Precision Measurement

 Introduction
The measurement of workpieces with the help of precised tools carrying calibrated scale is
called “Precision Measurement”. This can be done in two ways:
1. Through comparator system,
2. Direct measurement system.

Dial indicators are the simplest application of comparators.

 Dial Indicators
 Dial indicators are small indicating devices.
 It uses mechanical means such as gears and pinions or levers for magnification system.
 It is used for checking linear measurements.
 When it is used as a setup in any mechanism, it is known as dial gauge.
 It measures the displacement of its pointer or stylus on a circular dial by means of a rotating
pointer.
 These are very sensitive and versatile instruments.

Requirements of a good dial indicator

1. It should be robust in design and construction.
2. It should give trouble free readings over a long period.
3. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when the readings
are being taken.
4. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of the measuring plunger.
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction without affecting
the accuracy.
6. The movement of the plunger must be controlled to avoid damage.
7. The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various sizes and
ranges.
8. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain constant
over the whole range.

Advantages:
 The instrument can be easily used and read by an unskilled operator.
 The instrument is accurate and economical.
 It is portable, easy to handle and can be set very quickly.
 It is versatile i.e. it can be easily and rapidly used for different types of precision
measurements [roundness, flatness, taper etc].
 The contact pressure is uniform.
 It is not subjected to wear and any temperature variation.

Applications:
 Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
 To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality, roundness and taper.
 For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as intension and compression.
 To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between the
centers.

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 To check trueness of milling machine arbours.
 To check the parallelism of shaper arm with table surface or vice.

 Principle of Operation
The dial indicator contains a mechanism that magnifies the movement of the contact point.
This movement is transmitted to an indicating hand which shows the reading on the dial face.
There are two types of mechanisms. They are:
1. Dial indicator with lever mechanism
2. Dial indicator with gear and pinion mechanism.

 Dial Indicator with Lever Mechanism

A simple form of dial indicator with lever mechanism is as shown in fig. ABC represents a simple
form of magnifying lever, pivoted at ‘B’. It is restricted to few degrees on either side of zero.

Fig. Simple lever mechanism

Magnification ratio =

For higher magnification a compound lever is used as shown in fig.

Fig. Simple lever mechanism

Magnification ratio = ×
This type of lever is more difficult to construct due to difficulty in making a fork joint at ‘C’.

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 Dial Indicator with Gear and Pinion Mechanism.
It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the contact
point is multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the face of the dial by
a movable pointer. The dial is graduated into 100 divisions. Each division is equal to 0.01 mm.
for one complete revolution of the pointer; it corresponds to 1 mm of the movement of the
plunger. The small hand indicates the number of revolutions of the larger hand. The mechanism
is housed in a casing and is as shown in fig.

Fig. Plunger type Dial Indicator

Working Mechanism
The dial indicator consists of a plunger which slides in a bearing. It consists of a rack at its inner
end. The rack meshes accurately with a pinion ‘P1’. The rotation of the plunger about its own
axis is prevented by a pin attached to it, which is located in a slot in a rack guide G. The plunger
is kept in its normal extended position by means of a light coil spring ‘S’. The working
mechanism is as shown in fig.

Fig. Gear and Pinion mechanism

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A small movement of the contact point causes the rack to turn the pinion P1 with which it is
meshed. A large gear G1 is attached to the same spindle as pinion P1. The gear G1 is further
meshed with a pinion P2, which thus magnifies the movement of pinion P1. Attached to the
second pinion P2 is another gear G2 which meshes with a third pinion P3 mounted on the same
spindle as the indicator pointer.

The overall magnification = ×

Where Ng1 = number of teeth on gears G1

Ng2 = number of teeth on gears G2
Np2 = number of teeth on pinion P2
Np3 = number of teeth on pinion P3

This magnification is further extended at the tip of the pointer. To eliminate backlash, a light
hair spring (H) is attached to the gear ‘G3’ which meshes with pinion ‘P3’.

Limitations of Dial Indicators

 Wear of plunger and gear teeth causes errors.
 Accuracy is reduced due to backlash in gear and pinion.
 Variations in the plunger contact pressure causes errors.

 Comparators
A comparator is a precision instrument employed to compare the dimension of a given
component with a working standard (usually slip gauges). It thus does not measure the actual
dimension but indicates how much it differs from the basic dimension. This difference is small
and hence a magnification device is used to measure the difference with consistence accuracy.

