10 HPGD2203 T6

Topic  Organisational
Culture and
6 Climate
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish school culture and school climate;
2. Discuss the importance of culture for school success;
3. Demonstrate the need to develop a positive work culture and
climate in schools; and
4. Propose a model of school that has a strong and positive work
culture.
 INTRODUCTION
School culture and school climate refer to a set of values, cultures, practices and
organisational structure in schools that influence and affect the process of
formation of behaviour and safety of students in schools. Teaching and learning
approaches, openness and the type of relationship between administrators,
teachers, parents or guardians and students contribute towards the formation of
the school climate. Although school culture and climate are two interrelated forms,
school climate refers more to the effects of school environment on students, while
school culture refers to the way and style teachers and staff work as a team in
schools.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 6 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE  119
6.1 SCHOOL CULTURE

Consider this statement for a moment:
Did you know that an open culture enhances an organisationÊs relationship with
its environment? It is a situation where parents, teachers and other interested
parties enjoy mutual benefits, open relationships, full trust, clear
communication and shared goals for the organisation.
Culture is a way we do our work. In this system, there are patterns of ideas, thinking,
norms and values that contribute towards the formation of individual behaviour.
According to Mintzberg (1989) culture refers to an organisationÊs ideology, or „the
traditions and beliefs of an organisation that distinguish it from other organizations
and infuse a certain life into the skeleton of its structure.‰ Robbins (1998) defines
culture as as „a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the
organisation from other organisations.‰
Scheine (2010) sees that culture should be reserved for a „deeper level of basic
assumptions, values and beliefs‰ that become shared and taken for granted as the
organisation continues to be successful.
We can conclude that a school culture is a system of shared ideas and practices that
exists within the school which holds us together and that gives us a unique identity.
Hoy and Miskel (2013) explain that culture carries important functions as follows:
(a) Creates distinctions among organisations;
(b) Provides the organisations with a sense of identity;
(c) Facilitates development of commitment to the group;
(d) Enhances stability in the social system;
(e) Is the social glue that binds the organisation together; and
(f) Provides standards of behaviour.
The organisational culture that we practise exists at three levels. They are culture as
norms, culture as shared values and culture as tacit assumptions (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).

120  TOPIC 6 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE
The following are examples for each level mentioned:
(a) Examples of culture as norms:

(i) Never reprimand students in public;
(ii) Never criticise colleagues or staff in public;
(iii) Be available for students and colleagues; and
(iv) Everybody handles their own discipline problems.
(b) Examples of culture of shared values are:

(i) Commitment to the school;
(ii) Commitment to teaching and all school duties;
(iii) Teamwork; and
(iv) High academic and sports achievement.
(c) Examples of culture as tacit assumptions are:

(i) Teachers are professionally capable of making educational decisions;
(ii) Problems can be be solved by open communication and by maintaining
diplomacy and civility; and
(iii) Teachers are family; they care for each other.
Cultures can be designed and built. School leaders can initiate or become the
champion of a positive culture. Examples of cultural practices that could be instilled
are as follows:
(a) Loving culture;
(b) Culture of respect;
(c) Culture of being brave to question;
(d) Reading culture; and
(e) Culture of speed.

Each culture stated before should be accompanied by various related activities.

The reading culture for instance, is inculcated through the following activities:
(a) Nilam Project ă every student who has completed reading a book, writes a
brief report on the book that has been read;
(b) A book corner in class ă becomes a place for magazines and newspapers;
(c) Book shack ă a place to read books;
(d) Knowledge walkway ă a billboard filled with useful knowledge; and
(e) A novel a week ă inculcate book reading skills.
The loving culture should be accompanied by various fun activities. For instance,
(a) Teachers greeting students first;
(b) Mentor-mentee project;
(c) Book on classmatesÊ biographies; and
(d) Daily diaries.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Relate Hoy and MiskelÊs three levels of organisational culture to school

culture, and provide your own examples for each.
6.2 SCHOOL CLIMATE

School climate is the „characteristic‰ and environment that exist in a school that
differentiates it from other schools. This characteristic is the product of interaction
between teachers and students as well as the society in that school as a whole.

Are you aware that the following six leadership practices are closely associated
with organisational climate? They are, namely, the following:
(a) Sharing of vision;
(b) Focusing on studentsÊ achievements;
(c) Managing the safety and effectiveness of learning environment;
(d) Cooperating with parents and the community;
(e) Acting with fairness and integrity; and
(f) Influencing the social and political landscapes of the organisation.

6.2.1 Types of Climate

Moos (1979) defines school climate as a social system that forms a learning
environment where students from various backgrounds and different experiences
exist in a group, where their behaviours depend greatly on the type of protocol
created by administrators and teachers. Moos divides social environment into
three categories, which are:
(a) Relations, encompassing involvement, sharing and cooperation with friends
and teachers in classrooms.
(b) Self development or goal orientation, covering personal development and
shared individual goal achievement.
(c) Changes and system reinforcement, which involve clear regulations and
laws and teachersÊ actions to ensure that regulations are adhered to.
Moos (1979) proposed that "although the specific types of educational

environments needed depend in part on the types of people in them and on the
outcomes desired... [at least] we need to focus on relationship, personal growth,
and system maintenance and change dimensions in describing, comparing,
evaluating, and changing educational settings." (p. 96)

A school is an agent preparing students in the environment. An educational
institution is an organisation that is established to achieve continuous educational
objectives. Environmental factors and the school climate will influence input and
output of educational organisations in the future.

