Module 5: Crop improvement, seed production and selection

Lesson 1. Crop improvement

Learning outcomes: 1. Discuss the importance of plant breeding in crop production
2. Identify the different plant breeding practices
Time frame: 10th week of the semester

Introduction
Crop improvement or plant breeding has been very useful in the evolution of agricultural
crops. The application of the principles of genetics significantly contributed to the
improvement of many important crops that are useful to humans. So this lesson will
introduce to you the importance of plant breeding and how it becomes a specialized
technology in the advancement of crop production.

Activity
Make a punnet square to show a cross between white corn (CC) and yellow corn (cc).

Analysis
Describe the genotypes and phenotypes of the possible offspring.

Abstraction
Crop improvement is synonymous to plant breeding. It is defined as an art and science of
improving the genotypes or the hereditary characters of crops aimed at the production of
desirable recombination or types that will suit the environments under which they are
commercially grown and therefore, increase production efficiency.

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It is called an art as it involves skills and techniques in hybridization and selection process.
In fact, the early work of plant breeding is largely dependent on natural skills and human
intuition. It is a science, on the other hand, because it essentially adheres to some of the
fundamental laws of biology, principles of genetics and statistics. In particular, plant
genetics has been the basis for crop improvement particularly the Medelian law of
segregation, dominance and independent assortment. The gene as unit of inheritance is
transferred from a parent to the offspring of which may carry the traits or characters as the
parents.

Basic concepts of plant breeding

The performance of crop is dictated by the genetic make-up, the environment and their
interaction. Genetic factor can express the character of the crop completely if provided
with favorable environmental condition. Conversely, if the latter condition is not
conducive enough, genes carrying the traits may not be expressed completely and the
desired outcome cannot be attained. Hence, it is imperative to select high yield varieties
that can better adapt to the specific environmental condition to get the expected higher
output.

What are the goals of crop improvement?

1. Increased yield characteristics and product quality
2. Improved adaptability and abiotic stress tolerance
3. Improved growth characteristics and maturity
4. Improved resistance to pest and diseases

General methods of crop improvement

1. Introduction – method of introducing crops from either locally or internationally
sourced into new environment.
2. Selection – this is considered as the oldest method where in desirable (phenotype)
individuals are selected from a population. Criteria are set prior to selection process
to discriminate individuals not matching the set standards.
3. Hybridization
- the process of crossing two or more distant varieties. This method offers wide
genetic variability than selection alone. It is important to choose a parent variety
carrying traits of interest and the desired plant prior the conduct of breeding
activities. Hybridization techniques include inbreeding or selfing and the
different cross between distant relatives such as topcross, backcross, testcross,
polycross and others.
- there are two common phenomena which can result from hybridization such as
inbreeding depression and hybrid vigor or heterosis. The former refers to the
reduction in performance associated with the increase in homozygosity due to
inbreeding, reduction in vigor due to the mating of closely related individuals,
while the latter means that the offspring exceeds the performance of its parents
for one or more traits.

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 4. Mutation – this refers to a rapid alteration of heritable characteristics of a plant
caused by a change in a gene or a chromosome as result of environmental pressures
particularly UV light. In natural setting, a resulting plant from mutation usually
emerges as undesirable but in the context of mutation-based plant breeding ,
breeders take advantage of this method to create an improve plant or variety by
modifying one or more characters.

Breeding methods for self- pollinated crops

a. Pedigree Method. Individual plants are selected from second generation and the
subsequent generation and their progenies are tested. A record of the entire parent’s
offspring relationship is kept or known as pedigree record. The selection of
individual plant is continued until the progenies show no more segregation. Thus
each progeny can be traced back to the F3 progeny or F2 plants, from which it
originated. But for determining the pedigree of a progeny the breeder has to consult
the records of the previous year.
b. Bulk population method. It is also known as mass method or population method.
This refers to a species being grown in bulk plot (from F1 to F5) with or without
selection. A part of the bulk seed is used to grow the next generation and individual
plant selection is practiced in F6 or later generation. In this method, duration of
bulking may vary from 6-7 to 30 generations.
c. Single Seed Descent Method. This is the modification of bulk/population method.
The modification is done in such a way that it allows the equal survival of a
segregates. This is done by taking and planting only one seed from each panicle or
ear.

Breeding methods for self- pollinated crops

a. Mass selection. Large numbers of plants are chosen from a mixed population.
Seeds of selected plants are combined for the next few generations until such time
that the desired character becomes stable. Selection is based on maternal
characteristics because the pollen source is unknown.
b. Backcross method. Large numbers of plants of heterozygous recurrent parent are
required in order to recover the required gene frequencies.
c. Recurrent selection. Self-pollination of initial population and then offspring are
planted and crossed in all possible combinations to produce improved populations.
The progeny is tested with tester, followed by recurrent evaluation and selection,
and finally selfing of best performers until desired traits stabilized.