Need for a Comparator

In mass production identical component parts are produced on a very large scale. To achieve
inter changeability these parts should be produced to a close dimensional tolerances. It is
difficult to measure the dimensions of the manufactured parts and comparing with standard
ones. It is time consuming and skilled operators are needed. Comparators are used for getting
deviation of the parts quickly and an operator need not be skilled.

Basic Principle of Operation

The comparator is first adjusted to zero on its dial or recording device with a guage block in
position. The gauge block should have equal dimensions with the workpiece. The workpiece to
be checked is then placed in position and the comparator gives the difference in dimension in
relation to the gauge block.

Uses of Comparators
The various Ways in which comparators can be used are:
1. Laboratory Standards:
Comparators are used as laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges
are set and correlated.

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2. Working Gauges:
They are also used as working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain required
tolerance at all important stages of manufacture.
3. Final Inspection Gauges:
Comparators may be used as final inspection gauges. Where selective assembly, of
production parts is necessary.
4. Receiving Inspection Gauges:
As receiving inspection gauges comparators are used for checking parts received from
outside sources.
5. For checking newly purchased gauges:
The use of comparators enables the checking of the parts (components in mass
production at a very fast rate.)

 Characteristics of Comparators
1. Robust design and construction
The design and construction of the comparator should be robust so that it can withstand
the effects of ordinary uses without affecting its measuring accuracy. [Robust=strong]

2. Linear characteristics of scale

Recording or measuring scale should be linear and uniform (straight line characteristic)
and its indications should be clear.

3. High magnification
The magnification of the comparator should be such that a smallest deviation in size of
component can be easily detected.

4. Quick in results
The indicating system should be such that the readings are obtained in least possible
time.

5. Versatility
Instruments should be designed that it can be used for wide range of measurements.

6. Minimum wear of contact point

The measuring plunger should have hardened steel contact or diamond to minimize
wear effects. Further the contact pressure should be low and uniform.

7. Free from oscillations

The pointer should come rapidly to rest and should be free from oscillations.

8. Free from back lash

System should be free from back lash and unnecessary friction and it should have
minimum inertia.

9. Quick insertion of workpiece

Means should be provided for lifting the plunger for quick insertion of work.

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10. Adjustable Table
The table of the instrument should, preferably, be adjustable in a vertical sense.

11. Compensation from temperature effects

The indicator should be provided with maximum compensation for temperature effects.

12. Means to prevent damage

Suitable means should be provided for preventing damage of the instrument in the
event of the plunger.

 Classification of Comparators
A wide variety of comparators are commercially available at present. They are classified
according to the method used for amplifying and recording the variations measured in to the
following types.
1. Mechanical comparators
2. Optical comparators
3. Mechanical-Optical comparators
4. Electrical and Electronics comparators
5. Pneumatic comparators.
6. Fluid displacement comparators
7. Projection comparators
8. Multi check comparators
9. Automatic Gauging Machines
10. Electro-Mech. comparators.

 Mechanical Comparators
It employs mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring stylus. The
magnification is obtained by means of levers, gear trains, rack and pinion or a combination. The
usual magnification obtained by these comparators ranges from about 250 to 1000.
Mechanical comparators are of the following types:
1. Dial indicator (Dial gauge)
2. Johansson Mikrokator
3. Read type mechanical comparator
4. Sigma comparator.

Johansson Mikrokator Comparator

This comparator was made by C.F. Johansson and therefore named so. It uses a twisted strip to
convert small linear movement of a plunger into a large circular movement of a pointer. It is
therefore, also called as twisted strip comparator. It uses the simplest method for obtaining the
mechanical magnification designed by H. Abramson which is known as ‘Abramson movement’.

Working Principle
 A very thin metal strip at the centre carries a light pointer made up of glass.
 One end of the strip is connected to the adjustable cantilever strip and the other end is
to the spring elbow, in turn connected to the plunger.
 The slight movements of the plunger will make the bell crank lever to rotate.

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 This rotation will create tension in the strip and causes the strip to rotate thereby the
strip start to untwist resulting in the movement of the point.
 This change in length will result in a proportional amount of twist of the metallic strip.
The magnification can be varied by changing the length of the spring elbow
 The spring ensures that the plunger returns when the contact is removed
 The length of the cantilever can be varied to adjust the magnification.

