 12.87cde 11.56 h 11.93gh 11.80 h 12.06fgh 12.07B
R-W 13.42 c 14.33b 12.73cdef 15.84a 12.98 cd 12.63defg 13.24 cd 13.60A
Mean 12.79BC 13.20AB 12.80BC 13.70A 12.46 C 12.22 C 12.65BC
DTPA extractable Fe (mg kg−1) (Initial Value = 21.30)
bcd cde
R-W-M 31.2 29.6 30.3cde 27.8ef 30.6bcde 33.5ab 32.4abc 30.8A
R-W 26.1f 30.0cde 34.3a 29.5cde 28.9def 28.4def 32.4abc 29.9AB
Mean 28.6 C 29.8BC 32.3A 28.6 C 29.8BC 30.9AB 32.4A
Where; Cu = Copper; Zn = Zinc; Mn = Manganese; Fe = Iron; RWMCS = Rice-Wheat-Mungbean cropping system; RWCS = Rice-Wheat
cropping system; Initial value = Initial values before start of experiment; * Different lower case and upper case letters within rows
and columns indicate that they are significant according to LSD Test (P = 0.05)
12 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

either alone or in combination recorded the higher DTPA Cu content over FYM treatments.
Treatments where crop residues were applied with organic manures viz. FYM+CR and VC+CR
were found inferior as compared to the sole application of organic manures and they were statistically
at par with each other. The higher available Cu content in VC comprised treatments of rice soils might
be due to the slow mineralization of organic matter added through VC treatment combinations as VC
has a higher C:N ratio and stable organic matter as compared to FYM. Rice cultivated soils are
dominated by fungi and actinomycetes group of organisms which are known to decompose the stable
organic matter content and released a higher amount of available Cu content for a longer period.
However, rapid decomposition of FYM released high chelating agents and these agents might had
bound the Cu; thus, resulted in low availability of Cu. Tadesse et al. (2013) and Moharana, Sharma,
and Biswas (2017) also reported no significant increase in available Cu content in soil with integrated
use of FYM with mineral fertilizers as compared to other treatments.

Zinc (Zn)
Under different organic nutrient treatments, DTPA extracted Zn varied from 1.68 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR)
to 1.81 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR+BF) and 1.53 mg kg−1 (control) to 1.88 mg kg−1 (VC) in RWMCS and
RWCS, respectively. Incorporation of biofertilizers along with manures and crop residues (FYM+CR
+BF and VC+CR+BF) had significantly higher (1.74 and 1.81 mg kg−1) DTPA Zn over other
treatments in RWMCS (Table 6). On the other hand, in RWCS application of organic manures
alone (FYM and VC) recorded significantly higher (1.84 and 1.88 mg kg−1) DTPA Zn as compared
to other treatments. Addition of easily decomposable and mineralizable low C:N ratio organic matter
through FYM not only released a high quantity of available Zn but also induced the chemical and
biological reactions that resulted in the dissolution and release of adsorbed Zn to the soil solution. Our
results have corroborated the findings of Sidhu and Sharma (2010), Chaudhary and Narwal (2005) and
Moharana, Sharma, and Biswas (2017).

Manganese (Mn)
Soil DTPA extracted Mn content was significantly affected by different organic nutrients management
options after the harvest of rice crop (Table 6). Data revealed that DTPA Mn varied from 11.6 mg kg−1
(FYM+CR) to 12.9 mg kg−1 (VC) and 12.6 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR+BF) to 15.8 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR) in
RWMCS and RWCS, respectively. Combined application of crop residues (FYM+CR and VC+CR)
and biofertilizers (FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF) along with organic manures recorded the lower
(11.6, 11.9, 11.8, and 12.1 mg kg−1, respectively) DTPA Mn as compared to the sole application of
FYM and VC in RWMCS (Table 6). In the case of RWCS, the higher (13.0 and 15.8 mg kg−1,
respectively) DTPA Mn was observed under FYM+CR and VC+CR over FYM and VC application
alone. All the FYM treatments either alone or in combination with other organic nutrient sources
recorded the lower DTPA extracted Mn as compared to VC treatments. Continuous application
organic sources might have changed the micro-environment of the soil which led to the release of
available Mn. Continuous FYM application increased organic matter level and lower the soil pH and
this lowered pH might have led the release of Mn adsorbed to soil mineral. Further, mineralization of
organic matter decreased soil redox potential through the release of protons and this could have
resulted in the reduction and dissolution of Mn, thus enhanced its availability. Our findings were in
line with the findings of Li et al. (2007), Sidhu and Sharma (2010) and Moharana, Sharma, and Biswas
(2017).