A school climate can be divided into two types, that is, positive climate or open
climate and negative climate or closed climate. An open climate is depicted by a
school environment that is peaceful, comfortable, safe, organised and free of
threats and serious disciplinary problems either among teachers, staff or students.
In schools that have a positive climate, normally administrators, staff and students
are genuine, good and sincere, proud of the school and have esprit de corps,
possess clear leadership skills where teachers give full commitment without
feeling pressured.
Sheninger and Murray (2017) believe that a positive culture shows an attention to
social and physical safety. It also supports high behavioural and academic standards
other than providing encouragement and maintenance of respectful, trusting and
caring relationships. Teachers would also be at their best in such an environment
as such a climate develops and encourages trust, respect, communication and
cooperation within the school and the community at large. Hence, positive school
climate is the foundation for improvement of student achievement and excellent
colleagiality.
Unlike positive climate, negative climate is where the school is in a chaotic

condition, the principal is always anxious, teachers are listless and students are
uncontrollable. Such a school will show abnormal, tense and pretentious
behaviour of administrators, teachers and students. There is a lesser sense of
belonging, minimal participation in school activities and only compulsory
activities are implemented. Normally administrators will use their power to issue
directives to activate programmes, while teachers will be complacent and show
high work dissatisfaction.
Although a school climate is said to be negative or positive, in reality this cannot

be clearly seen. However, often times there exist both climates in schools. What is
obvious is its level because climate lies within a positive and negative continuum.
6.2.2 Importance of Climate

Implementation of duties by teachers and staff in an organisation is determined by
two factors, namely individual personality and environment or the environment
within the organisation. This shows that school climate is important to ensure an
individualÊs effectiveness and commitment towards the organisation. A positive
climate will help students and teachers to be more motivated and subsequently
teaching and learning will run smoothly.
The school climate greatly influences studentsÊ development, particularly through

three main aspects, namely introduction to self-concept, ability to work effectively
and ability to build good relations with other people. School influence plays a
major role after family in forming studentsÊ personality. In fact, for a majority of
students, a school is the substitute for family. The influence of teachers and peers
leave a deep impact on students. Therefore, the role of a school climate is closely
related to personality and academic excellence of students as well as the
effectiveness of a school.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Describe the climate in a school that you are familiar with. Share your
thoughts on myINSPIRE.
6.3 CHANGE IN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND

CULTURE
As we have already discussed, culture is shared norms, values and tacit
expressions. In contrast, climate is the perceptions of behaviour which is the
relatively enduring quality of a school environment that is experienced by
participants, which in turn, affects their behaviour and is based on their collective
perceptions of behaviour in schools (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
Did you know?

According to Humphrey (2000), school climate is similar to school culture
whereby it explores the types of culture and staff satisfaction towards the school
and its leadership. The unique attributes of school culture evolve through a
long-term process.
Climate change and school culture are closely related with the school administrative
leadership pattern. This is because school leaders are the most important people
who influence the climate and culture of a school. If a school leader is open, his
school climate will also be open and positive. Thus, changes in climate will occur
when teachers work hard and calmly because their safety is guaranteed. This is very
much in line with the concept of climate of citizenship, where teachers generally
behave in helpful ways. They typically go beyond routine duties, voluntarily help
others and embrace extra work. Their behaviour is characterised by altruism,
conscientiousness, courtesy and good citizenship. Voluntarism is a dominant
characteristic of teacher behaviour (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).

Examples of the practice of this concept are altruism, conscientiousness,

sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. Students will also feel the changes in
school climate taking place. Conversely, if school leaders are withdrawn, the
school climate will be withdrawn; teachers and students will feel anxious and not
confident with the school. As such, school leaders should be individuals who are
capable and responsible in improving and bringing changes to the climate and
culture of the school. School leaders can provide emphasis on the relationship
between groups in the school. They can also ensure a harmonious climate and
attend to studentsÊ and teachersÊ personal development, particularly in terms of
values, self-confidence, trust and attitude.
Possibly, school heads will face obstacles in changing climates and school cultures
in the short term. But they should play their roles effectively if they want to see
their schools develop in the future.
School climate involves human relations. This creates complexity. There is no

shortcut to it. Subsequently, school leaders, when they attempt to take measures
to improve school climate and culture, need to be aware of the following four-step
process:
(a) Being aware of situations ă school heads should be aware of the behaviours
of students, teachers and staff in the school. This can be done through
observation and scrutinising.
(b) Analysing the situation ă based on information obtained, school heads

should analyse the situation systematically to get the total picture and
understand it clearly, such as by studying various contributing factors to the
development of school climate and culture.
(c) Taking action ă school heads can take action to change school climate and
culture through changes in value, attitudes, relationships and the conduct of
teachers and students. Positive norms are encouraged, while negative ones
are abandoned.
(d) Assessing ă through actions that can be taken to see its effectiveness. Among
others, a school head can modify certain aspects in climate and culture
wherever necessary. Continuous assessments are very important because
certain changes made in an organised manner take a long time.

