Everything Your Grammar Book Didn't Teach You

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ENGLISH LLC MICHAEL DIGIACOMO
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CONTENTS
Section 1 – Introduction
Section 2 – Important Grammar Terms
Section 3 –Grammar Words and Phrases
Ago vs. Before vs. In vs. After vs. Later
All vs. Every vs. Each
Almost vs. Most vs. Mostly
Already vs. Still vs. Yet
Although vs. Though vs. Even Though
Another and Other
Any More vs. Any Longer vs. No Longer
Articles: A/An and The
As Long As vs. Provided / Providing
At In On for Places
At The Store vs. In The Store
At In On for Time
At The End vs. In The End
Be Going To vs. Will vs. Other Future Patterns
Because vs. Because Of
Bored vs. Boring (ED and ING Participle Adjectives)
Both vs. Either vs. Neither
By vs. Until
Despite vs. In Spite of
During vs. While
Each and Every
Early vs. Quickly vs. Soon and No Sooner Than
Enough
Even vs. Even Though vs. Even If
Except vs. Without
A Few vs. Few and A Little vs. Little
Finally vs. In The End vs. At The End
For vs. Since
Had Better vs. Better To
Hard vs. Hardly
In Case
In Time vs. On Time
It is vs. That is
Just vs. Only
Much vs. Many vs. A Lot
So vs. Such
Suggest and Recommend
Suppose vs. Be Supposed To
Stop Doing vs. Stop To Do (and Remember / Forget / Try)
There Is / There Are (and It is)
Too (5 Patterns)
Prepositions (At - In - On - For - To - Off)
At
In
On
For
To
Get On / Get Off vs. Get In / Get Out Of
Title Page
Section 3 – Other Grammar Patterns
Be / Get Used To
Causative With Make Let Have Get
Conditionals
Frequency Adverbs and Expressions
Have / Get / Want / Need Something Done
Modals Part 1: Must / Have To / Need To
Must
Need to and had better
Modals Part 2: Had Better / Should / Ought To
Had Better
Should and Ought To

Modals Part 3: May / Might / Can
May and Might
CAN
Modals Part 4: Could
SECTION 1 –
INTRODUCTION
Gratitude
I’m forever thankful for and indebted to my students. Without them,
this book would have never been written. Since 1994, I’ve worked with
English learners from all over the world and thanks to them I’ve learned a lot
about the struggles of learning another language. My students are a
continuous source of joy, happiness, and laughter.
I’m also thankful to my family who supported my crazy idea to quit a
good job in a language school company to open Happy English, my own
English tutoring school. It wasn’t easy taking such a risk, but it was the best
decision I’ve ever made.
And thank you, the reader, for purchasing this book.
About this book
Who is this book for and why did I write it?
This book was written for non-native speakers of English and those
learning English as a second or foreign language. Quite often people learn
another language through translation, but translating can get you into trouble.
That’s because how you say something in one language is different from how
you say something in another language. Word-for-word or “literal”
translations often result in confusion for the learner and create the potential
for miscommunication. I wrote this book to help you end your confusion and
improve your confidence to communicate in English.
What is the level of this book?
This book is designed for anyone who has at least a basic level of
English. If you have some experience studying English and can have a basic
English conversation with someone, this book is for you.
If you have a lot of experience learning English, this book may clear
up some doubts or confusion that you have about some grammatical points,
like prepositions.
What kind of English does this book look at?
I was born in New York and I teach American English. There are some
differences between American and British English, like vocabulary for
example. We say “elevator” and in British English, they say “lift.” There are
also some grammatical differences. For example, Americans tend to use
“already” with the simple past, whereas British English prefers to use the
present perfect tense:
American English:
I’m not hungry because I already ate.
British English:
I’m not hungry because I’ve already eaten.
I’m only going to look at American English in this book, basically because
that’s what I know and use.
What this book is and is not.
This book is different from standard grammar books because it looks
at grammar points that are easily and often confused either because of
translation issues or simple misunderstandings. The points I’ve included here
come from many years of experience helping people learn English and
analyzing the most common errors that are made.
This book is not a complete guide to all aspects of grammar. There are
lots of grammar books that cover “everything.”
SECTION 2 –
IMPORTANT GRAMMAR
TERMS
Verb, Noun, Adjective, Adverb, etc.
Here are the basic grammar terms and phrases that I use in this book. These
are good to know when you need to explain something, but you don't know a
particular word.
Verb
A verb is a word that indicates an action or a state.
Some examples of verbs that indicate actions are go, eat, take,
and do.
Let’s go to the beach.
I eat toast every morning.
Take a pen and some paper.
Some examples of verbs that indicate states are be, see, feel, and
recognize.
I am happy to see you.
I feel tired. I think I’ll take a nap.
I didn’t recognize you with your new hair style.
Noun
A noun is a word that indicates a person, place, or thing.
Countable nouns are words that represent things that you can
count using numbers.
Countable nouns can be singular, which means the
word represents one single thing, like pen, desk, car,
and dog.
I have a pen.
His car is blue.
What kind of dog is this?
Countable nouns can be plural, which means the word
represents more than one thing, like pens, desks, cars,
and dogs.
I buy pens online.
How many desks do we need?
Dogs are so cute!
Uncountable nouns are words that represent abstract ideas and
things you can’t count using numbers, like love, information,
water, and air.
Love is a wonderful thing in life.
Can you give me some information?
I drink a lot of water every day.
Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes a noun and indicates the characteristics
of that noun.
Adjectives include objective words like colors, sizes, and shapes.

Some examples of these adjectives are blue, big, and round.
It’s a blue sofa.
I have a big coffee mug.
The round table is best for the meeting.
Adjectives also include subjunctive words like appearance,
thought, or feeling. Some examples of these adjectives are
beautiful, kind, and exciting.
She’s a beautiful woman.
A kind man helped me cross the road.
That was a very exciting concert last night.
Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, and another adverb.
Many adverbs are formed from adjectives and their spelling ends in LY.
Adverbs that modify verbs indicate how the action happens.

Jack walks slowly, but he talks quickly.
I will seriously consider your request.
She spoke kindly to the children.
Adverbs that modify adjectives indicate the degree of that

adjective.
It’s very cold.
She is amazingly nice.
It was a blazingly hot summer day.
Adverbs that modify other adverbs indicate the degree of that
adverb.
I ran this race more quickly than I did the last race.
She held the pencil quite delicately when she drew
the picture.
I very quietly told her that I had to leave.
Preposition
A preposition is a word that comes before a noun and indicates direction,
location, time, etc.
Let’s go to the park tomorrow.

The pen is on the table.
I woke up at 5am this morning.
Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase contains a preposition followed by a determiner and a
noun.
Please put the paper in this box.

Joe lives down the street from the bookshop.
If we stand under that tree, we can escape from the rain.
Gerund
A gerund is an ing verb that is used as or functions as a noun. A gerund can
be the subject or the object of a verb.
Listening to jazz helps me relax.

I really like cooking.
Do you prefer skiing or snowboarding?
Infinitive
An infinitive is to plus a verb. Like a gerund, an infinitive can be the subject
or the object of a verb.
To listen to jazz is to experience the soul of music.

I really like to cook.
If you have a chance to see Jack, ask him to call me.
Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that is used to combine two sentences into one
sentence. Some examples of conjunctions are and, or, and but.
We went to the mall and I bought a new suit.

You can have a room with dinner or you can reserve a room with
dinner and breakfast.
Henry works on the weekends, but he never works overtime.
Determiner
A determiner is a word that comes before a noun and identifies which noun
we are talking about. Some examples of determiners are a/an, the, my, his,
etc.
Today I saw a dog and a cat.

The dog was brown and the cat was tiger striped.
Has anyone seen my pen?
SECTION 3 –GRAMMAR
WORDS AND PHRASES
AGO VS. BEFORE VS. IN
VS. AFTER VS. LATER
Common mistakes:
1. (NG) I am going to Paris two weeks later.

a. (OK) I am going to Paris in two weeks.
2. (NG) We went to Paris two weeks before.
a. (OK) We went to Paris two weeks ago.
Grammar words and phrases in context

I travel a lot for business. A month ago I was in Boston, and a week before
that I was in Montreal. Canada is nice. I’m planning to go back there in two
weeks for a meeting and then two days later I have to go to Miami. After
that, I don’t have any travel plans until next year.
Ago
We use ago to talk about a point in past time that is related to now. In other
words, ago relates to the present moment in time.
1. Tom came here two years ago. (It means, Tom came here two
years before now.)
2. Five years ago, I went to Mexico City.
3. I saw Brad a week ago in a deli.
Before
We use before to talk about a point in past or future time that is related to
another point in time, but not now. We often use before that, to indicate the
time we are referring to. Before does not relate to now.
1. Tom came here two years ago. Before that, he had never been to
the USA. (This means Tom came here two years ago. Before that
or before two years ago, he had never been to the USA.)
2. In June I’m going to Cancun. Before that, I need to renew my
passport.
3. I saw Brad a week ago in a deli. Before that, I saw him in a
supermarket in New Jersey.
Ago relates to now, but before relates to another point in time, not now.
In
We use in to talk about a point in future time that is related to now.
1. I’ll be finished with work in an hour. (“In an hour” means one

hour from now.)
2. In three weeks, my friend is coming to New York.
3. I’m going to Cancun in two months.
After
We use after to talk about a point in past or future time that is related to
another point in time, but not now. Like before, we often use after that to
indicate the time we’re referring to. Keep in mind, after does not relate to
now.
1. I saw Brad a week ago in a deli. After that, we went to a café and
had coffee. (It means, first, one week ago, I met Brad in the deli.
After I met him, we went to a café and had coffee.)
2. In June, I am going to Cancun. After I come back, I will start
planning my next trip.
3. After I finish work, I’m going to go straight home.
We also use later to talk about a point in past or future time that is related to
another point in time, but not now. We usually put a time period before later.
You can say things like a week later, two days later, a month later, and so
on.
1. I saw Brad a week ago in a deli. Two days later, we went to a

café and had coffee.
2. In June, I went to Cancun. A week later I was in Brazil.
3. I got home at 9pm last night and an hour later I was asleep.
ALL VS. EVERY VS. EACH
Common mistakes:
1. (NG) All car has four wheels.

a. (OK) All cars have four wheels.
2. (NG) Every cars have for wheels.
a. (OK) Every car has four wheels.
3. (NG) Every of my friends likes pizza.
a. (OK) All of my friends like pizza.

I guess you could say I’m a pizzaholic. All my friends like pizza too and, in
fact, every one of my friends can eat a lot of pizza in one sitting. Each of
them has a favorite pizza shop, but we all like the old shop named Frank’s
Pizza in our neighborhood. And I love all kinds of pizza; Neapolitan,
Sicilian, Chicago style, all of them are ok for me. Toppings? Well, I like
every topping except anchovy. Those little fish are too salty for me.
All
We use all plus a plural noun or uncountable noun when we talk about things
in general. All cars means all cars in the world in general.
1. All cars have four wheels.

2. All people need air and water to survive.
3. All buildings have an entrance.
We use all of plus a determiner when we refer to a particular or specific thing

or group of things. You can say things like all of the, all of my, all of these,
all of those, etc.
1. All of the cars in that shop are very expensive.

2. All of my friends like to eat pizza.
3. All of those buildings were built in the 19th Century.
In conversational English, we can also use all without “of” plus a determiner
when we refer to a particular or specific thing or group of things. You can say
things like all the, all my, all these, all those, etc.
1. All the cars in that shop are very expensive.

2. All my friends like to eat pizza.
3. All those buildings were built in the 19th Century.
We use every plus a singular noun when we talk about a particular or specific
thing that both the speaker/writer and listener/reader are familiar with.
1. Every car in that shop is very expensive.

2. Every person on earth needs air and water to survive.
3. Every building on this campus has an entrance.
We use also use each plus a singular noun when we talk about a particular or
specific thing that both the speaker/writer and listener/reader are familiar
with.
1. Each pen has the company logo on it.
2. Each student will have an opportunity to talk to the teacher.
3. They make each cup by hand.
The basic difference between all, every, and each is that we use all with a
plural noun and each and every with a singular noun. Next, let’s look at
every and each.
In many general situations, we use each and every with the same meaning.
This is most common when we talk about time.
1. Jack works hard each day (or) Jack works hard every day.
2. Each year, we get older and wiser (or) Every year, we get older
and wiser.
3. Each time I see her I get happy (or) Every time I see her I get
happy.
However, we generally tend to use each when we think of things individually

or separately. There may be a group of things or people, and we use each
when we talk about them on an individual basis.
1. Each pen has the company logo on it. This means, the pens, one
by one, have the company logo.
2. Each student will have an opportunity to talk to the teacher. This
means, the students, one by one, can talk to the teacher.
3. They make each cup by hand. This means, the cups, one by one,
are handmade.
However, we tend to use every when we think of things as part of a group,

similar to the way we use all.
1. Every person on the tour receives a hat and a rain poncho. This
means, all of the people on the tour will receive a hat and a rain
poncho.
2. Every guest at the party had fun. This means, all of the people
who came to the party had fun.
3. Every player on the team trained hard for the game. This means
the whole team trained hard.
We also use each and not every when we talk about two things:
1. The child held a cookie in each hand.
2. Married life is sometimes not easy. Each person needs to
compromise at some point.
Finally, we also use each and not every before the preposition, of.
1. Each of these pens has the company logo on it.
2. Each of you should follow me.
ALMOST VS. MOST VS.
MOSTLY
Common mistakes:
1. (NG) Almost people like pizza.

a. (OK) Almost all people like pizza
b. (OK) Most people like pizza.
2. (NG) I almost drink tea, but sometimes I drink coffee.
a. (OK) I mostly drink tea, but sometimes I drink coffee.

Sometimes the trains in this city are unreliable. I was almost late today
because the trains were delayed. Most days the trains are on time and delays
mostly happen in the winter. Almost ninety percent of my coworkers live
near the office, so they don’t have to worry about delayed trains like I do.
Almost everyone on the train this morning was in a panic when the train just
stopped running too. The announcement said that almost all of the train lines
were experiencing delays. Yes, it’s a typical day in New York!
Almost
Almost means not quite or very close or very near 100% or nearly. There are
four rules for using almost:
First, we use almost plus a past verb. I almost dropped my book means I was
close to dropping my book, but I didn’t drop it.
1. I almost missed my train today. The train leaves at 7:18, and I

got to the station at 7:15am.
2. When I slipped in the café, I almost spilled my coffee. Luckily I
didn’t.
3. I had to work late last night, so I almost missed Jack’s party.
Luckily the party was still going on when I arrived.
Next, we use almost plus a number. Usually this number is related to time,
distance, or other measurement. Almost 10 means about 9:50 or 9:55.
1. It’s almost 11pm. We should go home.

2. I jogged almost 10 miles this morning.
3. Jane’s baby is almost two years old.
We use almost plus words like everywhere, everyone, everything. Almost

everyone means not everyone, but close to everyone.
1. Almost everyone at the party drank wine.

