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assumes the essential goodness and of self-interest and the struggle for power and
infinite malleability of human nature the inevitable nexus between moral principles
and attributes the failure of the social and statecraft—and proceed to examine how
order to measure up to the rational they have shaped the contours and continue
standards to lack of knowledge and to influence the ongoing understanding of the
understanding, obsolescent social major objectives of U.S. foreign policy.
institutions, or the depravity of cer-
tain isolated individuals or groups. It
trusts in education, reform, and the Interest and Power
sporadic use of force to remedy these
deficiencies. A jurist by training and a philosopher by
The other school believes that the inclination, Morgenthau only reluctantly dedi-
world, imperfect as it is from the cated himself to the study of international rela-
rational point of view, is the result of tions because in the wake of World War II,
forces which are inherent in human when he began to focus his attention on the
nature. To improve the world, one subject, it was increasingly evident that if the
must work with those forces, not rising power of the Soviet Union was not
against them. This being inherently balanced, freedom itself would be lost. As
a world of opposing interests and of Robert J. Myers, who was a student of his at
conflict among them, moral principles the time, has noted, for Morgenthau ‘‘rallying
can never be fully realized, but at best the West against this threat through rapid
approximated through the ever tem- rearmament was the immediate goal,’’ while
porary balancing of interests and the idealism ‘‘was blind to this menace, and its reli-
ever precarious settlement of con- ance on such ideas as collective security
flicts. This school, then, sees a system through the United Nations and goodwill
of checks and balances a universalist toward the Soviet Union, which was gobbling
principle for all pluralist societies. It up Eastern Europe, seemed a reckless steward-
appeals to historic precedent rather ship of the national interest.’’5 To counter
than to abstract principles, and aims the idealists who expected international
at achievement of the lesser evil tensions to be resolved through open negotia-
rather than the absolute good.4 tions marked by goodwill and self-denial,
Morgenthau articulated in the first edition of
The fact that these lines so well describe the his Politics Among Nations—a classic work that
fault lines revealed in the debates concerning ‘‘altered the way international relations was
United States foreign policy during the 2008 taught in the United States’’ by putting ‘‘the
presidential election campaign and will pursuit of specific American national interests
undoubtedly continue to manifest themselves at the center of foreign policy analysis while
through the coming years as the new adminis- qualifying that objective with a strong commit-
tration manages America’s international rela- ment to ethical imperatives and restraints’’6—
tions underscores the perennial wisdom of what would become his realist theory of interna-
Morgenthau’s realist vision and its ongoing tional politics, an approach that, he argued,
relevance to the conduct of foreign policy, partic- had the advantage of being concerned ‘‘with
ularly the articulation and pursuit of the human nature as it actually is, and with historic
country’s national interests. This article will processes as they actually take place.’’7
briefly review two of the major pillars of In the framework that Morgenthau elabo-
Morgenthau’s political realism—the permanence rated, every political action is seen as directed
vs. Power Politics, Morgenthau sketched out an However, in such a seemingly bleak
ethical vision that acknowledged the dilemmas Hobbesian landscape of constant tension and
inherent in free will and power in an imperfect struggle with states pursuing their own inter-
world, arguing that the best course is to choose ests, what are the prospects for peace and
‘‘among several possible actions the one that is security? Morgenthau held that traditionally
the least evil.’’12 Subsequently this norm was there were two devices through which order
expanded in the context of a theory of interna- can be maintained. The first was the balance
tional relations to the principle that as long as of power, which is eventually arrived at
there is no international community capable through the struggle for power, the clash of
of guaranteeing security amid fierce competi- those pursuing imperialist policies and those
tion, a nation fulfilled the duty to choose the trying to maintain the status quo. However, in
lesser evil by following its national interest. the changed circumstances that he surveyed
after World War II, the balance of power was
In the absence of an integrated inter- no longer an adequate instrument, especially
national society, the attainment of a given the disappearance amid the ideological
modicum of order and the realization contest between the superpowers of the
of a minimum of values are predicated restraints of times past when ‘‘foreign policy
upon the existence of national com- always operated within a generally accepted