To improve and change school climate and culture, all factors should be taken into
consideration whether it has internal or external characteristics. Attitudes, values,
teaching skills, learning, environment, building, equipment, quality and quantity
of teaching aids and books cannot be separated in the change of climate and school
culture. Since society also influences school culture and climate, values and
attitudes of the surrounding community should also be taken into consideration.
Hoy and Miskel (2013) suggested two change strategies in improving

organisational climate, namely, clinical strategy and growth-centred strategy.
Clinical strategy involves gaining knowledge of the organisation, diagnosis,
prognosis, prescription and evaluation, while the growth-centred strategy is
concerned with accepting a set of assumptions. Among the assumptions are that
change is a property of healthy school organisations, that it has direction that
implies progress, and that teachers have high potential for development and
implementation for change.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
List four steps which school leaders should exercise in their attempt to
change school culture and climate.
ACTIVITY 6.2
School culture and climate are important factors that contribute to school
excellence. Discuss with your coursemates, the aspects that should be
given attention by a school administrator in bringing change in the
organisation.
6.4 STUDENTS CONTROL

Various programmes have been implemented in schools in the effort to build and
control discipline. Among the programmes which have been initiated is the „Safe
School Programme.‰ Through this programme the school community, namely
teachers, students, support staff, school administrators, counsellors and so on need
to be aware of student safety and this is interpreted through sensitive, caring and
responsible behaviours and attitudes as well as professionalism to assure that the
learning environment is conducive.

Did you know?

Schools in which students are highly disciplined generally exhibit academic
strength and excellence; have cultural clarity in terms of goals; strong teachers,
strong teacher parent and student relationships; and climates that are focused
on learning.

Among the actions that have to be implemented by the school community to

ensure student control and safety in school are:
(a) Administrators and teachers should be on duty at the entrance and within
the building area before and after school hours;
(b) Teachers and administrators should be able to anticipate whatever problems
that could arise;
(c) Teachers should be present at all areas and special rooms;
(d) The school community should be able to help control traffic inside and
outside the school during and after school hours;
(e) The school community is encouraged to supervise and eat at the school
canteen;
(f) Teachers are required to be with students during every school programme
and activity;
(g) The school community should monitor toilets, special rooms and the school
compound at all times;
(h) Teachers should help students during and after school hours;
(i) The school community is trained to face any crisis that arises and understand
their responsibility towards prevention as well as facing of emergencies;
(j) Teachers should discuss in class and during every programme the awareness
of safety in the school;
(k) The school community should be responsible in implementing policies to
determine safety in every co-curricular activity at all times during school
hours;
(l) The school community should prove that they have the commitment in
instilling culture and a learning environment; and
(m) School administrators and teachers are required to call students by name.

Apart from that, training and lecture activities or briefings can be implemented in
order to inform students about plans, procedures and responsibilities in
maintaining the school climate. Among the topics and activities that are suitable
with training are plans to handle crisis, awareness on drug prevention,
gangsterism, dangerous weapons, involvement of school community in facing
conflict resolution, reducing violent behaviour and peer counselling. The school
community should also be responsible in avoiding, managing and responding to
every crisis that arises.
Exposure in handling of conflicts effectively can be implemented through training

and courses which can be presented to parents, students and the school
community. The content covers communication skills, problem resolution,
decision-making skills, empathy, identifying existence of gangsters, legal skills
and others. Activities in the form of directives begin from informal to formal and
from planning and implementation.
Through smart school partnership and cooperation as well as involvement

between schools and social bodies in preventive efforts, examples that should also
be actively implemented to enhance school safety are violence prevention
programmes, legal enforcement, emergency agencies, fire services and youth
agencies.
Schools are encouraged to establish crime prevention clubs through continuous

safety campaigns. The clubs are voluntary bodies that are implemented by
associations to reduce criminal offences and increase control and safety. A safe and
comfortable climate shows that there is school safety. Among the aspects that
should be given attention to create and safeguard students are safety planning
through control, communication systems, guarding, identification badges, access
cards, visitor tags and safeguarding by safety guards.
The role of parents and guardians is also important to inculcate a sense of

belonging and pride for the school through support, involvement and
participation as partners in safe school activities. Examples include safety rounds,
assistance, monitoring and parental educational programmes whereby parents
learn skills to help, receive counselling services and also learn about the effects of
violent behaviour in school.
There is a need to consider having personnel officers who are given the task and
responsibility to lead, coordinate and help in ensuring that the school environment
is safe. The personnel can possibly be security guards, school administrators or
teachers who are tasked to implement this role.

SELF-CHECK 6.3
List the actions that can be taken by school administrators in disciplining
students.
6.5 ORGANISATIONAL DYNAMICS

Organisational dynamics is a directional polar of behavioural change from a stable
organisation to another polar of stable behaviour. The dynamics of an
organisation, particularly educational organisation is caused by the existence of
pressure for change, which is the system of internal climate that requires the
organisation to change. Sergiovanni (1998) states that factors that cause pressure
leading to a more dynamic organisation are personal force, bureaucracy, market
type as well as increase in professionalism, culture and political influence. Hersey
(1983) states seven types of pressure that push for change namely force,
remuneration, skills, valid power, personnel or reference, power of information
and power of communication.
A dynamic organisation is more capable of reducing conflicts in the society which

is becoming increasingly complex. Factors such as economy, technology, politics
and socio-cultural factors will increase conflict in the society. Efficiency in
managing a complex and multi racial community such as in Malaysia requires
educational changes because education is an important agent for change in society.
Apart from that, it is also aimed at increasing production capacity through skills
and knowledge preparation based on changing times.
6.5.1 Organisational Change Concept

