1.

Introduction
Cross pollination is the process of applying pollen from one flower to the pistil of another flower.
Pollination occurs in nature with the help of insects and wind. This process can be done by hand to
produce offspring with desired traits. It defines as the deposition of pollen grains from a flower to the
stigma of another flower. Cross pollination involves the transport of pollen from one individual’s plant to
another of the same species. (Acquaah2012). Population of cross-pollinated crops is highly
heterozygous as well as heterogeneous. Their genetic makeup is such that they show variable inbreeding
depression. Which in some case may be very sever. Consequently, breeding methods for cross pollinated
crops aim at preventing inbreeding. Various approaches that are used for genetic improvement of crop
plants are referred to as plant breeding methods or plant breeding procedures or plant breeding
techniques. the choice of breeding methods mainly depends on the mode of pollination ,mode of
reproduction , gene action and breeding objective of crop species.(Comstock et al,.1949)

This provide opportunity for the maintenance of genetic diversity and the generation of novel adaptation
through genetic recombination and many plants exhibit features that promotes cross pollination over self-
pollination . Cross pollination among the cultivated wild varieties of a crop is a natural phenomenon
(snow et al., 2000) . This caused concern among the critics of the transgenic technology . Cross
pollination of the transgenic crop

The basic concept of population improvement originated out of necessity, not for the cultivation of
population per se but for enhancing the scope of developing better-inbred lines required for the
production of heterotic F1 hybrids. It’s well understood that cross-pollinated crops are highly
heterozygous and heterogeneous. Consequently, they show varying degrees of inbreedingdepression.
According to Sharma (1994).It is therefore, inbreeding should be avoided or kept to be a minimum in
cross-pollinated crops.

Individual plants are heterozygous and their progeny would be heterogeneous and usually different from
the parents, due to segregation and recombination gene(s) for desirable trait. Thus, desirable genes can be
seldom fixed through selection in cross-pollinated crops except for highly heritable qualitative characters.
Hence, the breeder/researcher main aims of increasing the frequency of desirable alleles in the
population .Broertjes C, van Harten(1988

1.1 Objective

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To review breeding method in cross pollinated crops

2. Literature review
The population improvement methods may be grouped into two general classes.Selection without
Progeny Testing. In the method plants are selected on the basis of their phenotype, and no progeny test is
carried out. Ex: Mass selection& its modification.Selection with Progeny Testing the Plants are initially
selected on the basis of their phenotypic appearance, but the final selection of the plants that contribute to
the next generation is based on progeny testing. These methods are progeny selection, ear to row
method& its modification and recurrent selection. George Acquaah (2012).

2.1 Mass Selection

Mass selection is earliest methods of selection .A large number of plants of similar phenotypes (having
desirable trait) are selected and their seeds are mixed together to constitute. Number of plants are
selected on the basis of their phenotype, and selected plants are allowed to open pollinate and seed from
them are bulked together to rise the next generation. Mass selection is an example of selection from a
biologically variable population in which differences are genetic in origin. W. Johansen is credited with
developing the basis for mass selection in 1903.

Mass selection for population improvement aims at improving the general population performance by
selecting and bulking superior genotypes that already exist in the population. Selection is solely on
phenotypic performance. The efficiency of this method depends greatly on the heritability of the trait
under selection. Mass selection could be very effective for those traits that can be identified or selected
prior to, or at the time of flowering. A few examples of such traits in maize could be flowering, leaf
angle, resistance to trips, reduced plant and ear height, reduced an thesis silking interval and tolerance to
pre-flowering diseases. Mass selection may be effective for individual or a combination of a few traits at
a time rather than a whole series of characters. (Allard 1960).

Mass selection is based on maternal parents (female) only, and there is no control over pollen parent.
Selection cycle may be repeated one or more times to increase the frequency of favorable alleles; in such
case scheme is generally known as phenotypic recurrent selection.Sufficiently large no of plants should
be selected to keep inbreeding at minimum. The efficiency of mass selection primarily depends upon the
number of genes controlling the character, gene frequencies, and heritability of the concerned trait.
(Paterniani and Vencovsky1977,Applications of Mass Selection.Improvement of local
varieties.Purification of existing pure line varieties.Used to preserve the identity of an established

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cultivar. Some breeders use mass selection as a part of their breeding programed to rogue out the
undesirable plants (Negative mass selection).