Mating systems

The types of mating system used in crop improvement as outlined by Pava and Abellanosa
(2003) include top cross, polycross, backcross, hybrid cross, diallel cross, convergent
cross, convergent cross combined with transgressive recombination and the convergent
cross + transgressive recombination principle + incomplete backcross. The basic mating
systems are illustrated below:

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Adapted from Pava and Abellanosa (2003)

Biotechnology

Crop production techniques are

continuing to evolve as science and
technology advances. One of the
advances in the context of crop
improvement is in the area of
biotechnology particular the genetic
engineering. Hence, the term
biotechnology is commonly used to
describe genetically engineered foods Source: marketbusinessnews.com
that contain genetically modified
genes/organisms (GMO).

This technology follows the same principle of conventional breeding only that the latter
takes time to develop a new plant or variety. The biotechnology through the technique of
genetic engineering can create unique genetic combinations by inserting a foreign DNA
into a vector molecule and introducing this gene construct into an organism. This will lead
to a creation of plant containing a gene or genes coding for characters of interest. This
technique had been used to developed high yielding varieties with improved product
quality including nutritional value. Also, it allows develop crop varieties that are resistant
to certain pest, tolerance to certain environmental stress or even to herbicides. To date, the
production of crops through this manner faces commentaries from skeptics. Nevertheless,
more and more crops have been commercially grown and produced through this method in
many parts of the world.

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Application
Plant two varieties of cucumber (3 plants each) and perform assisted hand pollination. Put
a tag in all female flowers that have been pollinated. Each tag should contain the variety
name of the male and female parent, date of pollination and name of breeder. Observe and
document the developing fruits and dissect matured (ripe) fruit to check whether any of the
parent traits have been expressed in the fruit or seed.

Congratulations! Now that you have already the knowledge on the concept of crop
improvement and its techniques, you can now move to the next lesson which will tackle
seed production and selection. All the best.

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Module 5: Crop improvement, seed production and selection

Lesson 2. Seed production and selection

Learning outcomes: 1. Identify the different practices of seed production and handling
2. Discuss the importance of evaluating seed quality for crop
production
Time frame: 11th week of the semester

Introduction
Seed is considered as an important planting material. The quality of seed used in crop
production affects the performance of the standing crop in field. Hence, it is important that
a grower or farmer select seed of good quality from a known source. This lesson will
introduce to you some of the important activities in the production of quality seed and its
implication to crop production.

Activity
Mix a handful each of corn and mungbean seed and add a few stone and chopped plant
branches of comparable sizes with the seed. Conduct seed purity analysis and determine
the percentage purity for corn and mungbean including the percentage of each foreign
material mixed in the seed.

Analysis
Why seed purity analysis is important? How does quality of seed affect crop production?

Abstraction

Production of seed is an important activity in crop production. Farmer or grower must

ensure that seeds to be sown are of good quality and highest seed purity. The following are
classes of seeds based on genetic purity.
1. Breeder seed. This is considered as the purest seed that is under the direct control
by breeders/institutions/companies such as Monsanto, Pioneer, East West, UPLB,
BPI, CMU, USM, PhilRice, IRRI, and many others. This is the starting point of the
subsequent classes of seeds and labelled with white tag.
2. Foundation Seed. This is the progeny of breeder seed and sometimes called as basic
seed. This is considered as highest class of certified seed handled in the commercial
seed market. This type of seed carries a tag colored red.

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 3. Registered Seed. This is a product of foundation seed or the first generation seed
labelled with green tag. This is now the source of certified seed in some crops.
4. Certified seed. This can be a product of either from foundation or registered or
certified seed. This second generation seed is produced by a seed grower and
certified by a known seed certifying agency so that it can be available for general
distribution for commercial production. This is labelled by a blue tag.
5. Good seed. Seed of uncertified variety labelled by a yellow tag. Any class of
certified seed that does not conform with the prescribed standard may qualify for
good seed.

Common important activities in seed production to ensure good quality

1. Isolation – this is a tempo-spatial consideration to avoid pollen contamination in
order to maintain genetic purity of the desired variety
2. Rouging – this is the removal of unwanted members of the population. These
include other cultivars and/or offtypes, weeds, deformed , diseased, infested and
damaged plants.
3. Selection – this refers to the selection of varieties and seed sources such as source
of farms, mother plants, fruits /seeds, seedlings. These materials should be sourced
from known or certified sources.
4. Harvesting at proper maturity. This helps ensuring that harvested seeds are of good
quality.
5. Pollination – the presence of pollinators aids in the pollination activities that would
lead to higher seed production.