munities capable of preserving order framework of moral values and ways of life
and realizing moral values within common to all participants in the struggle for
the limits of their power.13 power.’’15 The second was the normative limita-
tions imposed by international law, morality,
Thus Morgenthau argued emphatically that and public opinion. Alas the loss of moral con-
sensus and the lack of a central legal authority
Despite the profound changes which on the international stage comparable to the
have occurred in the world, it still state on the domestic level render norms weak
remains true, as it has always been instruments for keeping the peace at best,
true, that a nation confronted with although Morgenthau always held out hope
the hostile aspirations of other nations that the United Nations might mature into a
has one prime obligation—to take care structure that might ‘‘contribute to the cause
of its own interests. The moral justifi- of peace by preventing the superpowers from
cation for this prime duty of all going to the extremes which virtually nothing
nations—for it is not only a moral else prevents them from going to except their
right but also a moral obligation— self-restraint born of mutual fear.’’16
arises from the fact that if this parti- Thus having systematically rejected other
cular nation does not take care of its instruments as either impractical or inade-
interests, nobody else will. Hence the quate, by the third edition of Politics Among
counsel that we ought to subordinate Nations, Morgenthau touted the virtues of
our national interest to some other diplomacy that could ‘‘make peace more secure
standard is unworthy of a nation great than it is today’’17 by minimizing conflicts and
in human civilization. A nation which contributing to the growth of a sense of world
would take that counsel and act con- community upon whose foundations might
sistently on it would commit suicide someday in the far distant future be erected a
and become the prey and victim of world state that would ensure universal
other nations which know how to take peace.18 Diplomacy, however, cannot carry out
care of their interests.14 its function unless it abides by nine rules that
Morgenthau elaborated in considerable always on one’s side and that what one wills
detail.19 cannot fail to be willed by God also.’’22
the interests involved and the power which is another moral good, to the
available. If the United States applies detriment of the promotion of univer-
this standard, it will intervene less sal liberty, which choice ought he to
and succeed more.32 make? The utopian will not face the
issue squarely and will deceive him-
On the other hand, assertions that ‘‘the mission self into believing that he can achieve
of the United States is to provide global both goods at the same time. The
leadership grounded in the understanding that realist will choose the national inter-
the world shares a common security and a com- est on both moral and pragmatic
mon humanity’’33 fly directly in the face of grounds; for if he does not take care
Morgenthau’s maxim that this world is ‘‘a world of the national interest nobody else
of opposing interests and of conflict among will, and if he puts American security
them.’’34 Nor would calls for belief in ‘‘change,’’ and liberty in jeopardy the cause of
especially in the international arena, likely liberty everywhere will be impaired.36
have found much sympathy from Morgenthau
who greeted the inauguration of President Nonetheless, he cautioned, holding up the
Jimmy Carter by publishing an essay entitled national interest as the standard for judgment
‘‘The Pathology of American Power,’’ which he and action requires recourse to diplomacy to
concluded with the laconic sentence: ‘‘To estab- minimize conflict with the interests of others.
lish and maintain stability in an existentially
unstable world requires of necessity an The national interest of a nation
anti-reformist and anti-revolutionary foreign which is conscious not only of its own
policy.’’35 interests but also that of other nations
In short, Morgenthau’s political realism is must be defined in terms compatible
less prescriptive than dispositive. Rather than with the latter. In a multinational
provide an answer certain for every possible world this is a requirement of political
circumstance, it proposes an intellectual frame- morality; in an age of total war it is
work conducive to the prudent evaluation of the also one of the conditions of survival.37
political consequences of the concrete actions
required of the statesman. Rejecting the In this respect Morgenthau might have
attempts by his idealist critics to frame their approved of the assertion by the presidential
differences as a contest between principle and candidate who, describing himself as a ‘‘realis-
expediency, morality and amorality (if not tic idealist,’’ argued that
immorality), Morgenthau posited that the con-
duct of foreign policy necessarily meant choices In such a world, where power of all
among different moral values and offered a kinds is more widely and evenly
key to those vested with the responsibility of distributed, the United States cannot
decision. lead by virtue of its power alone.