There are various definitions that are closely related to a dynamic organisation. In
normal circumstances, dynamics or change that is introduced result from
modification of past behaviour in order to suit a new situation.
According to Carzo (1967):
„Dynamics of change involve a shift from a set of stable behavioural or

situational pattern to another.‰

Changes that occur in an organisation like schools should involve continuous

characteristics (kaizen), happening in stages as well as entirely to become better or
upgraded. Changes are also linked to introduction of a new behaviour or new
practices which are hoped to improve practice or an existing situation in school.
Therefore, changes cannot be separated from the concepts „transformation‰,
„innovation‰ and „upgrading‰.
According to Stoner and Winkel (1989):
Change agents as responsible individuals take the lead role to manage change
in the clientele system (individual, group or organisation). These change agents
may comprise staff members inside or outside an organisation. External agents
enjoy greater acceptability compared to internal agents of the organisation as
they are perceived to have no vested interest.
Rusinah (1999) meanwhile defines change agents as:
„Change agents are individuals group that take responsibility for changing
the existing pattern of behaviour of a person or social system‰.
According to Shahril (2001), the principal as a change agent means that he is the
main or first person or individual to make modifications in a school organisation.
Therefore, as a change agent, the principal should make adaptation and changes
in certain fields so that it is suitable with the environmental change to ensure that
the school as a social institution will continue to exist and to function. The question
is whether the principal who is burdened with duties as administrator and
headteacher is capable of implementing change effectively.
Dynamics cannot be avoided in an organisation including schools. This is because

the environment also changes. Therefore, if we want to continue to exist and
function, we cannot escape change.
This situation is depicted in a statement by Handy (in Hussein, 1993: 223):
„If you put a frog in water and slowly heat it, the frog will eventually let itself
be boiled to death. We too, will not survive if we donÊt respond to the radical
way in which the world is changing‰.


Change in certain organisations occur due to external pressure and internal

encouragement. According to Stoner and Winkel (1989), external pressure which
forces change are rising costs, lack of resources, technological advancement,
external demands (consumer) and lack of financial allocations from the
government. This situation results in an organisation being forced to change its
structure, goals and operational methods. Meanwhile, internal pressure consists
of new strategies, technology, behaviour and attitude. However, both external and
internal enforcers are interrelated.
There are several objectives for change to be implemented in an organisation,

including school. Among the objectives are as follows:
(a) Increasing motivation ă namely change as an instrument to attract and

increase interest in work among staff and students.
(b) Increasing production capacity ă change as a way to increase production

capacity in terms of quality and quantity. For instance, school teachersÊ work
production and studentsÊ achievements are improved through various
approaches.
(c) Reducing conflict ă in an organisation which comprises divisions and units.

Difference in terms of work, capability, interests, background, economy,
social, politics and technology, individual and organisational goals will also
create conflict. In such a situation, change needs to be made to reduce
conflict. As a smart principal, one should take advantage of the existing
conflicts to strengthen oneÊs leadership.
Now let us look at the external and internal forces that may cause change to occur.
(a) External Forces

Several external forces against change that have been identified are: the
Federal Government, ministries, the societyÊs and parentsÊ needs,
technological changes, labour market demands and the countryÊs economic
changes. As a country that practices the central educational system, all
policies and laws relating to education have been determined by the Federal
Government and the Education Ministry which are the stake holders.
One of the duties of the school principal is to ensure that all such policies and
laws are adhered to. This means that the principal should implement all new
policies that have been directed to him by higher officials based on his
wisdom, for instance, implementation of KBSR, KBSM, smart schools,
effective schools and so on.

The school is a social institution which provides educational services to clients

consisting of students, parents and the society. No doubt, parents, certainly
hope for the best service to be provided for their children. Therefore, they are
said to have indirect authority to force and push for change to be done in
schools. The role of bodies such as the parent-teacher association is very
important in helping and giving support to the principal to implement change
in school. According to Wyant et. al. (in Hussein, 1993), schools that are
successful in implementing changes are those funded by external bodies,
besides the involvement of the principals.
In the modern world, technological advancements happen very fast. In school,

the role of technology is very important. The failure of schools to progress in
tandem with technological advancements will impede educational excellence.
Usage of modern equipment in school such as computers and other machines
and equipment as well as new techniques in administration, teaching and
learning will help increase the schoolÊs excellence. Recent developments in the
educational world that place emphasis on use of multimedia such as smart
schools force change to be implemented in schools. To implement such change
certainly requires a principal who possesses knowledge, skill and a high level
of expertise and power (Ramaiah, 1999).
One of the goals of this countryÊs education is to provide education to the

people so as to fulfil the need of the labour force to develop the countryÊs
economy in various sectors. In this context, the principal should be aware of
the needs and demands of the countryÊs labour force. All such demands force
and require the principal to think of all matters relating to subjects and
streaming of students in his school in line with the countryÊs needs.
(b) Internal Forces

Change in a school organisation is also caused by situations that may exist
within the school organisation itself. Among the various sources of internal
pressure are the leadership within the organisation, communication, decision
making and lack of efficiency in motivational strategies.
In schools, the principal is the leader for learning and administration. A change
can occur due to internal pressure, which is from the principal himself as the
leader. To become the pioneer of change, the principal should be someone who
is creative, innovative, proactive and visionary. „To learn is to change, to change
is to create‰ (Handy, 1989). Only a dynamic and proactive principal can
implement change effectively.

