Colonial rule (1565–1946)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

Manila in 1847.

Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565.[55]
[56]: 20–23 
 In 1571, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies,[57] which encompassed
Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[58][59] The Spanish successfully invaded the different local
states by employing the principle of divide and conquer,[60] bringing most of what is now the
Philippines into a single unified administration. [61][62] Disparate barangays were
deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert
the inhabitants to Christianity.[63]: 53, 68 [64] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory
of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, and later administered from Madrid following
the Mexican War of Independence.[65] Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade.[66] Manila
galleons were constructed in Bicol and Cavite.[67][68]
During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts,[69] as well as defending against external
military challenges.[70][71][failed verification] Spanish forces included soldiers from elsewhere in New Spain [72] as
well as broader Latin America, many of whom deserted and intermingled with the wider population. [73]
[74][75]
 Immigration blurred the racial caste system[63]: 97–98 [76][77] Spain maintained in towns and cities.[78] War
against the Dutch from the west, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the
south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[79]
Administration of the Philippine islands was considered a drain on the economy of Spain, [70] and
there were debates to abandon it or trade it for other territory. However, this was opposed because
of economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the
surrounding region.[80][81] The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish
Crown,[70] which averaged 250,000 pesos[82] and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of
silver bullion being sent from the Americas.[83] British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764
during the Seven Years' War, with Spanish rule restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[56]: 81–83  The
Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.
[84]
 The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th
century, Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo,[85] and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate
of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty.[86][87]
Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographed in 1890.

In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade, and shifts started occurring within Filipino
society.[88][89] The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in
social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines to a
term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of
mixed ancestry, to which it became a national identity. [90][91]
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on
weak pretences.[92][93][94] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo
H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in
the Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized
many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[95] As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés
Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought
independence from Spain through armed revolt.[96]
The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[97] Internal disputes led to an election in
which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the
revolution.[98]: 145–147  In 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary
leadership to Hong Kong. In 1898, the Spanish–American War began and reached the Philippines.
Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12,
1898.[63]: 112–113  The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.[99]