Iron (Fe)
The soil analysis results of the DTPA extractable Fe content after the harvest of rice crops have
been presented in Table 6. The concentration of DTPA Fe under RWMCS and RWCS was varied
from 27.8 mg kg−1 (FYM+CR) to 33.5 mg kg−1 (VC+CR+BF) and 26.1 mg kg−1 (control) to
34.3 mg kg−1 (VC), respectively. In RWMCS, application of FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF
showed 7% and 4% higher DTPA Fe over control, whereas in RWCS treatment FYM, VC, VC
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 13

+CR, FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF recorded 4%, 13%, 4%, 8%, and 13% higher DTPA Fe
content over control. Combined application of crop residues (FYM+CR and VC+CR) and
biofertilizers (FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF) along with manures recorded the higher (29.6,
30.6, 32.4 and 33.5 mg kg−1) available Fe content over FYM and VC applied alone in RWMCS
(Table 6). The DTPA Fe buildup pattern in RWCS was contrary to RWMCS where the lower
contents in FYM+CR, VC+CR and FYM+CR+BF were observed (28.9, 29.5, and 28.4 mg kg−1)
than that of in FYM and VC, while VC+CR+BF was at par with the above treatments. The
addition of a high concentration of organic matter through FYM, VC and crop residues, and
lignolytic and cellulolytic microorganisms enhanced the microbial degradation of added organic
matter and thus resulted in high organic carbon which ultimately resulted in high Fe content in
these treatments. All the treatments showed the high Fe levels above the critical level of
0.3–10 mg kg−1.

Rice yield
Application of different organic nutrient sources showed a significant increase in rice grain and straw
yield over control (Table 7) after the twelfth rice-wheat and rice-wheat-mungbean cropping cycle.
Treatments with the conjoint application of manures along with crop residues and biofertilizers in
FYM+CR, VC+CR, FYM+CR+BF, and VC+CR+BF treatments showed 70%, 67%, 73%, and 80%
higher rice grain yield in RWMCS, whereas the magnitude of increased in rice grain under these
treatments was 44%, 48%, 47%, and 51% in RWCS (Table 5). Similarly, the straw yield varied from
6.50 t ha−1 (control) to 8.67 t ha−1 (VC+CR+BF) and 6.07 t ha−1 (control) to 7.37 t ha−1 (VC+CR+BF)
in RWMCS and RWCS, respectively (Table 7). This indicated the superiority of the integrated use of
different organic nutrient sources over manures alone treatments as well as over control. The highest
grain and straw yield under VC+CR+BF and FYM+CR+BF treatments indicated that combine
application organics along with crop residues and biofertilizers proliferated the microbial activity
and faster decomposition of added organic matter which enhanced the availability of required
nutrients and moisture during entire crop growth including at critical stages of the crop
(Srinivasarao et al. 2018). Other than this, application of organic sources, i.e., farmyard manure,
green manure, cow dung, and crop residues has the capability to supply the essential nutrients other
than N, P, and K. These manures are known to increase the concentration of the secondary and
micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) in rice-based cropping systems which resulted in a high grain
and straw yields (Banik et al. 2006; Manna et al. 2005). The addition of biofertilizers and legume green
manures improved the soil physico-chemical and biological properties through increased water-
holding capacity; pore space and improved soil structure reflected in higher nutrient availability and
grain and biomass yield.

Table 7. Long-term (12 years) effect of nutrient supply options on rice grain yield and straw biomass under RWMCS and RWCS in an
Inceptisol.
CR-Treatments Control FYM VC FYM+CR VC+CR FYM+CR+BF VC+CR+BF Mean
RGY (t ha-1)
RWMCS 2.92 h 4.57d 4.78 c 4.95ab 4.87b 5.05ab 5.25a 4.63A
RWCS 2.80hi 3.87 g 4.08ef 4.02 f 4.15e 4.12e 4.23e 3.90B
Mean 2.86 C 4.22B 4.43AB 4.48AB 4.51AB 4.58A 4.74A
RSY (t ha-1)
RWMCS 6.50gh 7.37de 8.20 c 9.33a 8.50bc 9.20a 8.67b 8.25A
RWCS 6.07i 6.10hi 7.10def 6.77fg 7.50d 7.00ef 7.37de 6.84B
Mean 6.28B 6.73B 7.65A 8.05A 8.00A 8.10A 8.02A
Where RGY = Rice grain yield (t ha−1); RSY = Rice straw yield (t ha−1); RWMCS = Rice-wheat-mungbean cropping system;
RWCS = Rice-wheat cropping system.
14 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Yield stability and sustainability