The principal should also implement change to create effective communication.

One of the causes of inefficient leadership of the principal is miscommunication
whereby a lot of information is not conveyed directly to teachers, non-teaching
staff, students and society. There are many reasons for the failure to convey
information. Therefore, to make principal leadership more efficient, a change in
communication should be carried out in the school. Communication should be
multi-directional instead of being top-down.
Change should also be carried out when various problems exist among the
organisational members, for instance, the rising incidence of teachersÊ and
studentsÊ problems such as breaking of school rules among students, being
disrespectful of teachers, stealing, gangsterism, threatening and quarrelling.
This indicates that certain aspects pertaining to discipline need to be studied and
changed.
6.5.2 Types of Change in Schools

There are various types of change that can be carried out in a school organisation.
Normally, change in schools is related to the improvement concept, namely a type
of continuously organised change. Organised change means:
That the change is anticipated, directed and made to occur, the product of the
successful planned change effort is the attainment of predetermined
objectives (Hussein, 1993: 262)
This statement means organised change aims to transform a dissatisfactory

existing situation. The dissatisfactory situation exists due to ineffective classroom
practice and management, disciplinary problems and poor student performance.
The goal of organised change in schools is to create a balance between what is ideal
and what is real. Generally, organised change in school requires strategy and an
action plan. Among the strategies is organisational development including
increasing the capability and ability of members such as teachers and non-teaching
staff in school.
A manager who is alert and responsible will do something to protect the strength
of the organisation when pressure for change arises. He will assess and ensure that
every change that is carried out is accurate and suitable with the problems that are
faced. A similar stance should be taken by the principal when implementing
change in school.

According to Leavitt (in Stoner & Winkel, 1989), an organisation can be

transformed by changing three aspects, namely structure, technology and humans.
Changing organisational structure involves efforts to restructure internal systems
such as communication lines, the authorityÊs relations and integration of
mechanism, degree of centralisation and restructuring of duties, and streaming of
work or management hierarchy. Change should be done when the organisational
condition is not functioning or is functioning less efficiently that expected. Within
the school context, the principal will need to implement change by restructuring
the duties of teachers and staff according to needs and expertise in line with the
organisationÊs goals.
To improve motivation and work satisfaction, factors such as interest, expertise

and teachersÊ skills should be taken into consideration in restructuring teachersÊ
duties. The transmissive method is often used by creating several teams or sub-
committees so that duties and activities can be carried out smoothly. When there
are inefficient staff, the principal should study the weaknesses and their causes to
enable restructuring of duties to be done. Examples include the selection of
teachers to teach in class and for certain subjects, establishment of a curriculum
committee, discipline and so on.
Changing organisational technology means changing equipment, the process and

technique of research as well as the production method. This type of approach was
founded by Taylor (in Stoner & Winkel, 1989) through scientific management
theory which states that the sophisticated technological change can increase
productivity and bring about positive effects to the organisation. In the context of
an industry that places emphasis on production of goods, technological change is
very important.
In school, technological change that involves scientific management of the school

will improve the effectiveness in working progress and operations. Usage of
modern equipment such as the photocopying machine, computer, audio visuals,
technics and modern teaching and learning models will make it easy for teachers
to teach and students to learn. At the same time, modern technology can create a
more interesting, motivational and less boring learning climate.
Another form of change is human change. Human change means changes to

subordinates in the aspects of skills, perceptual expectations and human
behaviour. Human behaviour is difficult to change. Humans, in general, do not
oppose all changes but they will object to what they think may threaten their
position.

There are various techniques to change that steer individuals and groups to work
more efficiently. According to Stoner and Winkel (1989), among the techniques
that are used are sensitivity training, feedback monitoring, negotiation processes,
team building and inter-group development. In the school context, the principal
can induce changes of behaviour, attitude, views and aspirations among teachers
and staff individually, in groups or as a whole organisation. For example, the
principal exchanges or transfers teachers who always create problems, Difficulty
is in getting replacement teachers, especially if it involves teachers who are
specialists and experienced. In such case, the principal should use flexible and use
appropriate methods involving high level human skills.
There are certain types of long-term changes that are implemented in schools.
Normally, this approach refers to efforts to develop an organisation as a whole by
focusing on characteristics as well as quality of working relations. Among the
methods that are normally used are problem solving processes and decision
making in school which requires the principal to solve the problem alone or with
others, namely subordinates. Principals, as leaders, should make changes by
involving and sharing power with subordinates instead of imposing authority.
Change can also involve school culture. It encompasses changes in designing

activities, interactions, norms, attitudinal values and feelings that exist in the
schools environment. In such a cultural change process, the principal should
identify the culture that is unrequired and one which is to be maintained. This is
important because if wrongly chosen, it will lead to objections and will not be
accepted by school teachers and school staff.
6.5.3 Theories and Models of Change