Mass selection first year: Select plants with respect to height, maturity, grain size, and any other traits
that have ‘production’ or ‘acceptability’ issues. Bulk seed (may ‘block’ these bulks if wide variation is

Present for certain traits; e.g. height). May be able to use machines to select and Harvest only tall plants,
or save only large seed passed throughs a sieve.

Mass selection in second year.: Mass selection is only takes 1year s because selected seed represents a
mixture of only the superior pure lines that existed in the original population

However, additional rounds of selection and bulking will allow for evaluation under different
environments, disease and pest pressures and multiple years will allow you to compare performance with
established cultivars over years and environments

2.1.1 Merits of Mass Selection

It is easiest, simplest, least expensive and quickest method of plant breeding because there is no
controlled pollination and no progeny testing. Since the improved strain is likely to be similar to the
original population in the range of adaption, extensive yield trails may not be required before its release
as a new variety. It is highly efficient in improving characters that are easily identified visually and have
high heritability Ex. Plant height, size of ear, date of maturity etc. Selection cycle is short i.e. of only one
generation. Thus in every generation one cycle of selection is completed. Work of breeder is kept at
minimum since selection is only based on phenotype. Less time and resource demanding method.
(Acquaah2012).

2.1.2 Demerit of mass selection

Lack of information on progeny performance: Selection of plants is based on the phenotype of
individual plants. Most of the quantitative characters are considerably affected by the environment.
Therefore, superior phenotype is often a poor basis for the identification of superior genotype.Lack of
control on male parentage: The selected plants are pollinated by both superior and inferior plants
presents in the population as the selected plants are allowed to open-pollinate. This reduced the
effectiveness of selection.Only those varieties which show genetic variation can be improved by this
method, as it uses variability present in population. Effect of soil variability on the phenotype of the
plant. Mass selection is not effective for low heritability of traits such as grain yield. Varieties are not
uniform.Since no progeny test is done, the genotype of the selected plant is not known J. H. Lonnquist
(1964),

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2.2. Progeny Selection
The simplest form of progeny selection is the ear to row method. This method was developed by Hopkins
in 1908 and used extensively in maize.

2.2.1.Ear to row method:

This is the simplest scheme of half-sib selection applicable to cross-pollinated species. First selection
cycle: plants selected on the basis of phenotype Open-pollinated seed from each plant harvested
separately Second selection cycle: small progeny rows grown from the selected plants Superior progeny
identified and selected Plants allowed to open –pollinate seed is harvested separately Third selection
cycle: same as in second year Chopra VL (2003).

Merits of Progeny Selection

The progeny selection schemes, except those for recurrent selection, have the following advantages. In
progeny selection, the selection is based on progeny test and not on the phenotypes of individual plants.
The progeny test is a far more accurate reflection of the genotype than is phenotype. Thus progeny
selection is far more efficient than mass selection

Inthe identification of superior genotypes.Inbreeding may be avoided if care is taken to select a

sufficiently large number of plant progenies and if the selected progeny are not closely related. The
selection scheme is still relatively simple and easy. But some of the modifications are more complicated
and tedious Fehr WR (1987a)

2.4. Demerits of Progeny Selection

The progeny selection schemes, other than recurrent selection, suffer from the following defects.. In most
progeny selection schemes, there is no control on pollination and plants are allowed to open-pollinate.
Thus the selection is based on the maternal parent only. This reduces the efficiency of selection. Many of
the progeny selection schemes are complicated and involve considerable work. Fehr WR (1987a

2.3. Recurrent selection

Idea of recurrent selection was first suggested in 1919 by Hayes and Garber and independently by East
and Jones in 1920. However, critical data were not given by the above scientist. First detailed description
of this type of breeding method was published by Jenkins in 1940 as a result of his experiments with early
testing for GCA in maize. The method acquired its name in 1945 when Hull suggested detailed scheme of
recurrent selection for SCA. Hull (1952) defined recurrent selection as “Method which involves
reselection generation after generation with interbreeding ofselects to provide for genetic
recombination”.

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This is one of the breeding methods followed for the improvement of cross pollinated crop. Here single
plants are selected based on their phenotype or by progeny testing. The selected single plants are selfed.
In the next generation they are intermittedsss (cross in all possible combinations) to produce population
for next cycle of selection. The recurrent selection schemes are modified forms of progeny selection
programs.(Burton and Brim 1981).