. . . Our great power does not mean
If an American statesman must we can do whatever we want when-
choose between the promotion of uni- ever we want, nor should we assume
versal liberty, which is a moral good, we have all the wisdom and knowl-
at the risk of American security and, edge necessary to succeed. We need
hence, of liberty in the United States, to listen to the views and respect the
and the promotion of American secur- collective will of our democratic allies.
ity and of liberty in the United States, When we believe international action
3. George F. Kennan, American Diplomacy, 18. See James P. Speer II, ‘‘Hans Mor-
1900–1950 (Chicago, 1951). genthau and the World State,’’ World Politics,
4. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘Another ‘Great vol. 20, no. 2 (1968): 207–227.
Debate’: The National Interest of the United 19. See Morgenthau, Politics Among
States,’’ American Political Science Review, Nations, 3rd rev. ed., 561–567. Also see Greg
vol. 46, no. 4 (1952): 961–962. Russell, ‘‘Hans J. Morgenthau and the Norma-
5. Robert J. Myers, ‘‘Hans Morgenthau’s tive Foundations of Diplomacy and Statesman-
Realism and American Foreign Policy,’’ Ethics ship,’’ Diplomacy & Statecraft, vol. 2, no. 1
& International Affairs, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997): (1991): 130–160.
256–257. 20. Morgenthau, Scientific Man vs. Power
6. Anatol Lieven and John Hulsman, ‘‘Ethi- Politics, 220.
cal Realism and Contemporary Challenges,’’ 21. Morgenthau, The Decline of Democratic
American Foreign Policy Interests, vol. 28, Politics, 11.
no. 6 (November=December 2006): 414. 22. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations,
7. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among 3rd rev. ed., 11.
Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 23. Morgenthau, ‘‘What Is the National
1st ed. (New York, 1948), 4. Interest of the United States?’’ 1–2.
8. See Sean Molloy, ‘‘Truth, Power, Theory: 24. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘The Mainsprings
Hans Morgenthau’s Formulation of Realism,’’ of American Foreign Policy: The National
Diplomacy & Statecraft, vol. 15, no. 1 (2004): Interest vs. Moral Abstractions,’’ American
1–34. Political Science Review, vol. 44, no. 4 (1950):
9. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National 834.
Interest, 241–242. 25. Morgenthau, ‘‘What Is the National
10. Ibid., 8. Interest of the United States?’’ 5.
11. Hans J. Morgenthau, The Decline of 26. See Morgenthau, ‘‘The Mainsprings of
Democratic Politics (Chicago, 1962), 47. American Foreign Policy,’’ 835–836.
12. Hans J. Morgenthau, Scientific Man vs. 27. Morgenthau, ‘‘Another ‘Great Debate,’’’
Power Politics (Chicago, 1946), 202. Also see 981.
Christian Hacke, ‘‘Power and Morality: On the 28. Ibid., 981–982.
Legacy of Hans J. Morgenthau,’’ American For- 29. Ibid., 977.
eign Policy Interests, vol. 27, no. 3 (May=June 30. George W. Bush, Remarks on Winston
2005): 171–175. Churchill and the War on Terror at the Library
13. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National of Congress (February 4, 2004), http://www.
Interest, 38. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040204-
14. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘What Is the 4.html
National Interest of the United States?’’ Annals 31. George W. Bush, Remarks on the War
of the American Academy of Political and on Terror at the National Endowment for
Social Science, vol. 282, no. 1 (1952): 4. Democracy (October 6, 2005), http://www.
15. Ibid. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/10/20051006-
16. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘The Yardstick of 3.html
National Interest,’’ Annals of the American 32. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘To Intervene or
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. Not to Intervene,’’ Foreign Affairs, vol. 45, no.
296, no. 1 (1954): 84. 3 (April 1967): 436.
17. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among 33. Barack Obama, ‘‘Renewing American
Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, Leadership,’’ Foreign Affairs, vol. 86, no. 4
3rd rev. ed. (New York, 1960), 569. (July=August 2007): 3.
34. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 38. John McCain, Remarks to the Los
3rd rev. ed., 4. Angeles World Affairs Council (March 26,
35. Hans J. Morgenthau, ‘‘The Pathology of 2008), http://www.johnmccain.com/Informing/
American Power,’’ International Security, vol. 1, News/Speeches/872473dd-9ccb-4ab4-9d0d-
no. 3 (winter 1977): 20. ec54f0e7a497.htm
36. Morgenthau, ‘‘Another ‘Great Debate,’’’ 39. Ibid., 976–977.
987. 40. Ibid., 977.
37. Ibid., 977.