2. In Tokyo, convenience stores are almost everywhere.
3. Almost everything was damaged in the earthquake, except my
antique clock.
Lastly, we use almost plus all plus noun to talk about nearly 100% of some
thing.
1. Almost all Americans like pizza.

2. Almost all of my friends speak two languages.
3. I have tried almost all of the dishes in this restaurant. They are
so delicious!
Most
Most has the same meaning as almost all:
1. Most Americans like pizza. →　Almost all Americans like

pizza.
2. Most of my friends can speak two languages. →　Almost all of
my friends can speak two languages.
We use most plus a plural noun to talk about general things.
1. Most Americans like pizza.

2. Most people like to go to the movies.
3. Most airlines charge for bags and food these days.
We use most plus of plus a determiner plus a plural noun to talk about
specific things.
1. Most of my friends like pizza.

2. Most of the people in my office speak two languages.
3. Most of the cars in NYC are dirty.
Mostly
You can use mostly to talk about actions you do or actions that happen most
of the time:
1. I like tea, but I mostly drink coffee.

2. We mostly eat in, but we go to a restaurant on special occasions.
3. In my free time, I mostly watch movies.
4. It mostly snows in January and February here.
5. Stores mostly sell a lot of products before Christmas.
ALREADY VS. STILL VS.
YET
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I don’t still know what I need to do.

a. (OK) I still don’t know what I need to do.
2. (NG) It was raining yesterday and it rained yet today.
a. (OK) It was raining yesterday and it is still raining
today.

I have a lot of things to do in the office this morning. I’ve already checked
the email and messages, but I haven’t replied yet. I’ll do that soon. I checked
the email on the way to the office because I’m expecting a message from one
of my clients, but he still has not contacted me. I hope he does so today.
Already
We use already when we want to show that something happened before a
certain time. Already is an adverb, so it goes before a verb or after the be
verb.
1. Jack started working here two years ago, but he is already a

manager.
2. We had already finished dinner when Jack arrived.
3. It’s already December. Wow, time really flies.
It is common to use already with the present perfect tense.
1. I’m not hungry now because I’ve already eaten.

2. I’ve already seen that movie, so please choose a different one.
Note that in spoken American English, it is acceptable to use already with
the simple past tense.
1. I’m not hungry now because I already ate.

2. I already saw that movie, so please choose a different one.
Still
We use still when we want to show that some situation started in the past and
continues until now. We use still in positive sentences and questions.
1. It was warm yesterday, and it is still warm today.

2. I was born in New York, and I still live here.
3. I remember you played tennis in high school. Do you still play?
Yet
We use yet when we want to refer to something that didn’t happen before
now, but we expect, think, or know it will happen in the future. We use yet in
negative sentences and questions.
1. It’s warm outside, but it’s not July yet.

2. My friends tell me that I haven’t grown up yet.
3. I went to Vietnam once, but I haven’t been back yet.
Yet generally comes at the end of a sentence, but it is possible for yet to
come between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.
1. I haven’t yet found a good pizza shop in this town.

2. I can’t yet figure out how to solve this math problem. Can you
help me?
3. I didn't yet call my mother. I’ll do it when I get back home after
work.
We also use the pattern have yet to followed by a verb to mean haven't yet.
1. I have yet to find a good pizza shop in this town.

2. I have yet to figure out how to solve this math problem. Can you
help me?
3. I have yet to eat dinner. I’m so hungry!
ALTHOUGH VS. THOUGH
VS. EVEN THOUGH
Common Mistakes
1. (NG) Even though rain, I went to the beach.

a. (OK) Even though it rained, I went to the beach.
2. (NG) I went to the beach. It rained, although.
a. (OK) I went to the beach. It rained, though.
3. (NG) Although rain, I went to the beach.
a. (OK) Although it rained, I went to the beach.

I love the beach and although I live a little far from the shore, I love to go
there. I’m going to go to the beach today even though it’s raining a little. I’ll
probably just sit in my car and look at the waves. That's ok for me, though.
As long as I can experience the beach, I’m happy.
Although
We use although before a subject/verb as a conjunction to mean but. When
using although at the beginning, separate the introductory clause with a
comma.
1. Although it rained a lot, I had a good time in London.

2. I couldn’t get a ticket for the baseball game although I went
online before the sale started.
3. Jack didn't make the sale although he talked to the customer for
two hours.
Even though is a stronger form of although and is also used before a

subject/verb as a conjunction to mean but. When using even though at the
beginning, separate the introductory clause with a comma.
1. Even though it rained a lot, I had a good time in London.
2. I couldn’t get a ticket for the baseball game even though I went
online before the sale started.
3. Jack didn't make the sale even though he talked to the customer
for two hours.
It’s also possible to use though, which is a weaker form of although.

Generally, though is used at the beginning of a sentence, not in the middle,
like although and even though. As well, when using though at the
beginning, separate the introductory clause with a comma.
1. Though it rained a lot, I had a good time in London.

2. Though I went online before the sale started, I couldn’t get a
ticket for the baseball game.
3. Though he talked to the customer for two hours, Jack didn't
make the sale.
In conversational English, we sometimes put though at the end of the second

sentence.
1. It rained a lot and it was cold. We had a nice vacation though.

2. I went online before the sale started. I couldn’t get a ticket
though.
3. Jack didn't make the sale. He talked to the customer for two
hours though.
ANOTHER AND OTHER
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I know another people who like pizza.

a. (OK) I know other people who like pizza.
2. (NG) Don’t you anymore like that guy?
a. (OK) Don’t you like that guy anymore?

I like to listen to a lot of different kinds of music. Recently, I’ve been getting
into some jazz from the 1950s and ’60s. I know there are other kinds of jazz,
but I really like musicians like Charlie Parker and Stan Getz. Stan Getz plays
bebop, but in the 1960s he got interested in another kind of jazz – the bossa
nova. This was a very interesting and new sound, different from the other
kinds of popular music in the 1960s. Even if you like other kinds of music,
you’ll probably enjoy that sound.
Another
Another can be broken down into two words, an and other. An means one,
like an apple means one apple. So another means one other. We use
another plus a singular, countable noun. Another has the meaning of one
more or additional.
1. Let's meet another day.

2. I'd like another piece of cake.
3. This was a productive meeting, but I think we should have
another one tomorrow.
Another is also used to mean a different thing or person than was just
mentioned.
1. I have an appointment at 2, so can we meet at another time?

2. This sweater is too tight. Can I try another size?
3. I heard Johnny’s wife left him for another man.
Other also has the meaning of something different from what was just
mentioned. First of all, we can use other with a plural noun.
1. I like bebop, but I know there are other kinds of jazz.

2. There are other things to drink besides coffee.
3. Do you think I look like Johnny Depp? Other people have told
me that too!
We also use other to talk about something specific. You can use the other
followed by a specific noun, and that noun can be singular, plural, or
uncountable
1. I have two brothers. One of them lives in Canada. The other

brother lives in Japan.
2. I go to school on Monday and Thursday. I work on the other
days of the week.
3. This fruit is ready to eat, but the other fruit is not ripe yet.
It’s also possible to use phrases like one other, a few other, some other, and
so on.
1. This is a nice teacup. I have one other cup in the back room that
I can show you.
2. After I finish this task, I have a few other tasks I need to do.
3. There are ten boxes here, and some other boxes in the living
room that need to be moved.
ANY MORE VS. ANY
LONGER VS. NO LONGER
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Jack lives in Brooklyn no longer.

a. (OK) Jack doesn’t live in Brooklyn anymore.
2. (NG) Don’t you anymore like that guy?
a. (OK) Don’t you like that guy anymore?

Tommy is on a new healthy diet so he quit drinking coffee last week. It’s
interesting that he no longer goes for a coffee break in the mornings. This
means I won’t see him in the break room at 10:30 anymore. He also said he
won’t be joining us for lunch any longer because he has a very strict meal
plan from his doctor. I hope that helps him lose weight and feel better, but I’ll
miss hanging out with him!
Any More (also written as anymore)
We use any more with a negative sentence or a question. Any more comes
at the end of a sentence.
1. Jack doesn't live in Brooklyn any more. He moved to

Manhattan.
2. You don’t eat meat anymore? I didn’t know you became a
vegetarian.
3. That restaurant isn’t open on Sundays anymore. That’s a shame.
Any Longer
We also use any longer with a negative sentence or a question. Any longer
is a more formal sounding phrase than any more, but the meaning is the
same.
1. Jack doesn't live in Brooklyn any longer. He moved to
Manhattan.
2. You don’t eat meat any longer? I didn’t know you became a
vegetarian.
3. That restaurant isn’t open on Sundays any longer. That’s a
shame.
No Longer
We use no longer with a positive sentence or a question. No longer is also a
more formal sounding phrase than any more, but the meaning is the same.
No longer comes before the verb or after the “be” verb, like most other
adverbs.
1. Jack no longer lives in Brooklyn. He moved to Manhattan.

2. You no longer eat meat? I didn’t know you became a vegetarian.
3. That restaurant is no longer open on Sundays. That’s a shame.
ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I have pen.

a. (OK) I have a pen.
2. (NG) I saw a dog. A dog is cute.
a. (OK) I saw a dog. The dog is cute.
Special Note
The topic of articles (a/an, and the) is vast and a detailed study of articles is
beyond the scope of this book. One reason for this is that the rules for using
articles are many and, in addition to the rules, there are almost as many
exceptions to the rules. That said, however, I would like to provide some
basic ideas, guidelines, and rules of thumb about how we use articles.
A Singular Countable Noun Never Travels Alone
As mentioned in the first chapter, English has both countable and
uncountable nouns. When considering which article (a/an, or the) to use, the
first rule of thumb is this: A singular countable noun never travels alone.
Say that sentence to yourself a few more times. A singular countable noun
never travels alone.
Let’s look at the noun pen. Pen is a singular countable noun. You can say
things like:
I have a pen.
I have the pen you gave me.
I have my pen.
I have your pen.
I have his pen.
I have a nice old blue pen.
But, I can’t say, I have pen.

That’s because the word pen is a singular countable noun, and before a
singular countable noun you need to have some kind of determiner. A
determiner could be an article, like a or the, or a pronoun, like my, your, or
his. Well, what about an adjective? Can I say, I have blue pen? No. That’s
because even if you do have an adjective before a singular countable noun,
you still need to have a determiner like a or the.
One Of Many
The article a means one of many. If you want to write something, you need a
pen. You need a pen. This means that there are many pens in the world and
you need one of them in order to write something. If you want to write
something, you need a pen.
Not A Particular Or Specific One
The main difference between a and the is that the refers to something
particular or specific. On the other hand, a refers to something in general. A
banana is yellow. I am not talking about any particular or specific banana
here. I’m just saying that in general, A banana is yellow. Compare these two
sentences:
1. A banana is yellow
2. The banana on the table is yellow.
In the first sentence, I’m talking about bananas in general and not any
particular or specific banana. A banana is yellow. But in the second sentence,
I’m talking about a particular or specific banana – the banana that is on the
table. That’s why I say, the banana on the table is yellow.
The First and Second Mention
When we mention a noun for the first time, we use the article a. I have a pen
and a pencil. There are many pens and pencils in the world and I have one of
each.
I have a pen and a pencil. The pen is blue and the pencil is yellow. You’ll
notice that the second time I mentioned the pen and the pencil I used the:
I have a pen and a pencil. The pen is blue and the pencil is yellow. Why?
Well, in English, the first time that you mention a noun, you’re talking about
something in general. I have a pen and a pencil. But the second time that you
mention it, it becomes something specific in the conversation. The pen is
blue and the pencil is yellow. I use the pen and the pencil because I am
talking about the specific pen and pencil I have.
There Is Only One
We use the when the thing we are talking about is the only one thing. We do
this even if it is the first time that you mention the noun.
1. The sun and the moon are in the sky.

2. The president of this country has a very difficult job to do.
3. The man at the front desk is the receptionist.
AS LONG AS VS.
PROVIDED / PROVIDING
Common mistakes
1. (NG) As long it’s not raining, we can go to the beach.

a. (OK) As long as it’s not raining, we can go to the
beach.
2. (NG) Provided to it’s not raining, we can go to the beach.
a. (OK) Provided it’s not raining, we can go to the
beach.

The company has announced a new dress policy for casual Fridays. As long
as you look neat and clean and providing that you do not have an
appointment with a customer, you can wear casual clothes on Fridays.
As long as
As long as is used as a conjunction to show a condition. As long as has a
similar meaning to if. As long as can come at the beginning or middle of the
sentence. When using as long as at the beginning, separate the clauses with a
comma.
1. As long as it’s not raining, we can go to the beach. (or) We can

go to the beach as long as it’s not raining.
2. You can pick up that antique doll as long as you are careful with
it.
3. As long as I can hear the music, I don’t really care where I sit at
the concert.
Provided / Providing
Provided and providing are also used as conjunctions to show a condition.
There is no difference between provided and providing, and these words are
a more formal version of as long as. In formal English writing and speaking,
provided and providing can be followed by that.
1. Provided (that) it’s not raining, we can go to the beach. (or) We

can go to the beach providing it’s not raining.
2. You can pick up that antique doll providing (that) you are
careful with it.
3. Provided (that) I can hear the music, I don’t really care where I
sit at the concert.
By the way, in casual American English, as long as is used in a similar way

as since. However, providing is not used in this way.
1. As long as you’re coming to New York, let’s get together for

dinner.
2. As long as we are in the mall, let’s see if we can find a nice
present for Jack’s birthday.
3. As long as you are cleaning out the garage, you might as well
clean out the storage shed too.
AT IN ON FOR PLACES
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I went to a restaurant at Brooklyn.

a. (OK) I went to a restaurant in Brooklyn.
2. (NG) He works in Madison Avenue.
a. (OK) He works on Madison Avenue.

I work at Happy English. The office is on Madison Avenue in Midtown.
That’s in New York City. I am usually in the office by eight-thirty every
morning. You can usually find me at my desk, when I am not working with
students.
We use in when we talk about a place with a border, like in a country, in a
city, in a town, in a county, and in a neighborhood.
1. Vincent lives in France.

2. Jeff spent a week in London on business.
3. Jeremy lives in Brooklyn, but she works in Manhattan.
4. We went to a nice restaurant in Chinatown.
We also use in when we talk about a place with walls or fences, like in a
park, in a building, in a box.
1. It’s a nice day. Let’s have a picnic in the park.

2. Her husband works in an Art Deco building.
3. We have a few bottles of wine in the refrigerator.
We use on when we talk about a street, but not the address, just the street
name itself.
1. His office is on Madison Avenue.

2. There are a lot of interesting places on Broadway.
3. There used to be many discount shops on Canal Street.
We use both in and on when we talk about directions (north, east, south, and
west), but the grammar is different depending on how those direction words
are used.
When north, east, south, and west are used as nouns, we use in:
1. New York is in the east and California in the west.