The main difference between progeny selection and recurrent selection.The manner in which progenies
are obtained for evaluation. Instead of open pollination, making all possible inter crosses among the
selected lines. The advantages of recurrent selections are. The rate of inbreeding can be kept at low level.
The frequency of favorable genes in the population will be increased and so. The chance of obtaining
satisfactory individuals from the population will be increasedbecause greater opportunity for
recombination is present.There are four types of recurrent selections.. Simple recurrent selection
Recurrent selection for General Combining Ability (GCA).Recurrent selection for Specific Combining
Ability (SCA). Reciprocal recurrent selection[ CITATION Fal81 \l 1033 ]

.2.4. Hybridization

The mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotype are known as
hybridization. In plants, crossing is done by placing pollen grains from one genotype, the
male parent, on to the stigma of flowers of the other genotype, the female parent. It is
essential to prevent self-pollination as well as chance cross-pollination in the flowers of the
female parent. At the same time, it must be ensured that the pollen from desired male parent
reaches the stigma of female flowers for successful fertilization. The seeds as well as the progeny
resulting from the hybridization are known as hybrid or F 1. The progeny of F1,
obtained by selfing or inter mating of F 1 plants, and the subsequent generations are termed as
segregating generations. The term cross is often used to denote the products of hybridization,
i.e. the F1 as well as the segregating generations . The chief objective of hybridization is to

Create genetic variation. When two genotypic ally different plants are crossed, the genes from both the
parents are brought together in F1. Segregation and recombination produce many new gene combinations
in F2 and the later generations, i.e. the segregating generations. The degree of variation produced
(Comstock et al. 1949

In the segregating generations would, therefore, depend on the number of heterozygous genes
in the F1. This sill, in turn, depends upon the number of the genes for which the two parents
differ. If the two parents are closely related, they are likely to differ for a few genes only.

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But if they are not related, or are distantly related, they may differ for several, even a few
hundred, genes. However, it is not likely that the two parents will ever differ for all their
genes. Therefore, when it is said that the F 1 is 100 per cent heterozygous, it has reference
only to those genes for which the two parents differThis refers to the production of heterozygous
population from crosses of homozygousLines. .(Griffing1956).

Hybrid breeding is mostly applicable to cross pollinated crops where exploitation of heterosis is relied
upon. It however has limited usefulness in self-pollinated crops. It cameinto prominence with maize.
(Griffing1956).The outstanding example of the exploitation of hybrid vigor through the use of F1 hybrid
varieties has been with corn (maize).

The production of a hybrid corn variety involves three steps: (1) the selection of superior plants; (2)
selfing for several generations to produce a series of inbred lines, which although different from each
other are each pure-breeding and highly uniform; and (3) crossing selected inbred lines. (Melchinge and
Gumbler1998).

During the inbreeding process the vigor of the lines decreases drastically, usually to less than half that of
field-pollinated varieties. Vigor is restored, however, when any two unrelated inbred lines are crossed,
and in some cases the F1 hybrids between inbred lines are much superior to open-pollinated varieties. An
important consequence of the homozygosis of the inbred lines is that the hybrid between any two inbred
will always be the same. Once the inbreeds that give the best hybrids have been identified, any desired
amount of hybrid seed can be produced. Springer and Stupar2007).This refers to the production of
heterozygous population from crosses of homozygousLines.Hybrid breeding is mostly applicable to cross
pollinated crops where exploitation of heterosis is relied upon. It however has limited usefulness in self-
pollinated crops.

The aim of hybridization may be the transfer of one or few qualitative characters, the improvement
in one or more quantitative characters, or use the of 1 as a hybrid variety. Hybridization may be
classified into two broad groups. Inter varietal and. distant hybridization. Inter varietal
Hybridization: The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species; they may be two strains,
varieties or races of the same species. It is also known as intraspecific hybridization. In crop improvement
programmed, intervarietal hybridization is the most commonly used. Distant Hybridization: Distant
hybridization includes crosses between different species of the same genus or of different genera. When
two species of the same genus are crossed, it is known as interspecific hybridization

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2.5. Bulk population breeding
It was first proposed by Nilsson Ehle in 1908 at Svalof. This method is also known as mass method ‘or’
Population method of breeding. It is used for isolation of homozygous lines. It involves opportunity for
natural selection. F2 and subsequent generations are harvested in mass as bulk to rise the next generation.
At the end of the bulking period (after attaining homozygosis) individual plants are selected and evaluated
similar manner as pedigree method of breeding. In this method, F 2 and subsequent generations are
backcrossed in mass or as bulk toraise the next generation. At the end of the bulking period, individual
plants are selected andevaluated in a similar manner as in pedigree method of breeding. It is suitable for
handlingthe segregating generation of cereals, smaller millet, grain legumes and oil seeds.Uses Isolation
of homozygous lines. Waiting for the opportunity of selection To provide opportunity for natural
selection to change the composition of the population. . http://www.unaab.edu.ng