Various change models and theories have been proposed by researchers. These
theories and models can be used as a basis and a guide to organisational leaders,
including principals, to implement change. However, the use of these models
depend on the situation of the organisation or school. Normally, the model is
closely related to the management style and leadership of the school and the way
the principal makes decisions.
In this subtopic, we are going to look at four theories or models as follows:
(a) Field Force Theory

This theory was proposed by Lewin (1943). According to this theory, any
behaviour is the result of the equilibrium between driving forces and
restraining forces. Restraining forces lead to one direction while driving
forces lead to another direction. The standard gained is the equilibrium
between both sets of forces. Increase in driving force may improve
performance or otherwise, whereby there will be an increase in restraining

force. An example is when the principal asks teachers to work beyond their
capabilities with the assumption that it will increase work quality. This action
may lead to hatred and retaliation that can reduce the level of hard work and
creativity of certain teachers. Perhaps a more appropriate and planned
method may change internal beliefs, and teachers will voluntarily implement
change more efficiently.
This theory explains that organisational change can be influenced by human

change, technology, change of organisational structure, process and
situation. Change process is regarded as a system whereby if one of the
factors changes, other factors will also change. This explains that behavioural
change occurs as a result of three stages of change, namely:
(i) Unfreezing stage;
(ii) Change; and
(iii) Refreezing.
Unfreezing which involves actions necessitates obvious change until

individuals, groups or organisations can see or accept it well. Change
requires a trained change agent to instil values, attitude and new behaviour
through the processes of identification and personalisation. Organisational
members identify values, attitudes and behaviours that are brought by
change agents and appreciate them after looking at the effectiveness. The
final stage, refreezing, means strengthening new behavioural patterns with
the help of supporting aids so that they become a new norm.
(b) Autocratic Change Model

This model views that effective management is through power. The belief is
that success in implementing change in schools is through the use of the
principalÊs power. In this case, the principal will not compromise in
implementing change in schools. Subordinates are forced to follow directives
from time to time.
In an Autocratic Change Model, normally subordinates will be given the

authority to carry out change at their respective divisions or units that are
deemed suitable as long as their actions are in line with their commitments
and for the good of the school.

(c) Planned Change and Development Model

One of the relevant models here is the linkage model. This model emphasises
the importance of educational theory and research findings or research as a
source to implement school reforms. The main method of this model is to change
the existing practice in schools that are found to be unproductive or ineffective
to achieve the schoolÊs vision or goal. Efforts that are carried out to resolve "the
dysfunctions of the school organisation" encompass disciplinary problems,
examination performance, leadership styles, human relations in school and
teachersÊ teaching methods. (Hussein, 1993)
This model consists seven stages of processes namely:
(i) Goal stage ă The first stage is to determine the goal and direction of the
school. In forming the goal and direction, information on research
findings and written materials are referred to. At the same time all
views and opinions of teachers are taken into consideration.
(ii) Assessment stage ă The second stage is evaluation. All practices,

policies and procedures that exist in the school are evaluated to obtain
norms to draw comparison of strategies that should be implemented
and action that should be taken.
(iii) Planning stage ă Planning stage is a stage where the school conducts
overall planning in terms of methods and implementation strategies.
At this stage, there may be adjustments or school restructuring, for
example, of the schoolÊs philosophy, mission, policy and procedure,
teaching and learning system and process as well as work distribution
among teachers.
(iv) Staff training stage ă It is where staff development is carried out. This
training is aimed at ensuring that they understand school improvement
aspects. Among the activities that can be carried out are workshops,
seminars and mind mapping. It can be carried out at the school level.
(v) Trial stage ă The trial stage shows how teachers try new practices,
instill new values and build confidence towards such change.
(vi) Transformation stage ă This is said to occur when a new practice is

more effective and is practiced by all teachers more comprehensively
and, at the same time, the process of adjustment continues to take place
on any practice and strategy that is not effective.
(vii) New culture stage ă The final stage is building and reinforcement of a
new school culture which is more productive.

(d) Loucks Horsley and HergetÊs Model (1985)

In this model, the programme idea for change comes from an external party
based on agreement from those responsible in the education system. This is
aimed at obtaining approval, financial, moral and staff support from the
party (Hussein, 1993).
The model proposes seven steps or actions that should be taken by a school
to improve it. The steps are as follows:
(i) Establishment of school improvement projects ă At the stage of project

development and school upgrading, the expected results and the role of
the initiator are determined. Only then does the principal have a
discussion with relevant parties or propose the idea for the programme.
(ii) Assessment and goal determination ă It places emphasis on where the

upgrading process should begin. This model suggests that change
should begin with elements of dissatisfaction, namely problems faced,
types of problems, who is involved, evidence and causes and what are
the goals if the problems are resolved. At this stage, visions are formed.
(iii) Identifying ideal resolution methods ă During the stage to determine

ideal resolution methods, the following are carried out: determine
existing resources, establish the criteria for resolution methods, find
out where resources can be obtained, make a decision and adjust the
approaches to practices in classrooms.
(iv) Preparation for implementation ă At the preparation stage (unfreezing)

to implement, awareness is built, method of implementation is chosen,
existing practice is assessed, goals are set and the duration for the
programme is set.
(v) Programme implementation ă The next stage is the programme

implementation stage (moving) or organising staff and support
training as well as supervising by principal.
(vi) Studying the progress and problems ă Progress and problem

assessments are carried out after the programme is implemented. Any
problems that are raised should be solved immediately and positive
reinforcement should be given to teachers.
(vii) Management and institutionalisation ă The final stage is to ensure that

the act of problem resolution becomes the school practice and a norm
that should be adhered to clearly (refreezing).