2. It’s cold in the north, especially in the winter.
3. People in the south like to eat spicy foods.
But when north, east, south, and west are used as adjectives, we use on:
1. Jeff lives on the west side of town.

2. There are many flags on the south side of the building.
3. James’ office is on the upper West side.
We use at when we talk about an address. An address contains a number and

a street name.
1. His office is at 475 Madison Avenue.

2. Joe works at 500 Broadway.
3. I live at 333 Canal Street.
We also use at when we talk about a particular point on a street or in a town.
1. His office is at the corner of Madison and 40th St.

2. I think Jane lives at the end of this block.
But we use in when we talk about the middle of something.
1. My office is in the middle of the block.

2. There is a lake in the middle of the park.
We also use at to talk about one specific point during a trip.
1. This train will make stops at Lincoln Center, Times Square, and
SOHO.
2. I stopped off at the coffee shop on the way to my office.
3. When I went from NYC to Sao Paolo, I stopped at Miami to
change planes.
We use at when we want to refer to one specific point. This could be a point
in time, or a physical point in a place. Often this physical point is an object:
1. Jack is at his desk. His desk is the specific point or object of

Jack’s location
2. I waited at the bus stop for twenty minutes.
3. Grandma is knitting at the window.
4. The teacher is at the whiteboard.
We also have some set phrases with in and at that have a specific meaning:
1. Jack is in the hospital. He is a patient there.

2. The bank robber is finally in jail. He is incarcerated.
3. Jane was in bed until noon. She was sleeping or relaxing.
4. I was at work all night last night. I was working in my office.
5. I plan to stay at home today. I won’t go out today.
6. Jenny is at college, so her sister has their bedroom to herself.
Jenny is living in her college dormitory.
7. The cruise includes 6 nights at sea traveling on the ocean.
We also use at to talk about events:
1. I had a great time at the concert last night.

2. I met Jack at the party last weekend.
3. Cathy made a great presentation at the meeting yesterday.
We use in when we talk about a town, a city, or country:
1. Jane lives in Hartsdale, a suburb of New York City.

2. I live in New York.
3. New York City is the largest city in the USA.
We use at before a school or company:
1. I work at Happy English.

2. Jack got his MBA at Harvard.
3. Nick works at Google.
AT THE STORE VS. IN THE
STORE
There is often confusion among English learners about when to say at a place
or in a place. In the following section, we are going to look at the basic
tendency we have about this issue and some special case examples.
We often use both at and in to talk about position or location. Generally the
meaning is the same. Both of these sentences tell us Jack’s location:
1. Jack is at his office.

2. Jack is in his office.
So, when we speak in a general way, we can use either at or in to indicate the
location. However, both at and in have some specific uses and meanings
when you need to be less general and more specific.
We use at when we talk about a store or a building. At gives us the nuance
about what usually happens in that store or building. Notice the verb is not
the be verb but a verb that also indicates the usual action in the location. We
tend to use at this way.
1. I bought this shirt on sale at the department store.

2. Jack had a coffee at a nice café on Madison Ave.
3. Let’s study at the library after class.
I think that when we don’t care about the action, but just want to indicate the
location using the be verb, we often use in. We tend to use in this way.
1. I was in the department store yesterday.

2. Jack is in a café on Madison Ave.
3. We have been in the library for three hours. Let’s go home.
Again, this is what we tend to do when using at and in.
AT IN ON FOR TIME
Common mistakes
1. (NG) My birthday is on June.

a. (OK) My birthday is in June.
2. (NG) Let’s meet on next Tuesday.
a. (OK) Let’s meet next Tuesday.

Jack and Jenny got married in spring in the 1990s. Their son Joe was born in
1992. In fact, he was born at 4pm on June 10th. That’s the same day that Jack
and Jenny got married! Jack was born in the last century, so his thinking is a
bit old-fashioned.
We use at for clock time.
1. Let’s meet at 9 o'clock.

2. Let’s meet at 5:30pm.
3. Let’s meet at *noon.
4. Let’s meet at *midnight.
5. Let’s meet at sunrise.
*Keep in mind that noon means 12pm and midnight means 12am or 0:00.
We use on for days and dates
1. Let’s go on Saturday.
2. Let’s go on Mondays.
3. Let’s go on June 10th.
4. Let’s go on February 14th.
5. Let’s go on my birthday.
We use in for everything else that relates to time: months, seasons, years, and all other longer time
periods.
1. I was there in September

2. I was there in the winter.
3. I was there in 1998.
4. I was there in the 1990s
5. I was there in the 20th century.
We have some standard expressions of time with in and at that you need to
remember.
1. I eat breakfast in the morning.

2. I eat lunch in the afternoon.
3. I eat dinner in the evening.
4. I eat snacks at night.
When you say last, next, every, this…don't also use at, in, on.
1. I saw Jack last week. (not in last week)

2. He's coming back to NY next Monday. (not on next Tuesday)
3. I go ice skating every winter. (not in every winter)
4. I can see you this evening. (not in this evening)
AT THE END VS. IN THE
END
Common mistakes
1. (NG) In the end of the day, we went to a wine bar.

a. (OK) At the end of the day, we went to a wine bar.
2. (NG) I looked in a lot of shops for a white sweater. At the end, I
just bought one online.
a. (OK) I looked in a lot of shops for a white sweater. In
the end, I just bought one online.

At the end of the day, I like to relax while listening to some music. I listen to
classical music because it’s relaxing. I tried listening to all kinds of music,
but in the end, classical music is the best one for me. Bach is my favorite
composer, and even though a lot of his music is written in a minor key, which
is like a sad mood, some pieces change to a major key at the end.
At the end means the time or point that something finishes. We usually use
at the end plus of plus a noun. The noun here is the thing that finishes.
1. At the end of the day, I like to relax while listening to some

music.
2. I heard that the hero defeated the bad guys at the end of the
movie.
3. You can find a nice coffee shop at the end of this street.
In the end means finally or lastly. We often use in the end to introduce an
idea or a topic that came after a sequence of events or after a number of other
choices have been considered. The phrase in the end can come at the
beginning or at the end of a sentence.
1. We looked in many stores to find a nice sofa. In the end, we
bought one at the furniture shop at the mall.
2. I couldn’t decide what to do last weekend, and in the end, I just
stayed home.
3. Jack spent several months considering which apartment to rent
and looked all over the New York City area. He decided to move
to Brooklyn in the end.
BE GOING TO VS. WILL
VS. OTHER FUTURE
PATTERNS
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Maybe I am going to go to the beach tomorrow.

a. (OK) I am going to go to the beach tomorrow.
2. (NG) Jenny will see a movie tonight.
a. (OK) Jenny is going to see a movie tonight.

I am going to go to Boston this weekend. I will be meeting my friend Jack
there. I hope the weather will be nice. I’ve got tickets for the baseball game
and I am going to the game with Jack too.
Be going to
We use be going to followed by a verb when there is a set plan, an
appointment, etc.:
1. A friend of mine is going to get married this weekend.

2. I am going to go to the beach this weekend.
3. Jenny is going to see a movie tonight.
Be careful! It sounds strange to use maybe with be going to:
1. Maybe I am going to go to the movies with Betty.
That’s because maybe means perhaps or I’m not sure and it sounds strange if
you are not sure about a set plan!
Gonna
We usually pronounce going to in be going to as gonna.
1. A friend of mine is gonna get married this weekend.

2. I’m gonna go to the beach this weekend.
3. Jenny’s gonna see a movie tonight.
Keep in mind that gonna is just used in spoken English. We don’t use gonna
in written English.
Will
In general, we use will to make a prediction or guess, and/or when there is
not a set plan:
1. Someday, I will find true love….

2. I think I will move to Florida when I retire.
3. Do you think it will rain today?
Since will is used when there is not a definite plan, we can use maybe,
perhaps, I think, etc.… with will:
1. Jenny: What are you doing this weekend?

Jack: I don’t know. Maybe I will clean the garage if the weather
is not too hot.
2. Perhaps it will rain tomorrow.
3. I think Jack will go to the party. He likes parties.
We also use will when we make a serious promise to someone, like this:
1. I will love you forever.

2. I will be by your side until the end of time.
3. I will work hard on this project until its successful conclusion.
We also use will when we decide or offer to do something at the same

moment we are speaking.
1. When the phone rings in the office, and you decide at that
moment to answer the phone, you can say, “I’ll get it.”
2. When you hear someone ring the doorbell, and you decide at that
moment to open the door, you can say, “I’ll answer the door.”
3. When the teacher asks the class, “Who wants to give their speech
first?” you can say, “I’ll go first.
We also use will when we talk about itineraries and official arrangements.
1. (train announcement) We will soon arrive at Tokyo station.

2. The president will meet with the prime minister at 4pm, and then
they will attend the dinner reception.
We can also use the present progressive tense and the simple present
tense to talk about the future.
We use the present progressive tense for the future when we talk about
something we have already made plans or arrangement to do. Remember, the
structure of the present progressive is be + ING:
1. A friend of mine is getting married this weekend.

2. I am going to the beach this weekend.
3. Jenny is seeing a movie tonight.
This is the exact same meaning as:
1. A friend of mine is going to get married this weekend.

2. I am going to go to the beach this weekend.
3. Jenny is going to see a movie tonight.
We use the simple present tense for the future when we talk about
schedules, timetables, and future events that have a fixed starting or ending
time:
1. The wedding reception starts at 9pm.

2. The hotel told me that check-in begins at 2.
3. The flight to Boston departs at noon.
BECAUSE VS. BECAUSE
OF
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Because of Tuesday, I had to work late.

a. (OK) Because it’s Tuesday, I had to work late.
2. (NG) Because the rain, we cancelled the golf game.
a. (OK) Because of the rain, we cancelled the golf game.
3. (NG) Because of late, I had to go home.
a. (OK) Because it is late, I had to go home.

I love music. I guess that’s because my dad was a big music fan. Unlike most
American dads who like watching sports on TV, my dad preferred listening
to jazz from the 1940s. I think because of that, I’ve become a jazz fan
myself.
Because
We use because plus a subject and verb. When because comes at the
beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause containing because.
When because comes in the middle of the sentence, you don’t need a comma
before because.
1. Because it was getting late, I went home.

2. Tom must be leaving the office because he’s putting on his
jacket.
3. I like that restaurant because the food is good and the prices are
reasonable.
Because of
We use because of plus a noun. Like because, when because of comes at the
beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause containing because
of. When because of comes in the middle of the sentence, you don’t need a
comma before because of.
1. Because of the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

2. Because of the time, I went home.
3. She was unable to eat the cake because of her diet.
Be careful about one point. Don't use because of plus a time word. For
example, you can’t say, “Because of October, the weather is getting cooler.”
Instead, you can say, “Because it is October, the weather is getting cooler.”
BORED VS. BORING (ED
AND ING PARTICIPLE
ADJECTIVES)
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I was very exciting at the party.

a. (OK) I was very excited at the party.
2. (NG) The meeting was bored because it was so long.
a. (OK) The meeting was boring because it was so long.

New York is a very exciting city. I’m sure that if you came here, you would
be amazed by the tall buildings, fascinating musicals, and interesting
people. I am sure you would be impressed with the variety of restaurants in
the Big Apple too. You might find that doing a lot of walking here is tiring,
but you’ll never feel bored.
Bored (ED Participle Adjectives)
Words like bored, excited, interested, amazed, disappointed, etc. describe
people and how a person feels about something. We generally use the be
verb or feel with these adjectives and the subject of the sentence is a person,
not a thing. Remember, people are ed!
1. I felt tired yesterday so I went to bed early.

2. I’m interested in jazz.
3. Jack was excited when he won the lottery!
Boring (ING Participle Adjectives)

Words like boring, exciting, interesting, amazing, disappointing, etc.
describe things and the reason a person has a certain feeling about
something. We generally use the be verb with these adjectives and the subject
of the sentence is a thing or situation, not a person. Remember, things are
ing!
1. My job is tiring. I need a vacation.

2. I think jazz is very interesting.
3. Winning the lottery is very exciting!
Here are some more examples using both types of adjectives:
1. The party was boring, so I was bored.

2. I am so excited because this roller coaster is exciting.
3. This lesson is interesting, so I am very interested in it.
We can also use ING participle adjectives to describe a person’s character or

personality:
1. The CEO is an interesting man. ←　His personality is

interesting, so he is interesting.
2. My history teacher was boring.　←　His personality is boring,
so he is boring.
Irregular participle adjectives

Not every set of participle adjectives follows the ED or ING pattern. Here are
some common exceptions:
scared – scary
1. I was scared because the movie was scary.
impressed – impressive
1. His speech was impressive, so I was impressed with it.
stressed – stressful
1. Driving in rush hour traffic is so stressful. I am always stressed

when I have to do it.
offended – offensive
1. Of course, I was offended by what he said. It was very offensive.
BOTH VS. EITHER VS.
NEITHER
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I ate the both cookies.

a. (OK) I ate both of the cookies.
3. (NG) Jack can’t swim neither.

a. (OK) Jack can’t swim either.
4. (NG) Neither he wrote nor called us.
a. (OK) He neither wrote nor called us.
5. (NG) Neither Jack nor Tom will not attend the meeting.
a. (OK) Neither Jack nor Tom will attend the meeting.

There is going to be a big meeting in Chicago next week and we are trying to
decide who we can send from the office. Both Jenny and Jack have too much
work to do, so neither of them can go. That leaves us with either Tommy or
Joe. I’d like to see both of them go, but it would be necessary to get the ok
from the boss for that. Well, maybe I should just go!
Both (…and)
We use both when we talk about two things together. You can use both
before a plural noun or just both by itself.
1. Both guys will attend the meeting.
2. I saw both movies a long time ago.

3. Apples and oranges? Both are good, but I prefer oranges.
We use the pattern both…and when we mention the two nouns or two
gerunds.
1. Both Jack and Tom will attend the meeting.
2. I enjoy both jogging and hiking.
3. I like to eat both apples and oranges.
We use both of with a determiner (the, my, his, your, etc.) before a noun. It’s
also possible to use only both with a determiner (without of):
1. Both of those guys will attend the meeting.

2. I saw both of the movies a long time ago.
3. Both of these cups belonged to my grandmother.
We use both of with a determiner (the, my, his, your, etc.) before a personal
pronoun (them, us, and you):
1. Both of you need to work a little harder.

2. I think both of them will attend the meeting.
3. Both of us wish you a very happy birthday.
Either (…or)
We use either as an adverb with a negative verb. In sentences like this, either
goes at the end of the sentence.
1. Jack can’t swim and I can’t either.

2. Tommy doesn’t have Jenny’s phone number? I don’t either.
3. I talked to Joe and he isn’t going either.
We use the pattern either…or when we want to talk about a choice between
two or more things. In sentences with either…or, use a positive verb.
1. Either Jack or Tom will attend the meeting.