Rice grain stability and sustainability can be delineated with the sustainability yield index (SYI) and
coefficient of variance (CV). The CV of rice grain yield and straw biomass were lower in the conjoint
application of organics along with crop residues and biofertilizers than in manures alone or
unfertilized control treatments (Table 8). The highest CV of the rice crop was observed in
unfertilized plots (24.37 and 11.30), the second in manures alone treatment FYM (15.44 and
10.30) and VC (15.27 and 9.27). The lowest CV of rice grain yield and straw biomass was recorded
with FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF. The sustainable yield index (SYI) and sustainable straw
biomass index (SSI) were highest for VC+CR+BF and FYM+CR+BF treatments followed by VC
+CR, FYM+CR, VC, and FYM treatments (Table 8). The coefficient of variance (CV) is used to
assess the yield stability of crops; it can estimate the variation degree of average crop yield in
different years of the experiment (Han et al. 2020). Higher values of the CV illustrate the lower crop
stability (Xu et al. 2019). The SYI is used to estimate the impacts of different agricultural practices
on any crop stability and sustainability. The values of SYI range from 0 to 1 and with higher values
of standard deviation (SD), the values of SYI will be closer to 0, which represents the instability of
crop yield in a given treatment (Choudhary et al. 2018). When compared with the sustainability and
stability of rice grain yield and straw biomass yield under seven different organic fertilization
treatments, the CV of rice grain yield and straw biomass with the long-term unfertilized plot was
the highest and the SYI of rice grain yield and straw biomass was the lowest. This revealed a drastic
fluctuation in crop yield, which indicated poor crop yield stability and sustainability under unferti­
lized plots (Han et al. 2020). Conjoint application of organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers in
FYM+CR+BF and VC+CR+BF treatments effectively reduced the CV and thus increased crop
stability and sustainability; therefore, reduced the impacts of biological, environmental, and man-
made factors on rice grain yield and straw biomass and increased crop stability and sustainability
(Table 8) (Chen et al. 2018).

Conclusions
Long-term studies of rice-based organic farming systems are worthwhile for exploring the beneficial
effects of organics, crop residues, and biofertilizers on the improvement of soil physical properties, the
buildup of SOC, available macro and micronutrients, and their impacts on crop productivity. The
combined use of organic manures along with crop residues and biofertilizers improved the soil
physico-chemical properties and rice productivity. To sustain the soil quality, environment pollution,
and crop productivity it is imperative to adopt an organic production system in the rice-wheat
sequence. The addition of biofertilizers enhanced the crop residue decomposition and also increased

Table 8. Summary of rice yield along with straw biomass and sustainability index under different organic nutrient treatments and
cropping systems in the long-term field experiment from 2009 to 2015 in an Inceptisol.
CS_Treat Rice yield Rice straw biomass
Y SD Ymax SYI CV S SD Smax SSI CV
RWMCS 3.99 0.230 5.39 0.695 16.38 8.33 0.814 10.25 0.727 8.65
RWCS 4.67 0.366 5.39 0.794 14.00 7.67 0.626 10.25 0.683 9.39
Control 2.68 0.164 5.39 0.465 24.37 6.38 0.802 10.25 0.538 11.30
FYM 4.24 0.371 5.39 0.712 15.44 7.00 0.789 10.25 0.599 10.30
VC 4.28 0.331 5.39 0.728 15.27 7.78 0.828 10.25 0.671 9.27
FYM+CR 4.50 0.568 5.39 0.722 14.52 8.22 0.858 10.25 0.711 8.78
VC+CR 4.65 0.399 5.39 0.784 14.05 8.41 0.743 10.25 0.742 8.57
FYM+CR+BF 4.88 0.352 5.39 0.834 13.41 8.63 0.676 10.25 0.770 8.36
VC+CR+BF 5.01 0.305 5.39 0.869 13.05 8.54 0.660 10.25 0.763 8.44
Where Y = average grain yield of rice (t ha−1); SD = standard deviation of grain yield or straw biomass;Ymax = maximum grain yield of
rice of experiment over the years (t ha−1); SYI = Sustainable yield index of rice; S = average straw biomass of rice (t ha−1); Smax
= maximum straw biomass of rice of the experiment over the years (t ha−1); SSI = sustainable straw biomass index of rice; CV
(%) = Coefficient of variance in rice grain or straw biomass; RWMCS = rice-wheat-mungbean cropping system; RWCS = rice-wheat
cropping system.
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 15