Magnification is equal to the ratio of rate of change of pointer movement to rate of change in
length of the strip.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑄
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑑𝐿

𝑑𝑄 𝐿
∝
𝑑𝐿 𝑤 𝑛

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 Precision Measurement
Where Q = twist of mid point of strip with respect to the end
L = length of twisted strip measured along its neutral axis
w = width of twisted strip
n = number of turns.

 Sigma Comparator
The Sigma Comparator is a mechanical comparator in which the amplification is obtained by
means of a compound lever. This is a mechanical comparator providing magnification in the
range of 300 to 5000. The sigma comparator is as shown in fig.

Fig. Sigma Comparator

 The plunger is mounted on a pair of slit diaphragms in order to have frictionless linear
movement.
 A knife edge is mounted on it and bears upon the face of the moving member of a Cross
strip hinge.
 The cross strip hinge consists of the moving component and a fixed member.
 The cross strip hinge then connected by thin flexible strips alternately at right angles to
each other.
 Thus if an external force is applied to the moving member it will pivot as would a hinge
about the line of intersection of the strips.
 To the moving member an arm `Y` shape having the effective length `b` is attached.
 If the distance of the hinge from the knife edge be `a` then the magnification of the first
stage is `b/a.
 A phosphor-Bronze strip is attached to the two extremities of the `Y` arm and is passed
around a small drum of radius `r` attached to the pointer spindle.
 Any vertical displacement of the measuring plunger causes the Y arm to rotate through the
cross strip hinge.
 As the metallic band is attached to the Y arms, the drum rotates and hence the pointer
rotates.

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 If the length of pointer be `R` then R/r is the second stage of magnification.
 The total magnification is given by ×
 In order to adjust the magnification, distance `a` must be changed by slackening and
tightening the two screws attaching the knife edge to the plunger.
 In sigma comparator a damping device must be employed to prevent oscillation of point
before coming to rest.

Advantages
It has got a bold scale and larger indicating pointer.

Disadvantages
Due to motion of parts, there is wear in the moving parts.

Advantages of Mechanical Comparators:

1) Cheaper than all the other type of comparators.
2) Does not require any external source of power or air supply.
3) These comparators use a linear scale that can be easily understood.
4) Usually these comparators are robust and compact but are very easy to handle.
5) These are small in size (portable) and can be moved from one place to other very easily
without much difficulty.

Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators

1) Contains more number of moving parts so there develops friction which in turn reduces the
accuracy.
2) Slackness in the moving parts reduces accuracy very drastically.
3) These have more inertia so the instrument is prone to vibrational effects.
4) Limited range of the instrument is another drawback as the pointer moves over a fixed
scale.
5) Parallax error may also arise when proper scale is used.

 Optical Comparator
The principle of optical law is used in these comparators for the required magnification.

Optical Law:
If a ray of light OA strikes a mirror, it is reflected as ray AB such that, the angle between the
normal to the surface and the reflected ray is equal to the angle between the normal and the
incident ray. This is shown in Fig.

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 Precision Measurement
If the reflecting surface is tilted through an angle ϴ, the normal also moves through this angle.

The total angle between the incident and reflected ray becomes 2ϴ. This is explained in the
below fig.

Principle:
In this type of comparator, a small plunger displacement is amplified by both mechanical and
optical system. The amplification is first done by a pivoted lever and then by simple optical
system.

Constructional Details:
The optical comparator consists of the following parts.
1) Pivoted lever.
2) Objective lens.
3) Scale.
4) Plunger.
5) Table and base.
6) Mirror.

1) Pivoted lever.
The pivoted lever amplifies the plunger movement mechanically. It is pivoted near the
plunger. One end is fitted with the plunger and other end is fitted with a mirror.

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 Precision Measurement
2) Objective lens.
The main function of objective lens is to vonver the incoming light rays from the source
into parallel beams.

3) Scale.
It is a final display device from which the reading can be obtained. This is nothing bur a
semi-transperent glass.

4) Plunger.
It is a reciprocating member. During the measurement, the plunger actuates.

5) Table and base.

The work is placed on the table to carry out the task.

6) Mirror.
It reflects the incoming light rays from the source. This is hinged at the other end of the
lever.

Fig. Meeter Optical Comparator

 The part to be measure is kept on the table.