2. I want to see either Casablanca or Titanic. They are my favorite
movies.
3. According to the menu, we can have either ice cream, pie, or
cake for dessert.
We can use the pattern either…or with a variety of words and phrases, not
just nouns.
1. We can either go shopping or see a movie.
2. We will either have to pay someone to repair this coffee maker
or just find a new one.
3. The keys are either in your jacket pocket or you left them in the
car.
Neither (…nor)
We use neither when we talk about two things that are both not possible. We
often use neither of plus a personal pronoun (them, us, and you).
1. Neither of you are working hard enough.

2. I think neither of them will attend the meeting.
3. Neither of us understood what he was talking about.
We use the pattern neither…nor when we want to talk about two negative
ideas. Whereas both…and is used to include two things, neither…nor is
used to exclude two things. We use neither…nor when we mention two
nouns or gerunds. Keep in mind, we use neither…nor with a positive verb.
1. Neither Jack nor Tom will attend the meeting.

2. I enjoy neither jogging nor hiking.
3. I eat neither apples nor oranges.
Let’s compare both…and, either…or, and neither…nor.
1. Both Jack and Tom will attend the meeting.

2. Either Jack or Tom will attend the meeting.
3. Neither Jack nor Tom will attend the meeting.
BY VS. UNTIL
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I’m going to stay in this town by next Friday.

a. (OK) I’m going to stay in this town until next Friday.
2. (NG) Do you think you can finish until 5pm?
a. (OK) Do you think you can finish by 5pm?

I’m working until 10pm tonight. I usually get to the office at 8:30am, and
stay until 9 or 10pm. Friday is my early day because I just stay in the office
until 7:30. I think these days most people usually finish work by 5 or 6pm,
but I’ve heard that in some countries, people work a lot of overtime, like
until 10 or 11pm.
By
Something finishes or ends by a certain time and that time is the deadline.
When you finish something by a certain time, day, date, etc., you complete
the action at or before the deadline. We use by with verbs that show one-time
actions or verbs that mean finishing or ending. Some examples are finish by,
end by, complete by, arrive by, start by, go by, leave by, etc. We use by plus
one point in time:
1. Please complete your essay by Friday

2. Can you finish work by 6pm tonight? If so, we can catch a
movie.
3. If we arrive at the station by 3pm, we can catch the train.
4. We have to start the meeting by 1pm if we want to finish at 5pm.
Until
Something continues or keeps going until a certain time and that time is the
deadline. When you continue something until a certain time, day, date, etc.,
you continue the action, stopping at the deadline. We use
until with verbs that show continuous actions. Some examples are continue
until, stay until, work until, have until, do until, etc. We use until plus one
point in time:
1. Please continue working on your essay until Friday.

2. I’m working until 6 tonight, so let’s try to catch a movie after
that.
3. We have until 3pm to arrive at the station to catch the train.
4. I’m going to stay until Friday, so we can have a meeting any
time this week.
We also use until in a negative sentence with verbs that show one-time
actions or verbs that mean finishing or ending. We use until plus a subject
and verb:
1. We can't finish this repair until the parts arrive.

2. Let’s not begin the meeting until Jack comes.
3. We won’t start this new marketing plan until the boss tells us to
do it.
4. The game isn’t over until it is over.
DESPITE VS. IN SPITE OF
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Despite of the rain, we went to the beach.

a. (OK) Despite the rain, we went to the beach.
2. (NG) In spite of raining, we went to the beach.
a. (OK) In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.

I love the beach, despite the weather. Even when it rains, I like to go to the
beach, sit in my car, and listen to the waves crashing on the shore as the rain
is falling. It was raining really hard last weekend, but in spite of that, I had a
nice time at the beach.
Despite and In Spite Of
Despite and in spite of both have the same meaning as although, but we can
use despite and in spite of before a noun. When despite and in spite of come
at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause containing
despite and in spite of. When despite and in spite of come in the middle of
the sentence, you don’t need a comma.
1. Despite the rain, I went to the beach.

2. I bought that watch despite the price.
3. In spite of the rain, I went to the beach.
4. I bought that watch in spite of the price.
We also use despite and in spite of before a gerund. The comma rules are the
same as those for using despite and in spite of before a noun.
1. Despite getting to the theater early, I couldn’t get a ticket.

2. I wasn’t able to pass the audition, despite practicing hard.
3. In spite of getting to the theater early, I couldn’t get a ticket.
4. I wasn’t able to pass the audition, in spite of practicing hard.
We can also use despite and in spite of before a pronoun.
1. Jack studied hard. Despite that, he didn’t get a good grade on the
exam.
2. I don’t like going to parties where I don’t know anyone, but
despite this, I went and had a nice time.
3. Tom’s wife wasn’t happy about him going to the bar, but in spite
of her, he went there.
4. We had a lot of problems building the tree house, but in spite of
them, the tree house came out great!
We can also use despite the fact (that) and in spite of the fact (that) before
a subject and verb. When using phrases like these, in conversational English,
“that” is often not used.
1. Despite the fact that I don’t like to watch sports, I had a nice
time at the stadium.
2. Bob got a good grade on his exam in spite of the fact that he
didn’t study for it.
3. I never received my order from that company despite the fact
that I paid for it.
4. In spite of the fact that I complained several times, my neighbor
continues to play loud music at night.
DURING VS. WHILE
Common mistakes
1. (NG) During working, I can’t use my iPhone.

a. (OK) During work, I can’t use my iPhone.
2. (NG) Can you listen to music while work?
a. (OK) Can you listen to music while working?
3. (NG) During Tuesday, I was really busy.
a. (OK) On Tuesday, I was really busy.

My company has some strict rules about using cell phones. Basically, while
we are working, we are not allowed to use our cell phones. This is especially
true during meetings. The boss feels that while working, we should be
spending our time on the company’s tasks rather than our personal ones. I
think he’s right!
During
We use during followed by a noun (but not a gerund). Usually, that noun is
some kind of event that happens over time. For example, you can say during
dinner, during work, during the day, during the meeting, during my
childhood, etc.
1. I can’t use my cell phone during work.

2. We don’t watch TV during dinner.
3. During the meeting, the presenter made several interesting
points.
While
We use while followed by a gerund.
1. I can’t use my cell phone while working.

2. Please don’t watch TV while eating.
3. While giving his speech, the presenter made several interesting
points.
You can also use while followed by a subject and verb. Generally, the verb is
in the simple present, present/past continuous, or simple past.
1. I like to listen to music while I do my homework.

2. While I was eating lunch, I read my book.
3. You are not supposed to use your cell phone while you are
working.
4. The boss kept talking to me while I worked.
EACH AND EVERY
Common mistakes
1. (NG) He has a bottle of water in every hand.

a. (OK) He has a bottle of water in each hand.
2. (NG) The bus comes each ten minutes.
a. (OK) The bus comes every ten minutes.

Jenny works hard every day, just like every person in her company. She has
two computers on her desk and each one has a different purpose. For her
health, she makes it a point to get up from her desk every 30 minutes for a
quick break.
In many general situations, we use each and every with the same meaning.
This is most common when we talk about time.
1. Jack works hard each day

2. Jack works hard every day.
3. Each year, we get older and wiser.
4. Every year, we get older and wiser.
That said, we tend to use each when we think of things individually or

separately.
There may be a group of things or people, and we use each when we think
about them on an individual basis.
1. Each pen has the company logo on it. This means, the pens one
by one have the company logo.
2. Each student will have an opportunity to talk to the teacher. This
means the students one by one can talk to the teacher.
However, we tend to use every when we think of things as part of a group,
similar to the way we use all.
1. Every person on the tour receives a map and a rain hat.

2. Every guest at the party had fun.
We also use each, and not every, when we talk about two things.
1. Jim has a bottle of water in each hand.

2. Married life is sometimes not easy. Each person needs to
compromise sometimes.
We also use each, and not every, before the preposition of.
1. Each of these pens has the company logo on it.

2. Each of you should follow me.
We use every when we talk about clock time.
1. The bus comes every hour.

2. Every ten minutes the phone rang.
EARLY VS. QUICKLY VS.
SOON AND NO SOONER
THAN
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I’m tired tonight because I woke up soon today.

a. (OK) I’m tired tonight because I woke up early today.
2. (NG) I just got on the train. I’ll see you early.
a. (OK) I just got on the train. I’ll see you soon.

I wake up early every morning. That’s because I need to drive to the train
station to catch a train. If I wake up late, I have to get dressed quickly and
then drive quickly to the station. This morning, when I was on the train, my
boss called to say that there was a problem in the office. I told him I would be
there soon.
Early
We use early as an adverb to relate to time. Early means at a time before the
usual time or before the expected time.
1. I woke up early today because I had to take my car to the
mechanic.
2. You can't leave the office early unless you get the ok from the
boss.
3. There was no traffic today, so I got to the office early.
We also use early as an adjective with the same meaning.

1. If we finish work at 5, we can catch an early movie.
2. Those flowers usually bloom in the early spring.
3. It’s my custom to be early for work every morning.
Soon
We also use soon to relate the present time to a point in time in the future.
Soon means in a short time or after a short time from now.
1. I’ll be back in town tomorrow, so see you soon.
2. I think we can soon find out what happened to Bob.
3. It’s 2pm. The postman should be here soon.
We use the phrase no sooner than to say that the second event happens just
after the first event. The second event is generally unexpected.
1. No sooner had I gone to bed than the telephone rang.
2. We had no sooner arrived at the beach than it began raining.
3. No sooner had he started his speech than the microphone
malfunctioned.
Quickly
We use quickly to relate to speed. Quickly means at a fast pace, or without
delay. Here are some examples:
1. It started raining at the beach, so we quickly ran back to the car.
2. There wasn’t much time for lunch today, so I ate quickly.
3. The guy at the front desk spoke too quickly. I couldn’t catch
what he said.
ENOUGH
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I have pens enough.

a. (OK) I have enough pens.
2. (NG) The room is enough warm, so we were comfortable.
a. (OK) The room is warm enough, so we were
comfortable.

Jenny just moved into a new apartment. It’s not so big, but she said it’s big
enough for her. She has enough furniture from her old apartment, and she
told me she can live comfortably enough with it. She went to the store to get
some other things for the apartment too. I think she bought enough, but she
said she’s not sure!
Enough
We use enough to show that there is a sufficient amount of something and
that we’re satisfied with the amount or the situation.
1. There seems to be enough wine and beer for the party.
2. It’s warm enough in the house, so I’ll take off this sweater.
3. Do you have enough books to read on your vacation?
We use not enough to show that there is not a sufficient amount of

something and that we are not satisfied with the amount or the situation.
1. Jack said he doesn’t have enough ice, so he’s going to need to
pick some up.
2. I didn’t have enough time to see everyone I wanted to see during
the holidays.
3. Since Joe doesn’t get enough exercise, he’s going to join a gym.
4. There isn’t enough milk in the refrigerator, so I can’t make
pancakes.
There are four patterns that we use with enough. Let’s take a look at these
patterns and some examples.
Pattern #1 – We use enough before a noun.
1. I think she has enough furniture.
2. I don’t have enough time to go to the gym today.
Pattern #2 – We use a verb followed by enough.

1. She shops a lot. I think she bought enough today.
2. More coffee? No, thanks. I’ve had enough.
Pattern #3 – We use an adjective followed by enough.

1. Jane thinks her apartment is not big enough.
2. This room is certainly warm enough.
Pattern #4 – We use an adverb followed by enough.

1. She said she lives comfortably enough.
2. Alexandra said that she speaks well enough, but she is still
studying hard.
EVEN VS. EVEN THOUGH
VS. EVEN IF
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Even I go there early, I can’t get a ticket.

a. (OK) Even if I go there early, I won’t be able to get a
ticket.
2. (NG) Even if I studied, I didn’t pass the exam.
a. (OK) Even though I studied, I didn’t pass the exam.

A friend of mine loves to drive. No matter the weather or the circumstances,
she enjoys driving. She has a Jeep, so even if it snows, she can drive safely.
Of course, that’s even though we always tell her not to. Her Jeep is
interesting too. It has a lot of high technology like a GPS and automatic
parking. It even has a TV in the dashboard!
Even
Even is an adverb. Even shows that something is unexpected or surprising,
and this gives emphasis to that thing.
1. It was hard to see the road in the fog, even with the headlights
on.
2. She was a popular actress and singer, and even a politician.
3. Bob can do many things. He even has a pilot’s license.
4. Everyone from the office went to the party. Even Ted went, and
he hates going to parties.
Even though
We use even though to show unexpected results. The meaning is similar to
but. Keep in mind, the structure is even though followed by a subject and
verb. Here’s an example: Even though it was raining, I went to the beach.
On a rainy day, going to the beach is unexpected. So we would say, “Even
though it was raining, I went to the beach.” This has the same meaning as It
was raining, but I went to the beach.
Here are some other examples:
1. Even though I was full, I had dessert.

2. Even though it’s a little expensive, I want to buy an Apple
watch.
3. Jack bought a motorcycle, even though he doesn’t know how to
ride it.
4. Marco is still smoking even though his doctor told him to stop.
Please have a look at page 11 to learn about even though, although, and
though.
Even if
We use if to talk about a condition:
1. If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home and read a book.

2. If I win the lottery, I will buy a big house.
3. If I were taller, I would play basketball.
4. If I had more time, I could start learning Chinese.
We use even if to show that the condition doesn’t matter. The structure is
even if followed by a subject and verb.
1. I have plans to go to the beach today. Even if it rains, I’m still

going to go to the beach. (So “even if it rains” means the
condition of raining doesn’t matter because I’m still going to go
to the beach. “I have plans to go to the beach today. Even if it
rains, I’m going to go to the beach.”)
2. This restaurant is famous for its delicious dessert. Even if I am
full, I am going to order the dessert!
3. I’m still not good at playing ping-pong. Even if I practice every
week, I probably won’t improve.
EXCEPT VS. WITHOUT
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I like to drink coffee except milk.

a. (OK) I like to drink coffee without milk.
2. (NG) Without Jack, everyone in the office plays golf.
a. (OK) Except Jack, everyone in the office plays golf.

I like fruit. I didn’t eat much fruit when I was a kid, but now, as an adult, I
feel it’s important. For me, a day without fruit is like a day without air, so I
eat at least one piece of fruit a day. I like all kinds of fruit, except kiwi. The
taste is ok, but there is something about the texture I don’t like.
Without
Without means not having, not including, not adding, and not putting. We
can use without plus a noun. For example:
I like to drink coffee without milk.

Without Jack, we can’t start the meeting.
Can you read that book without a dictionary?
We can also use without plus a gerund (verb + ING) For example:
Jack can’t make any important decisions without asking his wife.
I won’t start eating without washing my hands.
Jenny left the office without saying anything. I wonder why.
Except
Except means not including a member of a group. You can use except or
except for. Here are some examples:
Except for Jack, everyone in the office plays golf. Jack is part of
everyone in the office, and he is the only person in this group that
doesn’t play golf.
I like all kinds of fruit except for kiwi. Kiwi is part of the group
of fruit and because kiwi is the one fruit that I don’t like, I can
say, I like all kinds of fruit except for kiwi.
Except science fiction, I like all kinds of movies.
Key Point
When we use except, we talk about excluding one member or one part of a
group.
When we use without, we talk about not including something that is outside
of any group.
We played golf without Jack.