the DTPA extractable Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn in soil. In conclusion, the conjoint application of organic
manures along with crop residues and biofertilizers in organic farming can enhance not only the rice
grain yield but also yield stability and sustainability.

Acknowledgments
The authors of the present study are thankful to the Professor and Head, Division of Soil Science & Agricultural
Chemistry; Head, Division of Agronomy, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, and Director,
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram for providing guidance and necessary facilities for
successful completion of the present investigation.

Funding
The research was funded by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi as an Institute funded project
under the capacity building for Ph.D. Research students. ICAR-IARI is a premium institute under the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

References
Alamgir, M., A. McNeill, C. Tang, and P. Marschner. 2012. Changes in soil P pools during legume residue
decomposition. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 49:70–77.
Bandyopadhyay, K. K., A. K. Misra, P. K. Ghosh, and K. M. Hati. 2010. Effect of integrated use of farmyard manure and
chemical fertilizers on soil physical properties and productivity of soybean. Soil and Tillage Research 110 (1):115–25.
Banik, P., P. K. Ghosal, T. K. Sasmal, S. Bhattacharya, B. K. Sarkar, and D. K. Bagchi. 2006. Effect of organic and
inorganic nutrients for soil quality conservation and yield of rainfed low land rice in subtropical plateau region.
Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 192:331–43.
Bhattacharya, R., S. Chandra, R. D. Singh, S. Kundu, A. K. Srivastva, and H. S. Gupta. 2007. Long-term farmyard manure
application effects on properties of a silty clay loam soil under irrigated wheat-soybean rotation. Soil and Tillage
Research, 94(2): 386–96.
Bhattacharyya, R., Prakash, V., Kundu, S., Srivastva, A.K., Gupta, H.S. and Mitra, S. (2010) Long term effects of
fertilization on carbon and nitrogen sequestration and aggregate associated carbon and nitrogen in the Indian sub-
Himalayas. Nutrient cycling in Agroecosystems 86(1), 1–16 doi:10.1007/s10705-009-9270-y
Bhattacharyya, R., S. C. Pandey, J. K. Bisht, J. C. Bhatt, H. S. Gupta, M. D. Tuti, and A. K. Srivastva. 2013. Tillage and
irrigation effects on soil aggregation and carbon pools in the Indian sub-Himalayas. Agronomy Journal 105
(1):101–12.
Biswas, D. R., A. Ghosh, S. Ramchandran, B. B. Basak, and P. C. Moharana. 2018. Dependence of thermal and moisture
sensitivity of soil organic carbon decomposition on manure composition in an Inceptisol under a 5 year old
maize-wheat cropping system. Journal of Geophysical Science. Biogeosciences, 123(05): 1–14.
Biswas, P. P., and P. D. Sharma. 2008. A new approach for estimating fertilizer response ratio – The Indian scenario.
Indian Journal of Fertilizers 4 (7):59–62.
Bouyoucos, G.J. 1962. Hydrometer Method Improved for Making Particle Size Analyses of Soils 1. Agronomy Journal,
54: 464 5 doi:10.2134/agronj1962.00021962005400050028x
Chaudhary, M., and R. P. Narwal. 2005. Effect of long-term application of farmyard manure on soil micronutrient status.
Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 51 (3):351–59.
Chen, H., A. Deng, W. Zhang, W. Li, Y. Qiao, T. Yang, and F. Chen. 2018. Long-term inorganic plus organic fertilization
increases yield and yield stability of winter wheat. The Crop Journal 6 (6):589–99.
Choudhary, M., S. C. Panday, V. S. Meena, S. Singh, R. P. Yadav, D. Mahanta, and A. Pattanayak. 2018. Long-term effects