In bulk method, the population is carried to F 6 or F7 as bulk, by the time the population approaches 96%
homozygosis. Procedure: First year:Selected parents are hybridized. Second year:F1 space planted, seeds
harvested in bulk. 3rd to 7thyear: F2 – F6 planted of commercial seed rate, seeds harvested in bulk, use of
artificial selection, disease epiphytotic etc. 8th yeari.e. F7 is space planted, individual plant selected and
seeds harvested separately. 9th year: (i) Individual plant progenies grown (ii) Inferior progenies eliminated
10th year:(i) Preliminary Yield Trials using standard variants as checks. (ii) Quality test done 11th – 15th
year: (i) Multiplication yield trials (ii) Seed increase for distribution. http://www.unaab.edu.ng

2.5.1. Advantages of bulk breeding:

Simple, convenient and inexpensive. Isolation of desirable types thus becomes much easier. Natural
selection increases the chances of superior the in the population. Little work or attention is needed in F2
and subsequent generation. No pedigree record is to be kept which saves time and cost. Artificial
selection may be practiced to increase frequency of desirable genes. It is suitable for studies on the
survival of genes and genotypes in population http://www.unaab.edu.ng

2.5.2. Disadvantages of bulk breeding:

Longer time to develop new variety. It provides little opportunity for breeder to exercise his skill. Large
number of progenies at the end of the bulking period. Information on the inheritance of characters can not
be obtained. In short term, bulk i.e. isolation of homozygous lines, natural selection has little effecton the
genetic composition of population. . http://www.unaab.edu.ng

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2.6. Pedigree method
In the pedigree method, individual plants are selected from F2 and subsequent generations, and their
progenies are tested. During the entire operation a record of all parents off spring relationships is kept.
This is known as pedigree record. Individual plant selection is continued till the progenies show no
segregation. At this stage the selection is done among the progenies, multi-location tests are conducted
and released as varieties.The pedigree may be defined as a description of the ancestors of an individual
and it generally goes back to some distant ancestors or ancestors in past. . http://www.unaab.edu.ng

In pedigree method, individual plants are selected from F2 and the subsequent generations, and their
progenies are tested. Pedigree Record; during the entire operation, a record of all the parent offspring
relationship is kept: this is known as pedigree record  1st year: cross is made between the parents
possessing desirable characters. 2nd year: Sow the F1 seed giving wide spacing so that each F1 plant
produces more seeds. Raise as many F1 plants as possible to produce large number of F2 seeds. Harvest
in bulk. 3rd year : Grow 2000-10000 plants of F2 giving wide spacing for full expression of the characters
in F2 generation plants. Grow parents for comparison. Depending upon the facilities and objectives of the
programed about 100-500 superior plants are selected. Springer, NM Stupar RM (2007

The value of selection depends on the skill of the breeder. He has to judge which F2 plant will produce
superior progeny for characters under consideration. The breeder develops this skill through close study
of the crop for many generations. The selection in F2 is done for simply inherited characters like head
type disease resistance etc. and selection for characters governed by many genes like yield will be
reserved for later generations. The selected plants are harvested separately and given serial numbers and
description entered in pedigree registers. 4th year : Progeny rows of F3 i.e. seeds of one selection plant in
one row are space planted along with parents and checks. From superior progeny rows, individual plants
with desirable characters are selected (about 50- 100 families and about 5 plants in each family and
harvested separately). Diseased, lodging and undesirable progenies are discarded. 5th year : F4 plants
raised again as head to row. Desirable plants are selected from desirable rows and harvested separately.
6th year: F5 plants raised in 3 row plots i.e. seeds of each selected plant sown in 3 rows. By this time
many families might have become reason homozygous. For comparison check variety is grown for every
3 or 5 block. Progenies are evaluated for yield and the inferior ones are rejected. The number should be
reduced to 25-50. Superior plants from superior progenies are selected.