Everyone played golf except Jack.
A FEW VS. FEW AND A
LITTLE VS. LITTLE
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I enjoyed the party because few of my friends were there.

a. (OK) I enjoyed the party because a few of my friends
were there.
2. (NG) When there was a typhoon, little people came to the office.
a. (OK) When there was a typhoon, few people came to
the office.

Robert is a new salesperson. A few of his customers came from his
predecessor so they have been our company's customers for a long time.
However, Rob has few customers that he has gotten on his own. The boss
said it will probably take him a little time before he can establish his own
customer base. I hope things improve for him because there is little time
before his first annual review.
Few and Little: The basics
We use few before plural countable nouns, like few pens or few chairs. We
use little before non‐countable nouns, like little water or little time. That’s
the basic grammar rule and form.
A Few and A Little
A few and a little have a positive nuance. Using “a” before few and little
shows that there is a small amount, but we’re satisfied with that amount.
1. I have a few friends who are English teachers.

2. There are a few peaches in the fridge. Why don’t you try one?
3. There is a little milk left in the fridge, so it’s enough for a bowl
of cereal.
4. I have a little free time, so I’m going shopping before work.
Few and Little

On the other hand, few and little (without a) have a negative nuance. Using
few and little without “a” shows that there is too small of an amount for what
we think is best for the situation. Few and little (without a) indicate that the
amount is not enough, and we’re not satisfied with that.
1. Few people get the chance to meet a celebrity. That’s too bad.
2. There are few pens left. We need to order some.
3. There’s little time to prepare for the exam. I wish there was
more.
4. There’s little milk left in the fridge, so it’s not enough for a bowl
of cereal.
FINALLY VS. IN THE END
VS. AT THE END
Common mistakes
1. (NG) You can try many types of diets to lose weight. At the end
you cannot slim down if you don’t exercise in your daily routine.
a. (OK) You can try many types of diets to lose weight.
In the end, you cannot slim down if you don’t
exercise in your daily routine.
2. (NG) It was an interesting movie, but finally, the bad guys got
away.
a. (OK) It was an interesting movie, but at the end, the
bad guys got away.

I finally got the cookbook I had been wanting for such a long time. I’ve
looked online and in many different book shops and in the end, I found it at a
book shop in the airport. The interesting thing about this cookbook is that it is
written in two languages, English and Japanese, so I can study my second
language while learning to cook. At the end of the book, there is a picture
dictionary of many kinds of Japanese vegetables. That makes shopping easy.
Finally
We use finally in two ways. First, we use finally as the last item in a series or
a sequence of things. So, finally is used to end a list. In this use, finally
comes at the beginning of the sentence.
1. First, I’ll show you some pens. Next, I’ll show you some pencils.
Finally, I will show you some notebooks.
2. We did several things today. First, we had a meeting. After that,
we worked on our reports. Then, we had another meeting.
Finally, we left the office.
We also use finally when we want to indicate that we have been waiting a
long time for something to happen. In this use, finally comes next to the verb.
1. I went to several stores to try and find my favorite coffee. I

finally found it at Trader Jack’s House of Coffee.
2. We walked around the city taking photos and enjoying the sights.
I finally got to see the Eiffel Tower.
3. After sending hundreds of resumes and going on many
interviews, Jack has finally found a new job.
In The End
We use in the end when we want to indicate that something has happened
after a change, or after uncertainty, or after considering all other options. In
the end means eventually.
1. You can try many types of diets to lose weight. In the end, you
cannot slim down if you don’t exercise in your daily routine.
2. We discussed several different marketing options, but in the end,
we decided to try some online ads.
3. Jack tried several different ways to convince Jenny to go out on a
date with him, but she rejected him every time. In the end, he
realized she wasn’t interested in him.
We use at the end to talk about the final section of something, such as a
book, a movie, a story, a meeting, or some other event. We can’t use in the
end in these situations. We use at the end.
1. At the end of the movie, Elsa got on the plane with Lazlo, and
Rick stayed in Casablanca.
2. We all stood up at the end of Jack’s speech and gave him a
standing ovation.
3. I think you’ll like that book. There is a surprise at the end of it.
FOR VS. SINCE
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I have lived in this town since my whole life.

a. (OK) I have lived in this town for my whole life.
2. (NG) I haven’t gone to that museum since such a long time.
a. (OK) I haven’t gone to that museum for such a long
time.

I’m a native New Yorker and I have lived here since I was born. For more
than 40 years, I’ve been going to the same pizza shop. It’s a family business,
and they have been open for almost 75 years, since before World War II.
We use for when we talk about how long something happens. The structure
is for plus a time period. We usually use for with the present perfect tense
to connect the past with now.
1. I have worked at this store for four years.

2. I haven’t seen Jack for such a long time.
3. We’ve been waiting at this bus stop for twenty minutes.
It’s also possible to use for with the simple past to talk about a time period in
the past.
1. I worked there for 17 years.

2. Jack lived in San Francisco for three months.
3. They were married for just four weeks and split up.
We also use since with the present perfect tense to connect the past to now.
But unlike for, since is followed by a single point in time.
1. I have worked for this company since 2010.

2. I haven’t seen Jack since February.
3. We’ve waited for Tom since 9:30, and he’s still not here. Let’s
start the meeting without him.
HAD BETTER VS. BETTER
TO
Common mistakes
1. (NG) You had better to go there right away.

a. (OK) You had better go there right away.
2. (NG) You had better visit Central Park in the summer.
a. (OK) It’s better to visit Central Park in the summer.

New York is an exciting city. I know that because I am a native New Yorker!
Well, I had better get to my main point. In New York, the summers are hot
and the winters are cold, so if you are planning a visit, I think it’s better to
come in the spring or the fall.
We use the phrase had better to give a warning. Had better has the nuance
that if you don’t do that thing, something bad might happen. The grammar is
had better followed by a verb.
1. If it’s a cold winter day, and you have just taken a shower, before
you go outside you had better dry your hair. You had better dry
your hair before you go outside because if you don’t, you might
catch a cold.
2. The doctor told Joe that his health is at risk. He had better stop
smoking.
3. You have an important exam tomorrow? You had better study
for it if you want to get a good grade.
These days, in conversational English you can often hear people use this
phrase without had.
1. You better dry your hair before going out.

2. He better stop smoking.
3. You have an important exam tomorrow? You better study for it
if you want to get a good grade.
We use the phrase it’s better to when we want to give someone a suggestion
and that suggestion is based on a choice. The grammar is it’s better to +
verb. For example:
If you want to travel from Times Square to the World Trade

Center during rush hour, it’s better to take a subway than a bus.
The oyster bar serves steak as well as seafood, but since it’s the
oyster bar, I think it’s better to order fish.
The weather forecast said we’re going to have a snowstorm
tomorrow, so I think it’s better to stay home and work from
home than it is to drive to the office.
HARD VS. HARDLY
Common mistakes
1. (NG) He works hardly, so the boss is happy.

a. (OK) He works hard, so the boss is happy.
2. (NG) He is a hardly worker.
a. (OK) He is such a hard worker.

It snowed hard last night, which is unusual because it hardly snows here
where I live. I think it must be hard to live in an area that gets a lot of snow.
You’re constantly having to shovel snow and scrape the hard ice from the
windows of your car.
Many adjectives become an adverb by adding ly and the meaning basically
stays the same:
1. Tommy is a quick runner….He runs quickly

2. Jack is a slow worker….He works slowly.
Hard (Adjective)
Hard is an exception. Hard is used as both an adjective and an adverb, but
the meanings of hard as an adjective, and the meanings of the adverbs hard
and hardly are different from each other.
As an adjective, hard has basically two meanings. First, hard means solid,
firm, or not soft:
1. The sofa is soft, but the table is hard.

2. The bread became hard because I forgot to put it in a plastic bag.
3. I think this steel is too hard to drill through.
In addition, the adjective hard means difficult:

1. It was a hard exam, but I was able to get a good score.
2. Having a pet is hard work, but I love my dog.
3. Jack’s wife was cheating on him. That’s a hard situation to deal
with.
Hard (Adverb)
Hard is also used as an adverb that means with a great deal of effort or
strongly. As an adverb, hard comes after the verb.
1. It was raining hard all afternoon.

2. Nick works hard every day in his office.
3. If you study hard, you will be able to speak English well!
Hardly (Adverb)
We also have the adverb hardly, but as an adverb, the meaning is different
from the other meanings. The adverb hardly means almost not or barely.
1. Jack hardly worked at all today.

2. I hardly studied for the exam.
3. Jenny has the flu, so she hardly ate anything.
IN CASE
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I will take my umbrella in case rain.

a. (OK) I will take my umbrella in case it rains.
2. (NG) Water freezes in case the temperature reaches zero degrees
Celsius.
a. (OK) Water freezes if the temperature reaches zero
degrees Celsius.

The weather has been unpredictable lately and, in fact, it has been unusually
warm this winter. You never know if it’s going to rain or snow, so I always
keep an umbrella with me in case it rains. Of course, the possibility of snow
exists, but I’m prepared. In case we have a snowstorm, I keep my boots and a
shovel in the closet near the front door of my house.
In Case
We use the phrase in case to mean because it is possible. The grammar is in
case followed by a subject and verb or in case of followed by a noun.
1. The sky is a little dark. I’m going to take my umbrella in case it
rains. (This means it’s possible that it will rain.)
2. I think Jane will call today or tomorrow. In case she calls while
I’m at lunch, please tell her to hold on and then come to the café
to get me.
3. I put snow tires on my car in case of bad weather.
In Case vs. If
Notice the difference between in case and if. We use in case to talk about
what someone will do now because something will happen later. We use if to
talk about a situation that might happen later. Compare these two sentences:
1. Let’s get the coffee pot set up in case Joe comes. He loves
coffee. (This means we will set up the coffee pot now because
there is a possibility that Joe will come later.)
2. Let’s set up the coffee pot if Joe comes. He loves coffee. (This
means if Joe comes, we will set up the coffee pot at that time.)
In Case Of
Finally, we use the phrase in case of when we write a notice, generally to
give instructions in the event of an emergency situation.
1. In case of fire, use the stairs. Do not use the elevator.
2. This is the phone number you should call in case of an
emergency.
IN TIME VS. ON TIME
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I hope the train comes in time.

a. (OK) I hope the train comes on time
2. (NG) The bus was just in time today, so I was lucky.
a. (OK) The bus was on time today, so I was lucky.

Public transportation in this city is not often reliable. The buses and trains
don’t usually run on time and this means a lot of people end up getting to
where they have to go just in time or worse, late. I try to be on time or early
for my appointments, but because of the trains, arriving in time is the best I
can hope for.
On Time
When we talk about a person or a thing that is punctual or does something
according to the schedule, we can say the person or thing is on time. We can
use on time for people or things.
1. I’m usually on time for work.
2. I hope the meeting starts on time.
3. Do you think the train will come on time today?
In Time
Next, when we talk about a person that does something with enough time, we
use in time. Using in time has a nuance that there was a possibility of being
late, but in fact the person was not late. Note that we only use in time for
people.
1. I arrived at the office in time for the meeting.
2. I hope we can get to the station in time for the express train.
3. Even though there was traffic, I was in time for the movie.
Just In Time
Finally, when we talk about a person that is almost late but not late, we can
use just in time. The nuance of just in time is that the person did something
barely a moment before the scheduled time. Note that we only use just in
time for people.
1. I arrived at the office just in time for the meeting.
2. We got to the station just in time for the express train.
3. Because there was a lot of traffic, I was just in time for the
movie.
IT IS VS. THAT IS
I went to a party at Jack’s house. That was such an amazing party. It started
at 8pm and ended way past midnight. It was a really late night for me and
that is hard to do at my age!
It and That
We use both it and that to refer to things that have just been written or talked
about.
1. I had pizza at Lombardi’s yesterday. It was delicious.

2. I had pizza at Lombardi’s yesterday. That was delicious.
Grammatically, both it and that are used the same way. However, there is a
difference in the meaning or nuance. On one hand, it doesn’t have any
particular or special nuance or emphasis. On the other hand, that is more
emphatic and carries the nuance that the thing just mentioned is special or
interesting.
1. I had pizza at Lombardi’s yesterday. It was delicious. It simply

takes the place of the noun, pizza, with no additional nuance.
2. I had pizza at Lombardi’s yesterday. That was delicious. That
also takes the place of the noun, pizza, but adds the nuance that
the pizza mentioned was especially and uniquely delicious.
We also use that when we want to introduce new information about the noun
that was previously mentioned. Here are a few examples:
1. Tom got a new laptop. It’s a MacBook. It simply takes the place
of the noun, laptop.
2. Tom got a new laptop. That’s the third one he’s bought in three
years. That takes the place of the noun, laptop, but introduces
additional information about it.
3. Joe quit his job. It was at a bank downtown.
4. Joe quit his job. That was at a bank downtown, not some small
neighborhood bank.
5. Jack just came back from a trade show. It was in Las Vegas.
6. Jack just came back from a trade show. It was in Las Vegas and
he said that was the best trade show he’s been to in a long time.
We generally use it to refer to one word, and we use that to refer to the
whole phrase or sentence mentioned. Compare these examples:
1. I went to an amusement park last weekend. It was fun. The

amusement park itself was fun.
2. I went to an amusement park last weekend. That was fun. Going
to the amusement park as well as the park itself was fun.
3. Grandma told us the story about how she met grandpa. It was
really interesting. The story itself was interesting.
4. Grandma told us the story about how she met grandpa. That was
really interesting. The story as well as the way she told it was
interesting.
JUST VS. ONLY
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Can you only wait a moment? I’ll be right there.

a. (OK) Can you just wait a moment? I’ll be right there.
2. (NG) Just I got here yesterday.
a. (OK) I just got here yesterday.

I have had the same old laptop computer for 6 years. It’s the only computer I
have. I like it, but there is just one problem. It’s a little heavy. So I think it’s
time to shop for another one. I just went online to look and I’m really
surprised because for only a few hundred dollars, you can get a pretty decent
laptop.
We can use both just and only to mean no more than. In cases like this, just
and only should come before the verb or a noun.
1. I just need 20 minutes more to finish this report. (or)
2. I only need 20 minutes more to finish this report.
3. That pen costs just a dollar? I'll take two, please! (or)
4. That pen costs only a dollar? I'll take two, please!
So in situations like this, just and only have exactly the same meaning and
usage.
We can also use just to mean a little while ago or in the immediate past. The
grammar is just followed by a past verb. Note that we do not use only in this
way.
1. I just woke up, so I’m still sleepy. We can’t say, I only woke up.
2. I just heard about your accident. Are you okay?
3. I’m not hungry because I just ate lunch.
We can use only as an adjective meaning the single one of its kind. The
grammar is only followed by a noun. Note that we do not use just in this
way.
1. This is the only computer I own. We can’t say, This is the just
computer I own.
2. He took my only pen. Now I have to get another one.
3. Jack is an only child.
MUCH VS. MANY VS. A
LOT
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I drank much coffee this morning, so I’m a little nervous.

a. (OK) I drank a lot of coffee this morning, so I’m a
little nervous.
2. (NG) I have too a lot of problems in my office.
a. (OK) I have too many problems in my office.