of organic manure and inorganic fertilization on sustainability and chemical soil quality indicators of soybean-wheat
cropping system in the Indian mid-Himalayas. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 257:38–46.
Das, D., B. S. Dwivedi, V. K. Singh, S. P. Datta, M. C. Meena, D. Chakraborty, and R. P. Mishra. 2017. Long-term effects
of fertilizers and organic sources on soil organic carbon fractions under a rice–wheat system in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains of north-west India. Soil Research 55 (3):296–308.
Das, T. K., R. Bhattacharyya, S. Sudhishri, A. R. Sharma, Y. S. Saharawat, K. K. Bandyopadhyay, and A. Bhatia. 2014.
Conservation agriculture in an irrigated cotton–wheat system of the western Indo-Gangetic Plains: Crop and water
productivity and economic profitability. Field Crops Research 158::24–33.
Dey, A., B. S. Dwivedi, R. Bhattacharyya, S. P. Datta, M. C. Meena, T. K. Das, and V. K. Singh. 2016. Conservation
agriculture in a rice-wheat cropping system on an alluvial soil of north-western Indo-Gangetic plains: Effect on soil
carbon and nitrogen pools. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 64 (3):246–54.
16 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Dhaliwal, S. S., H. Ram, S. S. Walia, M. K. Walia, B. Kumar, and M. K. Dhaliwal. 2019. Long-term influence of nutrient
management on carbon and nutrients in Typic-ustochrept soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis
50 (19):,):2420–28.
Dhaliwal, S. S., J. S. Manchanda, S. S. Walia, and M. K. Dhaliwal. 2013. Differential response of manures in transforma­
tion of DTPA and total zinc and iron in rice transplanted on light soil of Punjab. International Journal of Science,
Environment and Technology 2 (3):300–12.
Ding, X., Han, X., Liang, Y., Qiao, Y., Li, L. and Li, N. (2012) Changes in soil organic carbon pools after 10 years of
continuous manuring combined with chemical fertilizer in a Mollisol in China.Soil and Tillage Research122, 36–41
doi:10.1016/j.still.2012.02.002
Dkhar, S., J. Bordoloi, L. J. Bordooloi, and Y. K. Sharma. 2019. Soil quality parameters and yield of green gram as affected
by the combined application of manures and biofertilisers. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied
Sciences 8 (4):23–32.
Dotaniya, M. L., and S. C. Datta. 2014. Impact of bagasse and press mud on availability and fixation capacity of
phosphorus in an inceptisol of north India. SugarTech 16 (1):109–12.
Dotaniya, M. L., S. C. Datta, D. R. Biswas, C. K. Dotaniya, B. L. Meena, S. Rajendiran, K. L. Regar, and M. Lata. 2016. Use
of sugarcane industrial byproducts for improving sugarcane productivity and soil health-a review. International
Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture 5 (3):185–94.
Dotaniya, M. L., S. C. Datta, D. R. Biswas, H. M. Meena, and K. Kumar. 2014a. Production of oxalic acid as influenced by
the application of organic residue and its effect on phosphorus uptake by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in an
Inceptisol of north India. National Academy Science Letters 37 (5):401–05.
Dotaniya, M. L., S. C. Datta, D. R. Biswas, H. M. Meena, S. Rajendiran, and A. L. Meena. 2015. Phosphorus dynamics
mediated by bagasse, press mud and rice straw in Inceptisol of North India. Agrochimica 59 (4):358–69.
Dotaniya, M. L., S. C. Datta, D. R. Biswas, and K. Kumar. 2014b. Effect of organic sources on phosphorus fractions and
available phosphorus in typic haplustept. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 62 (1):80–83.
Dui-an, L., B. X. Yan, L. X. Wang, Z. Q. Deng, and Y. B. Zhang. 2013. Changes in phosphorus fractions and nitrogen
forms during composting of pig manure with rice straw. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 12 (10):1855–64.