6.5.4 Challenges to Organisational Change

Every change that is made cannot escape deterrents and challenges. However, an
effective principal ought to anticipate what the potential hindrance is before any
change is implemented. To him, hindrance is not a problem but a challenge that
should be overcome. Among the causes for hindrances to change according to
Shahril (2001) are:
(a) Uncertain future;
(b) Loss of individual power;
(c) Objection from certain groups who lack trust in the leader who is making the
change; and
(d) There are weaknesses to any change and renewal that will be implemented.
Factors that impede change from being implemented in an organisation including

schools are:
(a) Reduction of power and responsibility;
(b) Increasing work load;
(c) Loss of economic resources;
(d) Discomfort;
(e) Lack of financial resources;
(f) Lack of confidence in achieving success; and
(g) Political, social and religious factors.
Decrease in power and responsibility occurs when staff involved with change are
afraid to lose their power and have less responsibility in the organisation. They
think that the reduction in power will affect their importance, position and comfort
in the organisation.
Every change that is implemented is difficult to accept if it involves increase in the

workload for the staff. For instance, teachers do not like changes in subjects and
classes that are taught as well as an increase in teaching time and additional class
activities. There are also staff who oppose change because they themselves are
unclear of the goals and reasons for the change that is made. To them what will
happen in the future is still unclear.

There is lack of trust towards leadership or the principal who creates change,
which can hinder change. This mistrust may be caused by weaknesses of the
principalÊs leadership, who is not confident whether the change can bring about
success or failure. Experience of past failures will influence his perception that the
failure will repeat itself. Therefore, lack of support and commitment from staff
towards change will occur.
An important obstacle to any change is lack of resources and lack of stability. Lack
of stability encompasses lack of expertise or important information in the change
and lack of resources. This problem is also faced in schools. Besides using the
allocation provided by the Government, the principal also has to look for resources
from the parent-teacherÊs association to ensure success of various school
programmes, such as additional classes and other programmes.
Therefore, to overcome problems and obstacles to change, several measures or

actions can be done by the organisationÊs leadership, among which are as follows:
(a) Education and communication;
(b) Joint involvement;
(c) Negotiation;
(d) Manipulation; and
(e) Use of power.
Communication and education means that all staff should be given clear
information and explanation about the goals of the change. There are various ways
to present information to staff in school, for instance, through memos, reports,
circulars and meetings. All staff should also be involved in discussions and
decision making on change. The principal should be open in accepting views and
ideas from teachers. Teachers and staff should be given courses and training so
that they will have a better understanding of any programmes that will be
implemented.
Another method is through the tactic of involvement. Any decision that will be
taken should involve teachers and other staff. Normally, somebody who is
involved in the process of giving opinions and decision making will support the
change. This is proven by a research conducted by Coch and French (1948) that
found a close correlation between involvement and success in change that was
introduced.

In order to reduce hindrances to change, facilities and equipment should be

provided. New equipment that is provided should also prove to be better than
existing ones. Counselling services and training should also be intensified to build
confidence among teachers in facing change. The principal should also provide
support, encouragement and drive towards any change that will be implemented.
The change should be implemented in stages, not instantly.
Another tactic that can be adopted is manipulation, whereby the manager or

principal can practise the method of disorganising facts so that it will look
attractive. For instance, the principal can put forward change and successes that
are achieved and cover up weaknesses resulting from the change. The purpose of
manipulation is to garner support from staff. Another manipulative way that is
used is to offer bribes or promise a better reward to the leader of the group that
obstructs the change. Thus, it is hoped that the head of the group will support the
management or principal and try to influence others to accept the change.
The final tactic is to use his power to impose a threat and force explicitly and
implicitly, such as replacing teachers who do not lend their support, not
supporting promotions and downgrading when evaluating the performance of
teachers and staff who refuse to accept change. However, the tactic is not that
effective because it is too authoritative.
6.5.5 Factors Contributing to the Need for

Organisational Change
According to Fullan (1998) several factors exercise influence on the need for an
educational organisation to change:
(a) Immediate and drastic change involving natural disasters such as
earthquakes, floods and starvation and so on. These emergency factors
require immediate change.
(b) Education is seen as capable of resolving any type of problem. The society
demands every member to be wise in facing any risk and not to be left
behind. Education becomes the most important change target.
(c) External force that are brought in such as import of new technology and
values as well as migrating population.
(d) Lifelong learning and borderless world.