 The plunger is brought to come in contact with the part.
 The small displacement of the measuring plunger is amplified first by a mechanical system
consisting of pivoted levers.
 Mechanical amplification =
 The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by a single optical system
involving the projection of an image.
 The light rays are passed through the lens so that they touch the mirror.
 The mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis and the image of an
index is projected on a scale on the inner surface of a ground glass screen.
 Now if the movement of the plunger causes the mirror to tilt by an angle α, then the image
will be tilted by 2α.
 Therefore optical amplification = 2 ×

 Thus overall magnification = 2 × × .

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Advantages:
1. High accuracy:
These comparators have very few moving parts and hence give higher accuracy.
2. No parallax Error:
The scale can be made past a datum line and thus have high range and no parallax error.
3. High magnification:
Hence suitable for precision measurements.
4. Optical lever is weightless.
5. Illuminated scale:
Since scale is illuminated, it enables readings to be taken irrespective of room lighting
conditions.

Disadvantages:
1. As the magnification is high, heat from the lamp, transformers, etc. may cause the setting
the drift.
2. Depends on external electrical power supply.
3. Apparatus is usually bulky and expensive.
4. When scale is projected on a screen, the instrument is to be used r in dark room.
5. Instrument is inconvenient for continuous use, because the scale is to be viewed through
eyepiece.

 Electrical Comparator
Principle
The principle of these comparators is to convert the linear displacement of the measuring stylus
into an electric output. Whetstone bridge circuit is used for this comparator.

Fig. Whetstone Bridge Circuit

 When the circuit is balance no current is detected.

 Hence the following condition will exit.
𝑅 𝑅
=
𝑅 𝑅
 If one of these resistors is varied then imbalance in the circuit will result in a current flow
through the galvanometer
 By arranging the variable resistor a measuring head mechanism is formed.
 The galvanometer may be calibrated to read linear displacement.
 Electrical Comparators are extremely sensitive and are capable of high magnifications up to
30000.

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Constructional Details
An electrical comparator is as shown in fig. It consists of the following three major parts such as
1) Transducer
2) Display device as meter
3) Amplifier

Fig. Principle of Electric Comparator

Transducer
 An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a lea spring at one end.
 The other end is supported against a plunger.
 The two coils act as two arms of an A.C. wheat stone bridge circuit.

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Amplifier
The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the give input signal frequency into
magnified output

Display device or meter

 The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage instruments.
 Here, the terminal instrument is a meter.

Working Principle
The armature is supported on thin steel springs. It is suspended between two coils A and B. If
the armature is centrally located between the coils, the inductance of both coils will be equal
but in opposite direction with the sign change. Due to this, the bridge circuit of A.C.
Wheatstone Bridge is balanced. Therefore, the meter will read zero value.

Slight movement of the measuring plunger unbalances the bridge resulting in the flow of
current through the galvanometer. The meter will indicate some value as displacement. The
scale of the galvanometer is calibrated to five the movement of the plunger.

 Electronic Comparator
In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of application of frequency
modulation or radio oscillation is followed.

Construction Details:
In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:
i. Transducer ii. Oscillator
iii. Amplifier iv. Demodulator
v. Meter

Transducer:
It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical signal. It is connected with oscillator.

Oscillator:
The oscillator which receives electrical signal from the transducer and raises the amplitude of
frequency wave by adding carrier frequency called as modulation.

Amplifier:
An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and demodulator. The signal coming out of the
oscillator is amplified into a required level.

Demodulator:
Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts off external carrier wave frequency. i.e. It
converts the modulated wave into original wave as electrical signal.

Meter:
This is nothing but a display device from which the output can be obtained as a linear
measurement.

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Principle of Operation:
 The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic comparator. Both
work and comparator are made to rest on the surface plate.
 The linear movement of the plunger is converted into electrical signal by a suitable
transducer. Then it sent to an oscillator to modulate the electrical signal by adding carrier
frequency of wave.
 After that the amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the carrier waves are cut off.
 Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to the meter to convert the probe tip movement
into linear measurement as an output signal.
 A separate electrical supply of D.C. is already given to actuate the meter.

Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:

1. It has less number of moving parts.
2. Magnification obtained is very high.
3. Two or more magnifications are provided in the same instrument to use various ranges.
4. The pointer is made very light so that it is more sensitive to vibration.
5. The instrument is very compact.
6. Easy to setup and operate.

Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:

1. External agency is required to meter for actuation.
2. Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.
3. Due to heating coils, the accuracy decreases.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator.

 Pneumatic Comparators
The term pneumatic, associates with pressurized air. The pressurized air is used as the working
medium in pneumatic comparator. Based on the physical phenomena, the pneumatic
comparators are classified into two types.
1. Flow or Velocity type.
2. Back pressure type.

 Solex Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):

Principle
It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by the air flow. Air is supplied at
constant pressure through the orifice and the air escapes in the form of jets through a
restricted space which exerts a back pressure. The variation in the back pressure is then used to
find the dimensions of a component.

Constructional Details:
The important parts of solex pneumatic comparators are:
1. Compressor,
2. Air filter,
3. Control orifice,
4. Flexible pipes,
5. Manometer integrated with container.

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Fig. Solex pneumatic comparator

Working:
It has a water tank fitted with a manometer. A scale is fitted vertically by the side of the
manometer. A dip tube is dipped into the water. Restriction chamber is provided at the top of
the dip tube. The dip tube is connected to a flexible pipe through a control jet. The top of the
manometer tube is connected to the flexible pipe.

The air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure which is equal to Water head H. Air is
fed into the instrument at pressure higher than the constant pressure required in the
manometer. The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles. The air will now pass through the
control jet at the full controlled pressure and will reach the measuring jet.

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If this jet cannot pass the full volume of the air from the control jet, then a pressure will tend to
develop between them. The back pressure is instantly released through the opening into the
manometer tube where it will change the height of the liquid, which indicates the amount of
back pressure built up. The back pressure is the result of restriction at the measuring jet due to
the effect of variations in the dimension of the work being checked so that the variations in the
height of the liquid of the manometer are a measure of the dimension variations. To determine
the roundness of the job, the job is rotated along the jet axis, if no variation in the pressure
reading is obtained then we can say that the job is perfectly circular at position A1. Then the
same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4, position and variation in the
pressure reading is found out. Also the diameter is measured at position A1 corresponding to
the portion against two jets and diameter is also measured at various position along the length
of the bore.

Advantages:
 It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low.
 It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
 The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X.
 The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
 Indicating and measuring is done at two different places.
 Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
 The method is self cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and this makes
the method ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls.

Disadvantages:
 They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
 The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being
checked.
 Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
 Auxiliary equipment’s such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are needed.
 Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back pressure
is linear, over only a small range of the orifice size variation.

 Tool Maker’s Microscope

The toolmaker's microscope is an optical measuring machine equipped for external & internal
length measurements as well as measurements on screw threads, profiles, curvatures &
angles. A toolmakers microscope is a measuring device that can be used to measure up to
1/100th of an mm.

Construction Details
 TMM (toolmakers microscope) has got a robust & strong base such that it can bear &
withstand sudden loads.
 A column with a track is present to carry lens, along with illuminating source in certain
TMM’s.
 Lens has two perpendicular straight lines marked that act as reference lines.
 The optical head is attached to the column. It can be moved up or down the vertical
column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw.

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 The table is mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually
perpendicular horizontal directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate
micrometre screw having thimble scale and venires.
 Object to be measured is placed on glass table.
 Glass table is provided with 3 scales on it
 Two scales are meant for measuring in X & Y directions & the movement of table the
respective direction.
 The other scale is meant for measuring rotation as well as rotation of table.

Fig. Tool maker’s microscope

Working
The working principle is as shown in fig.

Fig. working principle of tool maker’s microscope

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 A ray of light from a light source is reflected by a mirror through 90 0.
 It then passes through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed).
 A shadow image of the outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective
of the optical head and is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
 Observations are made through an eyepiece.
 Measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the ground glass screen.
 The screen can be rotated through 3600; the angle of rotation is read through an auxiliary
eyepiece.

Applications
 Length measurement in Cartesian & polar co-ordinates.
 Angle measurements of tools.
 Thread measurements i.e., profile major & minor diameters, height of lead, thread
 Angle, profile position with respect to the thread axis & the shape of thread.
 Comparison between centers & drawn patterns & drawing of projected profiles.
 Used for measuring the shape of different components like the template, formed cutter,
milling cutter, punching die, and cam.

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