Gaind, S. 2014. Effect of fungal consortium and animal manure amendments on phosphorus fractions of paddy-straw
compost. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 94:90–97.
Gaind, S. and Singh, Y.V. (2013) Soil organic carbon in relation to nutrient regimes and crop rotation under rice-based
cropping system.Journal of crop improvement27(2), 170–185 doi:10.1080/15427528.2012.746250
Ghosh, A., R. Bhattacharyya, M. C. Meena, B. S. Dwivedi, G. Singh, R. Agnihotri, and C. Sharma. 2018. Long-term
fertilization effects on soil organic carbon sequestration in an Inceptisol. Soil & Tillage Research 177:134–44.
Han, X., C. Hu, Y. Chen, Y. Qiao, D. Liu, J. Fan, and Z. Zhang. 2020. Crop yield stability and sustainability in a
rice-wheat cropping system based on 34-year field experiment. European Journal of Agronomy 113:125965.
Hati, K. M., A. Swarup, B. Mishra, M. C. Manna, R. H. Wanjari, K. G. Mandal, and A. K. Misra. 2008. Impact of long-
term application of fertilizer, manure and lime under intensive cropping on physical properties and organic carbon
content of an Alfisol. Geoderma 148:173–79.
Hazra, K. K., P. K. Ghosh, M. S. Venkatesh, C. P. Nath, N. Kumar, M. Singh, and N. Nadarajan. 2018. Improving soil
organic carbon pools through inclusion of summer mungbean in cereal-cereal cropping systems in Indo-Gangetic
plain. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 64 (12):1–15.
Hemalatha, S., K. Radhika, S. Maragatham, and S. Praveena Katharine. 2013. Influence of long term fertilization on soil
fertility: A review. Research and Review: Journal of Agriculture and Allied Sciences 2 (3):30–36.
Jackson, M. L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. New Delhi-12: Prenice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Jat, H. S., A. Datta, P. C. Sharma, V. Kumar, A. K. Yadav, M. Choudhary, V. Choudhary, M. K. Gathala, D. K. Sharma,
M. L. Jat, et al. 2017. Assessing soil properties and nutrient availability under conservation agriculture practices in
a reclaimed sodic soil in cereal-based systems of North-West India. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science (Accepted)
64 (4):531–45.
Kaje, V. V., D. K. Sharma, Y. S. Shivay, S. L. Jat, A. Bhatia, T. J. Purakayastha, and R. Bhattacharyya. 2018. Long-term
impact of organic and conventional farming on soil physical properties under rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping system in north-western Indo Gangetic plains. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 88
(1):107–13.
Karami, A., M. Homaee, S. Afzalinia, H. Ruhipour, and S. Basirat. 2012. Organic resource management: Impacts on soil
aggregate stability and other soil physico-chemical properties. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 148:22–28.
Keen, B. A., and H. Raczkowski. 1921. Relation between the clay content and certain physical properties of a soil. Journal
of Agricultural Science 11:441–49.
Klute, A., and C. Dirksen (1986). Hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity: Laboratory methods. Methods of soil analysis:
part 1—physical and mineralogical methods, (methodsofsoilan1), 687–734.
Kumar, K. A., D. K. Swain, and B. C. Ghosh. 2018. Effect of organic and inorganic nutrient management on soil nutrient
dynamics and productivity of rice-chickpea system in lateritic soil. Organic Agriculture 8 (1):15–28.
Kumar, R., K. S. Rawat, and B. Yadav. 2012. Vertical distribution of physico-chemical properties under different
topo-sequence in soils of Jharkhand. Journal of Agricultural Physics 12 (1):63–69.
 COMMUNICATIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE AND PLANT ANALYSIS 17