In addition, factors include fast changing technological development that requires

expertise in certain fields, improvement in quality of life as well as sophisticated
communication. Change in lifestyles, work patterns, marital status, safety, fund
maturity period and so on are also seen as influencing organisational dynamics.
Various methods and changes in technology, management style and

organisational structure are capable of driving other organisations to change and
follow the competing strategies. Change in political policies need to be done in
todayÊs conflicting and competitive world in order to prepare citizens to face
global changes.
Change in the economic structure as well as company restructuring, company

merging and retrenchment of workers will occur. Teaching about educational
change prepares people to face economic pressure and to face challenges in
reducing the countryÊs economic crisis. Furthermore, change exists in the labour
market where workers are the real assets of a country and not agriculture or
mineral products. Efficient and skilled manpower are in high demand and should
be in equilibrium. With a more skilled workforce, a country will move to become
more progressive in the future.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. State seven types of push factors for organisational change.
2. Explain the importance of organisational climate towards school

excellence.
Ć A school leader is the motivator and creator of the school climate and culture.
His values, attitudes and practices influence that of the students, change the
educational direction, the school system and overall school conduct.
Ć Therefore, the school head should be aware of change and educational needs,
societal values, technological changes and current political and economic
changes in the country.
Ć These aspects are essential because they play an important role in

philosophical change and educational direction in Malaysia.

Organisational climate Safe school

Organisational culture School culture
Organisational dynamics Students control
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Malaysia: IBS Buku Sdn. Bhd.
Carzo, R. Y. (1967). Formal organization ă A system approach. Homewood, IL: The

Dorsey Press.
Coch, L. & French, J. (1948). Overcoming resistance to change. Human Relations,

1(4), 512ă532.
Fullan, M. G. (1998). Breaking the bonds of dependency. Educational Leadership,

55 (7), 6ă10.
Handy, C. (1989). The age of unreason. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hersey, B. (1983). Management of organizational behaviour (4th ed.). Inglewood,

NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2013) Educational administration: Theory, research

and practice (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Humphrey, J. (2000). What is your school climate telling you? Principal

Leadership, High School Edition I (1), 4.
Hussein Mahmood. (1993). Kepimpinan dan keberkesanan sekolah. Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka.
Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the „Field at a given time‰. Psychological Review, 50(3),
292ă310.

Loucks, H. S., & Herget, L. (1985). An action guide to school improvement.

Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development
& the Network Inc.
Mintzberg, H. (1989) Mintzberg on management: Inside our strange world of

organizations. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Moos, R. H. (1979). Evaluating educational environments: procedures, measures,

findings and policy implications. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Nona, A. P. (1991). Problem solving & expertise: A cognitive view of

administrative leadership. Organizational Theory dialogue. AERA, 1 & 7ă12.
Robbins, S. P. (1998) Organizational behavior: Concepts, controversies,

applications (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rusinah Sirun. (1999). Principles of management: A study guide. Petaling Jaya,

Malaysia: Prentice Hall.
Scheine, E. H. (2010) Organization culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sergiovanni, T. M. (1998). Organization, market and community as strategies for

change: What works best for deep changes in schools. In A. Hargreaves, A.
Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), International handbook of
educational change (pp. 571ă595). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
Sharil, M. (2001). Characteristics of effective principals and headmasters, facing

new challenges in 21st century. Journal of Leadership, Univ. Of Malaya, 1,
12ă18.
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tomorrowÊs school, today. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Topic  Organisational

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

6.1 SCHOOL CULTURE

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The following are examples for each level mentioned:

(a) Examples of culture as norms:

(b) Examples of culture of shared values are:

(c) Examples of culture as tacit assumptions are:

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Each culture stated before should be accompanied by various related activities.

Relate Hoy and MiskelÊs three levels of organisational culture to school

6.2 SCHOOL CLIMATE

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6.2.1 Types of Climate

Moos (1979) proposed that "although the specific types of educational

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Unlike positive climate, negative climate is where the school is in a chaotic

Although a school climate is said to be negative or positive, in reality this cannot

6.2.2 Importance of Climate

The school climate greatly influences studentsÊ development, particularly through

6.3 CHANGE IN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND

Did you know?

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Examples of the practice of this concept are altruism, conscientiousness,

School climate involves human relations. This creates complexity. There is no

(b) Analysing the situation ă based on information obtained, school heads

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Hoy and Miskel (2013) suggested two change strategies in improving

6.4 STUDENTS CONTROL

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Did you know?

Among the actions that have to be implemented by the school community to

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Exposure in handling of conflicts effectively can be implemented through training

Through smart school partnership and cooperation as well as involvement

Schools are encouraged to establish crime prevention clubs through continuous

The role of parents and guardians is also important to inculcate a sense of

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6.5 ORGANISATIONAL DYNAMICS

A dynamic organisation is more capable of reducing conflicts in the society which

6.5.1 Organisational Change Concept

According to Carzo (1967):

„Dynamics of change involve a shift from a set of stable behavioural or

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Changes that occur in an organisation like schools should involve continuous

According to Stoner and Winkel (1989):

Rusinah (1999) meanwhile defines change agents as:

Dynamics cannot be avoided in an organisation including schools. This is because

This situation is depicted in a statement by Handy (in Hussein, 1993: 223):

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Change in certain organisations occur due to external pressure and internal

There are several objectives for change to be implemented in an organisation,

(a) Increasing motivation ă namely change as an instrument to attract and

(b) Increasing production capacity ă change as a way to increase production

(c) Reducing conflict ă in an organisation which comprises divisions and units.

(a) External Forces

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The school is a social institution which provides educational services to clients

In the modern world, technological advancements happen very fast. In school,

One of the goals of this countryÊs education is to provide education to the

(b) Internal Forces

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The principal should also implement change to create effective communication.

6.5.2 Types of Change in Schools