Production of certified seed

1. Procurement of seed – seed can be sourced from either City or Municipal
agriculturist office or BPI accredited seed producers.
2. Growing of certified seeds. Only seeds of approved varieties that are suited to local
condition should be grown. The field should be isolated to avoid genetic
contamination.
3. Rouging. Remove off-types, diseased, undesirable plants to prevent outcrossing
and mechanical mixtures. This activity usually starts at heading until before
harvest.
4. Harvesting. This should be done at proper maturity. When harvesting, one should
avoid mixing with other varieties and inert materials to maintain highest seed
purity. Develop a system making each variety handled separately. Control should
be established such that border plants in a plot should be separated with plants from
inner plots.
5. Threshing. All equipment, bags, thresher’s floor should be thoroughly cleaned
prior to this operation. Mechanical equipment should be properly adjusted to ensure
not to cause mechanical damage to seeds.

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 6. Processing. This include cleaning of seeds (separating the inert matter, seeds of
other crops or weeds), grading (smaller and shriveled seeds are removed) and
recleaning (this usually supervised by a representative of certifying agency)
7. Bagging - Seed must be dried at MC less 14%. Seeds should be securely sewed in
new bags/containers with specified weight.
8. Storing. Store bagged seed in a clean, dry and well-ventilated place. Do not store
seed along with fertilizers and other chemicals, or any materials that contain high
moisture.

Seed testing activities

Seed testing is an important operation in seed production to ensure that seeds produced and
distributed for crop production are of the highest quality. Quality of seed is an important
determinant for growth and yield performance of the crop. For instance, the use of low
quality seeds often result to poor growth with lower yield. The following are important
seed testing activities:
1. Moisture content determination – seeds must be at least14% MC and below
depending on the species.
2. Purity testing – seeds must be 99% and better. No presence of other seed mixtures
from other varieties or crop and weed seeds, stones, other plant parts or foreign
materials.
3. Seed germination testing. Germination percentage of a given seedlot must be more
than 85%. Testing methods to use include Petri dish or paper towel, ragdoll,
seedbox and tetrazolium tests.
4. Seed vigor test – this determines the speed of germination. Germination vigor must
be above average for a particular species.

Seed certification
This is to ensure seeds are available to the public have passed certain standards. It
guarantees buyers that seeds of chosen variety are of highest quality and genetic purity.
Seeds must be in as sealed bag with corresponding tags.

Preservation of germplasm
Most of the economically important crops produce seeds. Hence, seeds are considered as
the best material for germplasm collection and preservation owing to their ease of handling
and storing. While the metabolic activity of dry seed is almost negligible, one must
remember that seed contains live embryonic tissues, and hence this must be stored properly
to prolong and maintain its viability for longer period of time while in storage. There are
two important storage conditions that are keys for longer seed preservation; moisture
content (MC) and temperature. Others include gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen and
nitrogen. Pava and Abellanosa (2003) presented a relationship between these two critical

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factors. For instance, at relatively higher temperature and at given MC of seed, the
following consequences had been observed:
Moisture content (%) Observation
45-60 germination occurs
18-20 Heating occurs
12-15 Molds proliferate
8-9 Little or no pest activity
4-8 Safe in storage if sealed

There are types of seed storage depending on the complexity of equipment used namely:
the ambient and refrigerated storages. The former means that seeds are stored under
ambient condition or ordinary room condition either seeds are in sack, packets and
hermetically sealed containers. Under this condition, the storage performance of the seeds
depends primarily on the kind of seed and the microclimate that prevails. On the other
hand, the latter type of seed storage can be considered as the most suitable method for
extended period of germplasm preservation. Depending on the species, the lower the MC,
RH and temperature, the longer the period the seed can be stored under this condition.

Application
Conduct a seed germination test using a paper towel test with two seedlots or seed sources
of either mungbean or corn seeds in three (3) replicates. Determine the final percentage
germination and speed of germination (for procedure - see appendix 2)

Well done! You have just finished this module – congratulations for reaching this far. You
can now move to the next module which will discuss sustainable crop production.

Module summary
This module highlights the concept, importance and practices of crop improvement
including production of seed and selection. Genes is the only component that controls the
traits or characters of the crop. This is the factor that of central interest of plant breeders for
the purpose of achieving the goals of crop improvement. Scientists employ different
methods from conventional breeding to genetic engineering.
Seed is considered as a practical planting material for crop production. Thus seed
production plays a vital role in the crop cycle. Farmers or growers had to make sure that
seeds used for planting are of highest quality and purity such as those of breeder,
foundation, registered and certified seeds. In the production of quality seed, you must
ensure that no genetic contamination with other varieties can occur during the pre-harvest

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and processing stages. Seed testing activities and storage handling should be observed
strictly to ensure the quality of seeds being produced and longer storage duration.

References
 Pava, H.M. and A.L. Abellanosa. 2003. Introduction to Crop Science. 3 rd edition.
Central Mindanao Univeristy. Musuan, Bukidnon. P 359
 www.marketbusinessnews.com. Accessed Aug 13, 2020

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