Li, B. Y., D. M. Zhou, L. Cang, H. L. Zhang, X. H. Fan, and S. W. Qin. 2007. Soil micronutrient availability to crops as
affected by long-term inorganic and organic fertilizer applications. Soil and Tillage Research 96 (1–2):166–73.
Li-Li, B., F. Xiang-chao, T. De-gui, W. Bin, B. Lin, and Y. Tie-jun. 2013. Evaluation and comparison of composting
rabbit manu re mixed with mushroom residue and rice straw. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 15
(5):1069–81.
Lima, Diana L.D.., Santos, S.M., Scherer, H.W., Schneider, R.J., Duarte, A.C., Santos, Eduarda B.H.. and Esteves, V.I.
(2009) Effects of organic and inorganic amendments on soil organic matter properties.Geoderma150(1-2), 38–45
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.01.009
Lindsay, W. L., and W. A. Norvell. 1978. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper 1. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 42 (3):421–28.
Liu, C., Lu, M., Cui, J., Li, B. and Fang, C. (2014) Effects of straw carbon input on carbon dynamics in agricultural soils: a
meta-analysis.Global Change Biology20(5), 1366–1381 doi:10.1111/gcb.2014.20.issue-5
Mandal, N., B. S. Dwivedi, M. C. Meena, D. Singh, S. P. Datta, R. K. Tomar, and B. M. Sharma. 2013. Effect of
induced defoliation in pigeonpea, farmyard manure and sulphitation pressmud on soil organic carbon frac­
tions, mineral nitrogen and crop yields in a pigeonpea–wheat cropping system. Field Crops Research
154:178–87.
Manna, M. C., A. Swarup, R. H. Wanjari, H. N. Ravankar, B. Mishra, M. N. Saha, Y. V. Singh, D. K. Shahi, and
P. A. Sarap. 2005. Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil organic carbon storage, soil quality and
yield sustainability under sub-humid and semi-arid tropical India. Field Crops Research 93:264–80.
Meena, A. L., R. N. Pandey, D. Kumar, V. K. Sharma, S. P. Datta, and G. Singh. January 2019. Relative impacts of
long-term nutrient management practices on nitrogen dynamics in rice (Oryza sativa)-based organic cropping
systems of Indo-Gangatic Plains. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 89(1):,):79–86.
Mitran, T., P. K. Mani, P. K. Bandyopadhyay, and N. Basak. 2018. Influence of organic amendments on soil physical
attributes and aggregate associated phosphorus under long-term rice-wheat cropping. Pedosphere 28 (5):823–32.
Moharana, P. C., B. M. Sharma, and D. R. Biswas. 2017. Changes in the soil properties and availability of micronutrients
after six-year application of organic and chemical fertilizers using STCR-based targeted yield equations under pearl
millet-wheat cropping system. Journal of Plant Nutrition 40 (2):165–76.
Nagar, R. K., V. V. Goud, R. Kumar, and R. Kumar. 2016. Effect of organic manures and crop residue management on
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil under pigeonpea based intercropping system. International
Journal of Farm Sciences 6 (1):101–13.
Naresh, R. K., P. Kumar, S. Malik, M. Kumar, and U. Choudhary. 2018. Effects of tillage, residue and nutrient
management on top soil carbon stocks and soil labile organic carbon fractions in the indo-gangetic plains of North
West India: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 7 (3):1818–42.
Olsen, S. R., C. V. Cole, F. S. Watanabe, and L. A. Dean 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extracting
with sodium bicarbonate. United State Department of Agriculture Circular No. 939.
Ou, H. P., L. Q. Zhou, J. S. Huang, Y. Zeng, X. H. Zhu, R. I. Xie, H. W. Tan, and B. Y. Huang. 2018. Effects of long-term
different fertilization on sugarcane yield stability, fertilizer contribution rate and nutrition loss. Science Agricultural
Sinica, 51(10): 1931-1939.
Ouyang, Y., J. R. Reeve, and M. J. Norton. 2018. Soil enzyme activities and abundance of microbial functional genes
involved in nitrogen transformations in an organic farming system. Biology and Fertility of Soils 54:437–50.
Ram, M., M. R. Davari, and S. N. Sharma. 2014. Direct, residual and cumulative effects of organic manures and
biofertilizers on yields, NPK uptake, grain quality and economics of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under organic
farming of rice-wheat cropping system. Journal of Organic Systems 9 (1):16–30.
Rasoulzadeh, A., and A. Yaghoubi. 2014. Inverse modeling approach for determining soil hydraulic properties as
affected by application of cattle manure. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering 7 (2):27–35.
Ray, D. K., J. S. Gerber, G. K. MacDonald, and P. C. West. 2015. Climate variation explains a third of global crop yield
variability. Nature Communications 6 (1):1–9.
Shukla, M., R. H. Patel, R. Verma, and P. Deewan. 2013. Effect of bio-organics and chemical fertilizers on growth and
yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under middle Gujarat conditions. Vegetos 26 (1):183–87.
Sidhu, G. S., and B. D. Sharma. 2010. Diethylene triamine penta acetic acid–extractable micronutrients status in soil
under a rice-wheat system and their relationship with soil properties in different agroclimatic zones of Indo-Gangetic
plains of India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 41:29–51.
Singh, G., D. Kumar, and P. Sharma. 2015. Effect of organics, biofertilizers and crop residues application on soil
microbial activity in rice-wheat and rice-wheat-mungbean cropping systems in Indo-Gangatci plains. Cogent
Geoscience 1 (1):1–14.
Singh, R. P., S. K. Das, U. M. Bhaskara Rao, and M. Narayana Reddy. 1990. CRIDA Report, CRIDA, Hyderabad, India.
106 pp.
Soma, D. M., D. I. Kiba, N. Ewusi-Mensah, Z. Gnankambary, F. Lompo, M. P. Sedogo, and R. C. Abaidoo. 2018. Changes
in sorghum production, soil P forms and P use efficiency following long-term application of manure, compost and
straw in a Ferric Lixisol. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B-Soil and Plant Science 68 (5):1–12.
18 A. L. MEENA ET AL.