Plants from each progeny are bulked. 7th year: F6 individual progenies are grown in multi-row plots and
evaluated. Inferior progenies are rejected and superior plants progenies are selected. Plants of each
progeny are harvested in bulk. Diseased and inferior plants from the progenies are removed. 8th year : F7

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preliminary yield trial with 3 or more replications ar conducted to identify superior lines. The progenies
are evaluated for many characters including yield. Standard commercial varieties must be included as
checks. Two to five outstanding lines are selected and advanced to coordinated yield trials. 9th, 10 th&
11th year: selected lines are tested in several localities for 2 or 3 years for adaptation tests. Lines are
evaluated for all characters mainly yield and disease resistance. A line that is superior to commercial
variety in yield and other characters is selected.. 11th and 12th year: Selected superior lines is named,
multiplied and released as a new variety. Number of year can be reduced if generations are advanced
during off seasons either in green house or under irrigated conditions.. http://www.unaab.edu.ng

2.6.1. Merits of pedigree method:

. It is well suited for the improvement of characters which can be easily identified and are simply
inherited. It gives maximum opportunity for the breeder to use his skill and judgment selection of plants .
It is well suited for the improvement of characters which can be easily identified and are simply inherited.
. It takes less time than bulk method to develop new variety. Transgressed segregation for yield and other
quantitative characters may be recovered. Information about the inheritance of characters and pedigree of
lines can be obtained. Springer, NM Stupar RM (2007

2.6.2. Demerits of pedigree method

Valuable genotypes may be lost in early generations, if sufficient skill and knowledge are lacking in the
breeder, at the time of selection. No opportunity for natural selection. Difficult to handle many crosses.
Maintenance of records, selections, growing progeny rows etc are time consuming and laborious.
Achievements: Large number of varieties has been developed by pedigree method in many crops. Cotton
– Lakshmi, Digvijay,(1982)

2.7. Single-seed-descent method

Another modification of the bulk method is the single-seed-descent method, which is becoming
increasingly popular. In this method, a single seed from each of the one to two thousand F2 plants is
bulked to raise the F3 generation. Similarly, in F3 and the subsequent generation’s one random seed is
selected from every plant present in the population and planted in bulk to raisethe next generation.This
procedure is followed till F5 or F6 when the plants would have become nearly homozygous. In F5 or F6,
a large number (1 to 5 hundred) of individual plants are selected and individual plant progenies are grown
in the next generation. .http://www.unaab.edu.ngs

Selection is done mainly among the progenies, and the number of progenies is sufficiently reduced to
permit replicated trial in the next generation. Individual plants may be selected only from outstanding

9
families not showing segregation Objective of single-seed-descent method: is to rapidly advance the
generations of crosses; at the end of the scheme, a random sample of homozygous or near homozygous
genotypes/lines is obtained. F2 and the subsequent generations are grown at very high plant densities as
vigor of individual plants is not important. In each year, 2-3 generations may be raised using off-season
nurseries and greenhouse facilities.http://www.unaab.edu.ngs

2.7.1. Merits of single-seed-descent

Advances the generation with maximum possible speed in a conventional breeding method Requires
very little space, effort and labor. Makes the best use of greenhouse and off -season nursery facilities.
Ensures that the plants retained in the end population are random sample from the F2 population.

2.7.2. Demerit of single descent

It does not permit any form of selection (which is implied in the scheme) during the segregating
generations. In each successive generation, the population size becomes progressively smaller due to poor
germination and death of plants due to diseases, insect pests and accidents. In some crops, e.g., pulses,
plant loss may be one of the most serious problems of the scheme .http://www.unaab.edu.ng

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 3.  Conclusion
In general wild species have wide adaptability but not have desirable character like yield,
resistance because undesirable crossing may occur in nature so better to improve the
characteristic of plant so that they become more desirable agronomical and economically all of
the methods help to creat genetic variability and desirable crossing in plants. Methods of
breeding arean approach to plant improvement that is increasingly becoming sophisticated as it
becomes infused with science and technology.To improve the characteristics of plants so that
they become more desirable agronomical and economically. The common goal of improving
open or cross-pollinated species is to changing the gene frequencies in the population towards
fixation of favorable alleles for trait of target while the maintaining a high degree of
heterozygosis as we. (Melchinger and Gumbler 1998).
The method uses variability that already exists primarily within the species and occasionally
within close relatives, provided they are not reproductively isolated. Modern plant breeding is a
methodical and systematic approach to plant improvement science and technology has made it
more efficient.However, its chief limitation is the fact that it depends on variability that can be
exchanged within natural boundaries. Advances in knowledge and DNA technology currently
allow genes to be exchanged across natural biological boundaries.Breeder adopts one of three
general approaches in developing cross-pollinated cultivars – population improvement, synthetic
cultivars, or hybrid cultivars. Each of these have consequences on the genetic structure of the
cultivar develop and hence how it is maintained and propagated (Acquaah 2012).

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