I love coffee and since there are many types of coffee in the world, I am
always interested in trying new blends when I find them. My friends say I
drink too much coffee, but I don’t think it’s so much.
We use many before countable nouns and we use much before non-
countable nouns. Many means a large number of things and much means a
large amount of something.
1. I have many ideas for the weekend

2. Many people in the USA like to eat hot dogs.
3. I don’t have much time this week.
4. Do you have much work to do this week?
Many is used in positive statements, negative statements, and questions.
1. I have many ideas for the weekend → positive statement

2. Joe just moved to NYC and doesn’t have many friends. →
negative statement
3. Do you have many books and CDs? → question
Many can also be used in a positive sentence with a modifier like so or too:
1. There were so many people on the train this morning.

2. I had too many cups of coffee this morning. I really need to cut
down.
Much is generally used in negative statements and questions. For positive

statements, we don’t usually use much by itself. We prefer using a lot of
instead of much.
1. I don’t have much time this week. → negative statement

2. Do you have much work to do this week? → question
3. I think we will have a lot of snow this winter. We can’t say, I
think we will have much snow this winter.
Much can be used in a positive sentence with an adverb like so or too.
1. There was too much snow last winter.

2. With so much language to choose from, it is sometimes difficult
to choose what lessons I should teach here.
Keep in mind that we don’t use a lot with an adverb like so or too.
1. I have a lot of books in my office. We can’t say, I have so a lot of

books…
SO VS. SUCH
Common mistakes
1. (NG) It’s so nice day.

a. (OK) It’s such a nice day.
2. (NG) That mountain is such beautiful.
a. (OK) That mountain is so beautiful.

I had such a nice time at Jack’s party last night. There were so many of my
friends there and they were playing such nice music. Of course, the food was
so delicious. That’s because Jack is a professional chef!
We use so before an adjective to mean very or quite. The structure is so
followed by an adjective. You can say things like “so warm,” or “so nice,” or
“so interesting.”
1. It was so warm today that I saw people walking on Broadway

wearing just T‐shirts.
2. It was so cold last winter in New York.
3. I’m so happy that you’re studying with me here.
We use such before nouns and noun phrases to mean very or quite. The
structure is such followed by a noun or prepositional phrase. You can say
things like “such a nice day,” “such a fun party,” or “such a gentleman!”
1. This has been such a busy week at work.

2. We had such a mild winter last year.
3. My sister Lori is such a busy person.
SUGGEST AND
RECOMMEND
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I recommend him to go there.

a. (OK) I recommend he go there.
2. (NG) She suggested to me to call her.
a. (OK) She suggested I call her.

Jack went to the doctor last week. The doctor suggested Jack drink less
coffee. So Jack went home and told his wife. She recommended drinking
tea instead of coffee in the morning. If I were Jack’s doctor, I would also
suggest tea instead of coffee.
Unlike most verbs, suggest and recommend are not followed by an object
followed by the infinitive. There are three patterns we can use with suggest
and recommend.
We use suggest and recommend followed by a noun.
1. If you like pizza, I suggest Lombardi’s on Spring Street.

2. The man in the bookstore suggested this textbook.
3. Many doctors recommend aspirin for headaches.
We also use suggest and recommend followed by a gerund.
1. If you like pizza, I suggest eating at Lombardi’s on Spring

Street.
2. The personal trainer suggested using the treadmill for cardio
training.
3. Many doctors recommend taking aspirin for headaches.
We also use suggest and recommend followed by that and a subject and
verb. In conversational English, we often drop that.
1. If you like pizza, I suggest (that) you eat at Lombardi’s on

Spring Street.
2. The personal trainer suggested (that) I use the treadmill for
cardio training.
3. Her doctor recommends (that) she take aspirin for headaches.
Usually, in American English, the base verb is used regardless of the subject,
even if the subject has the third-person he, she, or it.
1. I suggest you eat at Lombardi’s on Spring Street.

2. I suggest she eat at Lombardi’s on Spring Street.
3. I recommend he eat at Lombardi’s on Spring Street.
4. I recommend Jack eat at Lombardi’s on Spring Street.
SUPPOSE VS. BE
SUPPOSED TO
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I supposed to be there at 8:30am.

a. (OK) I am supposed to be there at 8:30am.
2. (NG) What are you suppose you do?
a. (OK) What are you supposed to do?
I think it is very important for a teacher to always suppose his or her students
enjoy the subject they are teaching. That will keep the idea in the teacher’s
mind that they need to make the lesson interesting. And that reminds me – all
teachers are supposed to walk into the classroom fully prepared for the
lesson.
We use suppose to mean guess or assume. We usually use suppose followed
by a subject and verb in this way:
1. Jack is an hour late. I suppose he is not coming.

2. I suppose it is going to be a cold winter.
3. Do you suppose the supermarket is open late tonight?
We use be supposed to followed by a verb when we want to talk about

something that is an obligation or duty.
1. Jack is supposed to be at work at 9 every morning.

2. We are supposed to hand in our term paper by the end of the
week.
3. All of the students in the class are supposed to do their
homework.
4. I am supposed to help my wife make dinner.
The difference between be supposed to and modal verbs like must or have to
is that be supposed to has the nuance that someone has an expectation about
what we are supposed to do.
1. Jack is supposed to be at work at 9 every morning.
This means that someone, like Jack’s boss, is expecting that he will be at
work at 9 every morning.
1. I am supposed to help my wife make dinner.
This means that my wife expects me to help her make dinner.

The negative form, be not supposed to means forbidden or prohibited.
1. You are not supposed to smoke on an airplane.

2. The boss said we are not supposed to wear sneakers to the
office.
3. You are not supposed to enter that room. It’s private.
STOP DOING VS. STOP TO
DO (AND REMEMBER /
FORGET / TRY)
Common mistakes
1. (NG) Jack stopped to smoke three months ago and now he’s
feeling much better.
a. (OK) Jack stopped smoking three months ago and
now he’s feeling much better.
2. (NG) When I stopped buying coffee this morning, the clerk gave
me a free donut!
a. (OK) When I stopped to buy coffee this morning, the
clerk gave me a free donut!

I remember talking with my grandfather about cigarettes last month. He was
a heavy smoker and used to stop to smoke several times a day. In those days,
a lot of people smoked, even inside the office. Can you believe that? Over the
years, I think a lot of people have stopped smoking. Oh, I just realized I
forgot to tell my grandfather that I stopped smoking too!
Generally, a verb can be followed by another verb, either the infinitive or a
gerund. One example is the verb like:
1. I like eating pizza.

2. I like to eat pizza.
There is no difference in meaning between the two examples above and other
verbs such as love and hate. On the other hand, stop, remember, try, and
forget followed by a gerund, and stop, remember, try, and forget followed
by an infinitive have a completely different meaning.
When you use stop followed by a gerund, the meaning is quit or finish. For
example:
1. I stopped buying coffee on the way to the office.

2. I stopped smoking when I was in my mid-twenties. (I quit
smoking.)
3. I stopped working at 8pm last night.
When you use stop followed by an infinitive, the meaning is “take a break to
do something.” For example:
1. I stopped to buy coffee on the way to the office.

2. She stopped to smoke. (She was doing something, then she took
a break so that she could smoke.)
3. During the drive to Boston, I stopped to have lunch.
When you use remember followed by a gerund, the meaning is, “I did it and
I have a memory of it”
1. I remember going to Istanbul. It was a great trip.

2. I remember meeting Tom at the party. He was so funny.
3. Jack said he doesn't remember drinking too much, but he was
very drunk at the party.
When you use remember followed by an infinitive, the meaning is, “I
remember that I need to do it BEFORE I do it.”
1. I have to remember to lock my office when I leave.

2. Please remember to wash your hands before eating.
3. I always remember to call my mom on her birthday.
When you use forget followed by a gerund, the meaning is, “I did it, but I
don’t remember doing it.”
1. I forgot paying the telephone bill, so I mistakenly paid twice.

2. I forgot meeting Jack several years ago until he reminded me
that we met in Chicago.
3. I forgot falling down, because I was drunk when I fell down.
When you use forget followed by an infinitive, the meaning is, “I did not
remember to do something important.”
1. I forgot to call my grandmother on her birthday and she was very

upset.
2. Jack forgot to ask his customer to sign the contract.
3. Don’t forget to call the airline and reconfirm your flight.
When you try to do something, it means you are using your effort to do
something new or challenging.
1. I’m trying to find the best way to cook that soup.

2. Jenny is trying to learn Portuguese.
3. Tommy moved to Florida and he’s trying to find a good pizza
shop.
When you try doing something, there’s a kind of experiment or test to see
what happens.
1. I have an old laptop. I tried turning it on, but it didn’t work. So

then I tried using a different AC adapter, but it still didn't work.
2. I tried sending Jack a few text messages, but he didn’t reply. I’m
going to try calling him. If he doesn’t answer the phone, I’m
going to try going to his house and knocking on the door.
3. You dropped your phone in water? Why don’t you try putting it
in a plastic bag with some uncooked rice? Then, after three or
four days, try turning on the phone.
THERE IS / THERE ARE
(AND IT IS)
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I like New York. There is so exciting!

a. (OK) I like New York. It is so exciting!
2. (NG) There is so many interesting things to do here in this city.
a. (OK) There are so many interesting things to do here
in this city.

New York is a great city. It is the best! There is so much to do and see here.
There are great restaurants, museums, and sightseeing spots like the Empire
State Building and the Statue of Liberty. If you haven’t come to New York
yet, please come and check it out. There is something happening all the time
here, and there are fun events all year round!
There is / There are

We use there is followed by a singular noun and there are followed by a
plural noun. We use there is and there are to show that something exists in a
certain place. The basic grammar pattern is there is (are) something
somewhere.
1. There is an apple on the table.

2. There is a meeting in the conference room.
3. There are some apples on the table.
4. There are ten people in the room.
We can also use there is and there are to show that something exists at a
certain time. The basic grammar pattern is there is (are) something (at/in a
time).
1. There is a meeting at 10am tomorrow.
2. There is a good TV program starting at 8 o’clock.
3. There are lots of cherry blossoms in April.
4. There are a few events this weekend in the city.
It is
Be careful not to use there is and there are followed by an adjective. The
following is a common mistake:
I like New York. There is very exciting.
There is and there are need to be followed by a noun. If you want to use an
adjective, you need to use it is.
I like New York. It is very exciting.

TOO (5 PATTERNS)
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I am too much tired today, so I’m going to go to bed early.

a. (OK) I am too tired today, so I’m going to go to bed
early.
2. (NG) Jack walks quickly too much.
a. (OK) Jack walks too quickly.

It was really cold today. In fact, it was too cold. I’m tired of the winter. When
it snows, the traffic moves too slowly and it takes a long time to go
somewhere. I think it’s much too dangerous to drive in the snow and this
year we’ve had too many snowstorms. It snows too much in New York.
That’s for sure!
We use too followed by an adjective.
1. It’s too cold today.

2. I can’t go to the gym today because I’m too tired.
3. Emily wanted to go there, but she said it was too far.
We use too followed by an adverb.
1. They walk too slowly.

2. The new teacher speaks too quickly.
3. Traffic is moving too slowly this morning.
We use much followed by too followed by an adjective or much followed by

too followed by an adverb.
1. I can’t go to the gym today because I’m much too tired.

2. Emily wanted to go there, but she said it was much too far.
3. The new teacher speaks much too quickly.
4. Traffic is moving much too slowly this morning.
We use too followed by many followed by a countable noun or too followed

by much followed by a non‐countable noun.
1. There were too many snowstorms last winter.

2. Nicole said she has too many bills to pay this month.
3. There is too much time between now and the warm days of
spring in the Big Apple.
4. Eating too much junk food is not good for your health.
We use too much after the verb
1. I’m worried about Tommy. He smokes too much.

2. I think Vincent works too much.
3. Don’t you think Jenny talks too much?
PREPOSITIONS (AT - IN -
ON - FOR - TO - OFF)
AT
We use at to indicate a certain point. When this point is a place, it shows
exactly the place where something happens, or where someone or something
is. We use at followed by a determiner and a noun.
1. Jack was waiting at the bus stop.

2. I stopped at the post office to send a letter.
3. We were at Jenny’s house all afternoon.
In particular, at can be followed directly by home, work, school, university,

and college without a determiner.
1. Many people work at home these days.

2. I was at work yesterday.
3. We learned a lot at school today.
We also use at to talk about one specific point during a trip.
1. This train will make stops at Lincoln Center, Times Square, and
SOHO.
2. I stopped off at the coffee shop on the way to my office.
3. When I went from NYC to Sao Paolo, I stopped at Miami to
change planes.
Aside from places, here are some other situations where we use at.
We use at before an event.
1. I had a great time at the concert last night.

2. I met Jack at the party last weekend.
3. Cathy made a great presentation at the meeting yesterday.
We use at before a school or company.

1. Bob works at Microsoft.
2. Jack got his MBA at Harvard.
3. Nick works at an auto parts factory.
We use at to show the direction something moves toward.
1. We were laughing at the comedian.

2. They threw snowballs at us.
3. My boss often yells at the staff.
We use at to introduce a certain condition or state.
1. He’s gotten heavy and is at risk of a serious illness.

2. Our team is at a disadvantage because we’ve lost our best two
players this season.
3. Those countries have been at war for a number of years.
We also use at when we talk about a particular time.
1. I finished work at 8pm.

2. The train should arrive at 12:30pm.
3. Carol is a nurse, so sometimes she works at night.
We use at when we talk about numbers like age, price, weight, etc.
1. Kate got married at 21, which is considered a young age to get

married these days.
2. At $9 per pound, those are the most expensive blueberries I’ve
ever seen.
3. The champion pumpkin weighed in at 40 kilograms.
We use phrases like good at and bad at (and similar adjectives) to talk about
a person’s ability. The grammar is good at or bad at followed by a noun or
gerund.
1. I’m not very good at sports, but I do like to draw.
2. Jane is bad at singing so she never goes to karaoke.
3. My mom is really great at cooking.
4. I’m terrible at billiards.
We also have some other adjectives that are followed by at (or by) with no
difference in meaning.
1. I was amazed at/by the news.