Srinivasarao, C., S. Kundu, B. K. Ramachandrappa, S. Reddy, R. Lal, B. Venkateswarlu, and R. P. Naik. 2014. Potassium
release characteristics, potassium balance, and fingermillet (Eleusine coracana G.) yield sustainability in a 27-year
long experiment on an Alfisol in the semi-arid tropical India. Plant and Soil 374 (1–2):315–30.
Srinivasarao, C., S. Kundu, K. L. Sharma, P. B. Thakur, V. M. Amrutsagar, A. N. Deshpande, and S. K. Soam. 2018. Effect
of 22 years long conjunctive use of organic and chemical sources of nutrients on crop yield, soil properties, and
nutrient balance in post-monsoon sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) in Peninsular Vertisols of India. Communications in
Soil Science and Plant Analysis 49 (13):1570–85.
Subbiah, B. V., and G. L. Asija. 1956. A rapid procedure for the determination of available nitrogen in soils. Current
Science 25:259–60.
Subehia, S. K., S. Sepehya, S. S. Rana, S. C. Negi, and S. K. Sharma. 2013. Long-term effect of organic and inorganic
fertilizers on rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield, and chemical properties of an acidic soil in the
western Himalayas. Experimental Agriculture 49 (3):382–94.
Tadesse, T., N. Dechassa, W. Bayu, and S. Gebeyehu. 2013. Effects of farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizer
application on soil physico-chemical properties and nutrient balance in rain-fed lowland rice ecosystem. American
Journal of Plant Sciences 4 (2):309.
Tembhare, B. R., A. K. Dwivedi, and A. Tiwari. 1998. Effect of continuous fertilizer use on crop yields and fertility of a
Typic Haplustert. In: Proceeding of a National Workshop on Long-Term Soil Fertility Management through Integrated
Plant Nutrient Supply. ed. A. Swarup et al., pp. 335. Bhopal, India: Indian Institute of Soil Science.
Thuithaisong, C., P. Parkpian, O. V. Shipin, R. P. Shrestha, K. Naklang, R. D. Delaune, and A. Jugsujinda. 2011. Soil-
quality quality indicators for predicting sustainable organic rice production. Communications in Soil Science and
Plant Analysis 42:548–68.
Veihmeyer, F. J., and A. Hendrickson. 1948. Soil density and root penetration. Soil Science Science 65 (6):487–94.
Venkatesh, M. S., K. K. Hazra, P. K. Ghosh, C. S. Praharaj, and N. Kumar. 2013. Long-term effect of pulses and nutrient
management on soil carbon sequestration in Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 93
(1):127–36.
Walia, M. K., S. S. Walia, and S. S. Dhaliwal. 2010. Long-term effect of integrated nutrient management of properties of
typic ustochrept after 23 cycles of irrigated rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) system. Journal of
Sustainable Agriculture 34 (7):724–43.
Walkley, A. J., and C. A. Black. 1934. An estimation of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and
a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37:29–38.
Xu, J., H. Han, T. Ning, Z. Li, and R. Lal. 2019. Long-term effects of tillage and straw management on soil organic carbon,
crop yield, and yield stability in a wheat-maize system. Field Crops Research 233:33–40.
Yadav, S. K., D. K. Benbi, and R. Prasad. 2019. Effect of continuous application of organic and inorganic sources of
nutrients on chemical properties of soil. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 8
(4):2455–63.
Yoder, R. E. 1936. A direct method of aggregate analysis of soils and a study of the physical nature of erosion losses 1.
Agronomy Journal 28 (5):337–51.
Zhang, J. B., J. S. Yang, R. J. Yao, S. P. Yu, F. R. Li, and X. J. Hou. 2014. The effects of farmyard manure and mulch on soil
physical properties in a reclaimed coastal tidal flat salt-affected soil. Journal of Integrative Agriculture Agriculture 13
(8):1782–90.