2. We were all astonished at/by what he said.
3. I am shocked at/by that story.
We use surprised at and surprised by/with differently. When you are

surprised at someone, it means their behavior is unusual and doesn't match
their usual character.
1. I was surprised at Tom. He usually never eats seafood, but he

ordered grilled squid at the restaurant.
2. I’m really surprised at you. You’ve never spoken so harshly to
me.
We also use surprised at to show that something happened contrary to what

we were expecting.
1. I was surprised at how quickly the time passed during my

vacation.
2. We were surprised at the number of people who came to the
lecture.
We use surprised by/with when something happens unexpectedly.
1. We were surprised by/with the news of their divorce. They

seemed like a happy couple.
2. We were surprised by/with the explosion. Thank goodness
nobody was injured.
IN
In is also used to talk about place. In indicates that the person or thing is
surrounded on all sides by the place. You can say things like in a country or
town, in a building or room, or in a container.
1. I live in New York, but I was born in the north part of Italy.
2. I’m in the classroom now, but I spent the morning in the library.
3. I keep the coffee in a plastic container in my refrigerator.
Aside from places, here are some other situations where we use in.
We use in to indicate a person’s occupational field or business.
1. Frank works in the banking industry.

2. Tim quit his job in sales and started his own business.
3. Jane works in retail, which means she often works on weekends.
We use in to talk about inclusion or participation.
1. I was in a meeting for three hours today.

2. My favorite actress is in a new movie.
3. Hank’s son is going to perform in a school concert next week.
We also use in to talk about a language or printed media.
1. I can say hello in French, German, and Chinese.

2. That information was written in this morning’s newspaper.
3. I read it in a book / in a magazine / in a pamphlet.
In can also be used to talk about time. In can be followed by months, years,
and longer periods of time.
1. My birthday is in June and Gregg’s birthday is in September.

2. He was born in 1959 and got married in the 1970s.
3. A lot of important inventions came out in the Twentieth Century.
We also use in (and at) to talk about the parts of a day. You can say, in the
morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, but…at night.
1. I woke up early in the morning.

2. Steve likes to watch TV in the afternoon.
3. In the evenings in the summer, I like to take a walk on the beach.
4. I don’t usually drink coffee at night.
We can also use in before a time period in a negative sentence with the
present perfect. This usage of in is like the preposition for and the meaning is
the same.
1. I haven’t seen you in a long time. (or) I haven’t seen you for a
long time.
2. We haven’t been there in ages. (or) We haven’t been there for
ages.
The following are some set phrases with in. We say, in a photo, in a picture,
and in the sky. We say in jail and in bed without another word between in
and bed/jail.
1. My dad and mom are in this photo.

2. He painted flowers and trees in a picture.
3. There are a lot of planes in the sky today.
4. Finally, that bad guy is in jail.
5. I was in bed until 10am this morning.
We use in to describe what someone is wearing.
1. The woman in the blue dress is Bill’s wife.

2. I was in a black suit for the concert.
3. Some women like a man in a uniform.
Let’s look at the difference between in and at to talk about location. Please
note that we tend to use in and at this way, but this is not the absolute rule.
When we speak in general, in everyday conversation, both at and in can be
used with the same meaning. Both of these sentences tell us Jack’s location:
1. Jack is at his office.

2. Jack is in his office.
That said, we tend to use in and at as follows:

We tend to use at when we talk about a store or a building. At gives us the
nuance about what usually happens in that store or building. Notice the verb
is not the be verb but a verb that also describes the usual action in the
location.
1. I bought this shirt on sale at the department store. People usually

shop at a department store.
2. Jack had a coffee at a nice café on Madison Ave. People usually
have coffee at a café.
3. Let’s study at the library after class. People usually study at a
library.
We tend to use in when we don’t care about the action, but just want to
describe the location using the be verb.
1. I was in the department store yesterday.

2. Jack is in a café on Madison Ave.
3. We have been in the library for three hours. Let’s go home.
We also have some words that are used with in and at that have a specific or
particular meaning:
1. Jack is in the hospital. This means Jack is a patient in the

hospital.
2. Jack is at the hospital. This means Jack is perhaps visiting a
patient or he works at the hospital.
3. Jenny is in college / in university. Using in means only that
Jenny is a college / university student these days. The phrase in
college / university has no other nuance or meaning.
4. Jenny is at college / at university. Using at means that Jenny is a
college student and living in her college / university dormitory.
5. The Smiths were at sea. At sea (no “the”) means on a voyage in
the sea. Maybe the Smiths were on a cruise.
6. The Smiths were in the sea. In the sea (with “the”) means
swimming, snorkeling, playing, etc. in the ocean at a beach.
ON
On is also used to show location.
We use on when we want to say that something or someone is physically
making contact with another thing or person.
1. The book is on the table.

2. I was sitting on the sofa watching TV.
3. We were on the train for several hours.
In a similar way, we use on to mean that one thing is attached to another.
1. There is a clock on the wall.

2. The sign on the door says the bank opens at 9am.
3. There are two buttons on the computer. The green one is the
power button.
We use on when we talk about things and places nearby or at oceans, seas,
lakes, etc.
1. Jack has a house on the lake. This means Jack’s house is by the
lake. Perhaps the lake is directly in front of or behind Jack’s
house.
2. A lot of people are fishing on the dock on the bay.
3. Many factories were built on that river in the early 1900s.
We use on when we introduce a body’s position with respect to part of the

body.
1. I sleep on my back, but my sister sleeps on her side.

2. Don’t lean on your hand at the dinner table. It’s impolite.
3. As soon as the boss walked into the room, we were all on our
feet.
We also use on to talk about days and dates in time.
1. I heard that we are going to have a meeting with Jim on Tuesday.

2. He was born on July 4th, 1925.
3. I like to eat pizza on my birthday.
We use on to indicate a topic.
1. I read a book on animals.

2. I heard that there is a new documentary on New York City. It
sounds interesting.
3. He wrote a report on psychology.
We use on to tell us about being a member of a team, group, etc.
1. That player has been on three teams in the past five years.
2. They asked me to be on a committee to investigate the robbery.
3. James served on the board of directors for that company.
We use on to show that something is stored or presented using electronic

media. You can say things like on the internet, on TV, on the radio.
1. You can learn a lot of information on the internet.

2. Did you see the weather forecast on TV?
3. Whenever my favorite music comes on the radio, I like to turn up
the volume.
We use on to show that someone or something is engaged in movement, such

as a course, a trip, or a journey. We use words like on a trip, on a vacation,
on a cruise, and on a journey.
1. I saw Tom when I was on my way to the office this morning.

2. There are a lot of trucks on the highway.
3. We were on a lovely vacation in Paris.
In a similar way, we have some set phrases that use go on. You can go on a
trip, go on vacation, go on a vacation, go on a cruise, go on a journey, go on
a picnic, go on an adventure. When you go on vacation (without “a”), you
take some time away from work or school. When you go on a vacation (with
“a”), you visit some tourist or scenic place.
1. Jack is going to take on my work for me when I go on vacation

next week.
2. I’ll be painting my house when I go on vacation.
3. They are going to go on a vacation for ten days in Paris,
London, and Amsterdam.
4. I work a lot and the last time I went on a vacation was in 2015.
The prepositions at, in, and on have some particular uses in the following
situations.
For public transportation, we use on. You can be on a train, on a subway, on
a bus, on a plane, on a shuttle, on a ship, and even on a rocket.
1. I was on the bus when I saw Sam.

2. Please don’t talk loudly when you are on the train.
3. There are a lot of people on the subway this morning.
There is a distinction that can be made between using in and on for

transportation. In refers to location and on refers to travel.
1. I am in the train. This refers to my location. I am inside the train.

2. I am on the train. This means that I am traveling using the train.
On the other hand, we use in, and not on, when we talk about cars, taxis
(because a taxi is basically a car), and small boats and planes.
1. I would rather go to Boston in a car than on a plane.

2. I heard a strange noise when I was in a taxi this morning.
3. I’ve never flown in a Cessna.
Streets and addresses

We use phrases like on the sidewalk, on the street, on the road, on the
highway when we talk about people and vehicles moving on those places.
1. In NYC, you should keep right when walking on the sidewalk.

2. There are a lot of cars on the road today.
3. You can see many trucks on the highway.
We use at when we talk about a whole address and on when we talk about
the street only.
1. The office is at 275 Madison Avenue, Suite 625.

2. The office is on Madison Avenue.
FOR
We use for to show the purpose or reason a person, and not a thing, does
something. The grammar is for followed by a noun, but not a gerund. You
can say, “I went there for coffee,” but not “I went there for buying coffee.”
When you want to talk about an action (like buying), you need to use the
infinitive: “I went there to buy coffee.”
1. I went to the deli for a sandwich.

2. Eddie was in Paris for business.
3. I woke up early for a job interview.
We also use for to show the purpose of a thing, like a tool or some
equipment, and not a person. The grammar is for followed by a noun or a
gerund.
1. I have some dry erase pens for the whiteboard.

2. This is a special knife for cutting bread.
3. Glen has a garage for his sports cars.
4. A Kindle is a device for reading eBooks.
We use for to introduce a person or a thing receiving some benefit.
1. I think I’ll vote for Jim to be the class president.

2. I baked this cake for your birthday.
3. She prepared a nice meal for her friends.
We use both work for and work at when we talk about the place or company
where a person is employed. There is no difference in meaning between
work for and work at.
1. Fred works for an insurance company. (or) Fred works at an

insurance company.
2. Nick works for Microsoft. (or) Nick works at Microsoft.
When we talk about time, we use for to talk about a time period.
We use for with the present perfect tense to talk about time from the past up
to now.
1. I’ve been here for more than 25 years.

2. Joe has worked in the music business for his entire adult life.
3. Gloria has been drawing and painting pictures for a long time.
We use for plus the present tense to talk about future time.
1. I’m going to be here for a month, so there is plenty of time to see

all of the sights.
2. Diane is going to work in the London office for three months.
3. How long are you in town for?
As well, we generally use in, and not for, when we talk about time periods
using a negative sentence.
1. I haven’t seen you in such a long time.

2. We haven’t gone to the beach in a while. Why don’t we go
today?
3. I haven’t had sushi in a few months, so I’m excited about going
to the restaurant.
Note that in conversational English, for is sometimes omitted.
1. I’ve been here more than 25 years.

2. How long are you in town?
TO
We use to directly before a base verb and when we do, we consider to as an
infinitive marker, not a preposition.
We generally use to followed by a verb as the object of a sentence.
1. I like to eat pizza.

2. Do you want to go to the mall tomorrow?
3. Where can we go to have fun?
As a subject, to followed by a verb has a very abstract, philosophical sound.
1. Shakespeare’s Hamlet said, “To be or not to be.”

2. To eat pizza, is to experience the soul of Italy.
3. To laugh is to live.
In addition, to followed by a verb is also the shortened form of the phrase, “in
order to.”
1. To get to the museum, you can take a bus.

2. To cook rice, you’ll need a big pot with a heavy lid.
3. What can I do to change your mind?
However, as a preposition, to can be used in some set phrases followed by a

gerund or a noun. Some examples are look forward to, be/get used to, agree
to, and object to. In these situations, to is not followed by a base verb.
1. I am looking forward to going to Frank’s party. (We can’t say I

am looking forward to go to Frank’s party.)
2. I am looking forward to Frank’s party.
3. Are you used to taking the subway in New York City?
4. Are you used to the subway in New York City?
5. Would you agree to going skydiving with me?
6. I object to working overtime every night.
We use the preposition to when we indicate movement in the direction of a
certain location.
1. I drove to the office.

2. I went to Istanbul in 2012.
3. This train goes to Philadelphia and Washington DC.
4. Can you give this book to the teacher?
Notice the difference between at and to with certain verbs like throw, run,
shout, etc. At indicates aggressive movement at a target, whereas to simply
indicates the movement without any special nuance.
1. She threw the ball to me and I caught it.

2. She threw the ball at me and it was painful.
3. He ran to me and said hello.
4. He ran at me and knocked me down.
5. The boss shouted to me in the station to get my attention.
6. The boss shouted at me when he was angry.
We use to when we indicate a location using words like left and right, as
well as compass directions.
1. I am standing to the right of Joe in this photo.

2. My house is in the middle of the block and Jack’s house is to the
left of mine.
3. Please face to the front of the room when the teacher walks in.
4. Boston is to the Northeast of New York City.
5. We can catch a nice wind if we sail this boat to the west.
We use from and to when we want to express a range in time.
1. He lived in Japan from 1994 to 1998.

2. Most people work from 9am to 5pm.
3. Jenny played the trumpet from middle school to high school.
GET ON / GET OFF VS. GET
IN / GET OUT OF
Whenever I get on the subway, I’m amazed at the number of people who ride
it each day. Today, I got on the train at 34th Street and got off at Grand
Central Station. Grand Central was built over a hundred years ago, and it’s
still a major transportation hub in New York City. When I got out of the
station, it was pouring rain, so I got in a taxi, and I went to my office. I got
out of the cab and got soaking wet, even though I was in front of my
building.
Whenever we talk about public transportation, we use get on and get off.
That’s because, in English, we think of transportation, especially public
transportation like a bus, or a train, or a plane as a stage. So, you would get
on the stage or get off a stage, and in a similar way, you get on or get off a
bus, or train, or airplane. Get on and get off work for all types of vehicles
and transportation – a bus, a train, a subway, a plane, a motorcycle, even a
UFO!
1. I got on the train at 34th Street.

2. I saw Jack when I got on the bus.
3. If you want to come to Happy English, just get off at Grand
Central Station.
4. I got off the bus at Spring Street and then walked to the
restaurant.
However, when we talk about a car (or a taxi, because a taxi is a car), we use
get in and get out of (or just get out).
1. I got in a taxi and went to my office.

2. I got in my car and drove to the train station.
3. I told the taxi driver that I wanted to get out at the corner.
4. If you want to come to Happy English, just take a taxi. You can
get out of the taxi at the corner of Madison Avenue and 38th
Street.
So, for a car or taxi, use get in and get out of. For all other vehicles,
including a UFO, use get on or get off. And, that’s where I get off. And the
key point to help you remember this is, if you can stand up inside, you get on
or get off.
GO AND
PREPOSITIONS
Common mistakes
1. (NG) I go to Macy’s for buying sunglasses

a. (OK) I go to Macy’s to buy sunglasses.
2. (NG) We went to shopping last weekend.
a. (OK) We went shopping last weekend.

I went to the office this morning. Before that, I wanted to get breakfast, so I
went to Sam’s Bagel Shop for a bagel. I love their bagels, and I always go
there to get one. It’s hard to get really nice bagels where I live, so I need to
go to the village. That’s the happening place in the city. Some of my friends
also go drinking in the village. There are a lot of nice clubs and bars there.
We use go to followed by a noun, and that noun is a place.
1. I went to the office this morning.

2. Jack went to Paris in 2010.
3. Jen is going to Boston next weekend.
Keep in mind, we don’t use go to when the destination is home.
1. I went home after work.

2. I’m tired of shopping. Let’s go home.
When you want to mention the reason or purpose of going to the place, use
for followed by a noun.
1. I went to the office for a meeting
2. Jack went to Paris for a vacation.
3. Jen is going to Boston for a concert.
When the reason or purpose of going to the place is an action, use the
infinitive.
1. I went to the office to have a meeting

2. Jack went to Paris to see the Eiffel Tower.
3. Jen is going to Boston to check out a concert.
We can also use go followed by a gerund when the gerund is the action that is
happening in or at the place.
1. I go skiing in Vermont.
2. Bob and his friends went drinking at Rudy’s Bar.
3. We always go shopping at Macy’s.
SECTION 3 – OTHER
GRAMMAR PATTERNS
BE / GET USED TO
Bob was born in New York, but he moved to Tokyo six months ago. Driving
a car in Japan was difficult when he first arrived there. That’s because in the
USA they drive on the right side of the road and the car, but in Japan, they
drive on the left. Now, it is six months since Bob came to the Tokyo. Bob is
used to driving on the left.
We use be used to followed by a gerund to talk about things that at one time
were strange or uncomfortable, but now they feel normal for us because we
are accustomed to them.
1. I have been getting up early for a few years. I'm used to getting
up early, so I don't mind doing it.
2. I've lived in New York almost all my life, so I'm used to riding
crowded trains.
3. Victor is from France. He has lived in NYC for 10 years, so he is
used to speaking English.
We can also use be used to followed by a noun, which has the same
meaning:
1. I’ve only worked here for a month, but I am used to my job.

2. I live in NYC, so I am used to the noise at night.
3. I’m used to the iPhone because I’ve had an iPad for a long time.
Get means become and we use get used to followed by a gerund to talk about
things becoming normal or usual. Get used to talks about becoming used to
something.
1. It took Bob about six months to get used to driving in Tokyo.
2. I got used to my new job in a couple of weeks.
3. It’s not easy to get used to using a new language.
CAUSATIVE WITH MAKE
LET HAVE GET
My boss makes me work a lot of overtime. Just once I wish he would let me
leave the office at 5pm. I can’t even get him to change the dress code. It
makes no sense for us to wear a jacket and tie in the office. I just hope that if
I have to work on the weekend, he has me doing something interesting.
Causative + Base Verb
When we use the causative form of make, have, and let, and the object of
those verbs is performing the action, we use the base form of the main
verb. Someone causes someone to do something.
In its causative form, make has the meaning of “force.” We use make,
followed by a person, followed by a base verb.
1. The boss made Jack work on the report all day.

2. I make my students write a journal every day.
3. Jenny makes her son eat all of his vegetables.
In its causative form, let has the meaning of “permit.” We use let, followed
by a person, followed by a base verb.
1. Bob usually lets his children watch TV after they finish their
homework.
2. Tony let Jane buy a new car after getting a bonus.
3. The airline let me switch my flight without a penalty.
Have, in its causative form, has the meaning of “ask” or “arrange.” We use
have, followed by a person, followed by a base verb.
1. The boss had Jack work on the meeting schedule.
2. Frank had Jack repair his computer.
3. Jane had her students decorate the classroom for the holidays.
In its causative form, get has the meaning of “persuade.” We use get,
followed by a person, followed by an infinitive.
1. The boss got Jack to play golf on Sunday.

2. I got him to agree to help me paint the house.
3. We got Jane to bake an apple pie for the party tomorrow.
We also use the causative of have and get when we ask someone to do a job
for us. We use have or get, followed by a thing, followed by a past participle
verb. You can have something done or you can get something done.
1. I had my hair cut.

2. I need to have my car serviced.
3. I had my house painted last month
CONDITIONALS
I’m really glad that I became an English teacher. I used to be in the music
business. I can’t imagine what would have happened if I hadn’t changed my
career. The music business is tough. If you don’t practice your instrument,
you won’t be able to play it well. Even if you work hard, you may not
become successful. I guess if I were a musician now, I would be writing
music books instead of English books!
When we make a conditional sentence in English using if, there are basically
four different patterns. The first pattern is called the Zero Conditional. We
use this to talk about usual true situations and facts.
The grammar is if / present tense verb, present tense verb.
1. If the temperature reaches 100°C, water boils.

2. If it snows, driving becomes dangerous.
3. If the battery in your phone dies, it needs to be plugged in.
The next pattern is called the First Conditional. We use this to talk about
things that will, can, or may happen in the future and/or probable results in
the future.
The pattern is if / present tense, future (will, be going to, can, may, might).
1. If it snows tomorrow, I will not drive my car.

2. If I am late for work again, the boss is going to be angry.
3. If I need help, I might call you.
Be careful of this common mistake. Don’t put will in the same clause as if:
If I will be late, I will let you know.
The next pattern is called the Second Conditional. We use this to talk about
imaginary and hypothetical situations.
The pattern is if / past tense, would/could/might/may followed by a base
verb.
1. If I won the lottery, I would buy a big yacht.

2. If I *were taller, I could be a better basketball player.
3. If Tom were here, he would be able to fix the computer.
*You might find it odd that in this example, I wrote, “If I were…That’s the
rule: we use were in the Second Conditional.
Depending on the situation or the context, sometimes we can use either the
First or Second Conditional.
1. If I win the lottery, I will buy a big yacht.

2. If I won the lottery, I would buy a big yacht.
But sometimes, depending on the situation or the context, we can’t.
1. If I am taller, I can be a better basketball player. A child could

say this, but not an adult because being taller is not possible for
an adult.
2. If I were taller, I could be a better basketball player.
We often use the Second Conditional phrase If I were you to give advice:
1. If I were you, I would not eat junk food.

2. Are you having car trouble? If I were you, I would take the car
back to the dealer.
3. Jack’s wife is mad at him. If I were Jack, I would bring her
some roses and apologize.
The last pattern is called the Third Conditional. We use this to talk about
imaginary and hypothetical situations in the past. The third conditional is
often used to talk about how the past might have been different.
The pattern is if / past perfect tense, would/could/might/may / have + past
participle verb.
1. If I had known about the exam, I would have studied.
2. If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a big yacht.
3. If I had seen you at the mall, I would have said hello.
FREQUENCY ADVERBS
AND EXPRESSIONS
Jack is a good guy and a good coworker. He always works hard and he never
takes a day off work without a good reason. The boss loves it that he is
always on time. I can always depend on Jack to help me in the office. You’d
be happy working with Jack every day!
There are basically two types of frequency expressions: definite and
indefinite.
Some examples of time expressions that express definite frequency are every
day, once a week, twice a month, etc. These expressions come at the
beginning or the end of a sentence but not after or near the verb.
1. Every day, we have a meeting with the sales team. (or) We have
a meeting with the sales team every day.
2. Once a week, Jack visits his customers. (or) Jack visits his
customers once a week.
On the other hand, we have some adverbs that express indefinite frequency.
The most common ones are always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom,
rarely, and never. For these adverbs, there are three positions and here are
the three rules.
Frequency adverbs come after the be verb.
1. It is seldom warm in February in New York.

2. Jack is never late for work.
3. The boss is usually in a good mood.
Frequency adverbs come before all other verbs, except the be verb.
1. We usually have a meeting with the sales team.

2. Jack always visits his customers.
3. I never eat junk food.
Frequency adverbs come between an auxiliary verb and the main verb.
1. We can usually have a meeting in Conference Room B.

2. Jack has never visited his customers in Paris.
3. I can never figure out one of those Sudoku puzzles.
So those are the three basic rules. But of course, there are some exceptions.
The adverbs sometimes, often, occasionally, frequently, usually, and
normally are exceptions. You can remember them with this acronym:
SOOFUN. Those six adverbs of frequency can also come at the beginning or
the end of a sentence. So we could say:
1. Sometimes, Jack visits his customers in Chicago.

2. Jack visits his customers in Chicago sometimes.
3. Jack sometimes visits his customers in Chicago.
HAVE / GET / WANT /
NEED SOMETHING DONE
The next two months are going to be really busy for me. First, I am going to
have my house renovated. I got an estimate done by several companies, and
finally made a decision. I’m planning to have the carpets changed and get the
walls painted. It’s going to look great!
When you arrange for someone to do a job, or you hire someone to do some
work for you or instead of you, you can use the pattern have (or) get,
followed by a noun, followed by the past participle verb.
1. I have my hair cut every two weeks.

2. I am going to get my house painted.
3. I had my car washed today.
There is no difference in meaning using have or get. So, “I have my hair cut
every two weeks” has the same meaning as “I get my hair cut every two
weeks.”
By the way, in conversational English, we can use this pattern to show that
there was an accident or unfortunate incident. We tend to use get in these
kinds of situations.
1. She got her bag caught in the revolving door.

2. I got my finger stuck in the seatbelt latch.
When there is an order or a deadline, like from a boss or a client, you can use
want or need.
1. The boss wants the report completed by Friday.

2. I need this work done quickly.
MODALS PART 1: MUST /
HAVE TO / NEED TO
MUST
Must shows necessity. We usually use must when someone makes a rule or
law. When you must do something, there is no choice:
1. When you travel abroad, you must have a passport.

2. You must stop at a red light.
3. You must speak quietly in the library.
The negative form of must is must not. However, the meaning is prohibition
(in other words, don’t do that).
1. You must not smoke here.

2. You must not pass a red light without stopping.
3. You must not speak in the library.
Have to is like must. Have to shows necessity and we use have to when
someone makes a rule or law that we need to follow. Have to is softer than
must, but like must, there is no choice.
1. When you travel abroad, you have to have a passport.

2. You have to stop at a red light.
3. You have to speak quietly in the library.
In a negative sentence, don’t have to is used to talk about what is not

necessary. There is no negative form of must, so we do not use don’t must.
1. When you travel from New York to Miami, you don’t have to
bring a passport.
2. You don’t have to stop at a green light.
3. You don’t have to speak quietly in the library café.
Had to is used to talk about past necessity. There is no past form of must
to mean necessity.
1. When I traveled abroad, I had to have a passport.

2. You had to stop at the red light. That’s why the police stopped
you.
3. You have to speak quietly in the library. That’s why the librarian
scolded you.
NEED TO AND HAD
BETTER
Like must and have to, need to is also used to talk about what is necessary.
The basic difference between need to, and must and have to is where the
necessity comes from. Generally, with must and have to, the necessity
comes from someone other than ourselves. However, we use need to when
we talk about personal requirements. With need to, the necessity comes from
ourselves. Compare the following examples:
1. When you travel abroad, you must have a passport. The necessity
comes from the law.
2. You have to be quiet in the library. The necessity comes from a
rule.
3. I need to go on a diet. I’m getting too heavy. The necessity
comes from myself.
I like to think that with must and have to, the necessity comes from outside
me, and with need to, the necessity comes from inside me. You can use need
to when you make the rules or plan for yourself:
1. I need to exercise more.

2. Jack said he needs to get a new computer.
3. We need to leave by 5 in order to get to the station on time.
MODALS PART 2: HAD
BETTER / SHOULD /
OUGHT TO
HAD BETTER
Had better is used when we give someone a warning. Had better means, if
you don’t do it, something bad will happen.
1. It’s very cold outside today. You had better dry your hair before
going out; otherwise you’ll catch a cold.
2. You still have that headache? You had better see a doctor.
3. If you want to pass this course, you had better do all of your
homework.
SHOULD AND OUGHT TO
Should and ought to are used in a variety of situations. Keep in mind that
there is no difference in meaning between should and ought to.
Should and ought to are used to talk about something that is “a good idea”
and are often used to make a suggestion.
1. We should go home now. It’s getting late.

2. You ought to study idioms. They make your conversation more
colorful.
3. When you come to NYC, you should go to Central Park.
In spoken American English, Ought to is usually pronounced like awe-duh.
1. You awe-duh study idioms. They make your conversation more

colorful.
2. When you come to NYC, you awe-duh go to Central Park.
We also use should and ought to when we talk about situations that are
probably going to happen, because they are usual and expected:
1. Class should be finished by 1pm. Class usually finishes at 1pm.

2. Jane ought to be here soon. She left her house 30 minutes ago. It
takes 30 minutes to get here.
We use should have followed by the past participle verb when we talk
about a situation that we expected to happen in the past, but did not. We also
use this form to talk about past regrets. We don’t use ought to in these
situations:
1. The train should have gotten here ten minutes ago. I expected
the train to be here 10 minutes ago.　　
2. I should have studied math harder in school. I regret not
studying math hard in school.
MODALS PART 3: MAY /
MIGHT / CAN
MAY AND MIGHT
In many cases, we use may and might with the same meaning.
We use may and might to show that something is possible.
1. It may rain tomorrow (or) It might rain tomorrow.

2. I may go skiing this weekend (or) I might go skiing this
weekend.
3. Jack may visit us when he comes to NYC (or) Jack might visit
us when he comes to NYC.
In formal situations, we use may, and not might, when we express our
wishes or hopes. This is done more in written than spoken English.
1. May you have a very successful trip.

2. Congratulations on your wedding. May you have a lifetime of
happiness and joy.
We use may, and not might, to politely ask for something or to politely ask
for permission.
1. May I have another cup of coffee?

2. May I ask you a question?
CAN
We use can to talk about ability that comes after a certain amount of practice.
1. I can play the guitar. I started when I was nine years old.
2. Joe can throw a baseball over 90 miles per hour.
3. My sister can tap dance.
We use can to talk about learned knowledge that comes after a certain
amount of study:
1. I can speak Japanese and Portuguese.

2. Bob can solve a Sudoku puzzle very quickly.
3. Kate can tell you anything about history.
We use can to talk about having the opportunity to do something.
1. Tourists in NYC can experience so many things.

2. In a university, you can meet many students from various
countries.
3. You can find all kinds of books in that shop.
We use can to express permission.
1. You can watch TV after you finish your homework.

2. In some states, you can drive 65mph on the highway.
3. Mom said I can have a second piece of chocolate cake.
We use can to make requests.
1. Can you help me with my homework?

2. I’m thirsty. Can I have a cool drink?
3. Can we take a break from studying now? I’m tired.
We use can to make a suggestion or offer.
1. We can take a break now if you’d like.

2. What do you want for dinner? We can have pizza or burgers.
3. You can sit in the front seat of the roller coaster.
We use can to talk about usual or typical situations.
1. Working long hours can be dangerous for your health.

2. Be careful of that dog. He can be quite aggressive.
3. Bosses and teachers can be quite demanding.
MODALS PART 4: COULD
We use could as the past tense of can in a negative sentence meaning ability.
1. I couldn’t swim well when I was a kid

2. Jack couldn’t find his wallet this morning.
3. Because of the heavy traffic, we couldn’t catch the flight.
We don’t use could as the past tense of can in a positive sentence meaning
ability. When we talk about ability in a positive sentence in the past, we
prefer to use was able to instead of could.
1. I was able to find the jacket I was looking for.

2. We were able to get on the next flight.
3. Finally, Jack was able to find his wallet…it was in the washing
machine!
We use could to indicate possibility or the fact that something is likely to

happen.
1. They could be right. This dirt road looks a little unsafe.

2. I would go if I could afford it.
3. This shelf was not installed properly. I think it could easily fall.
We use could to make polite requests:
1. Could I use the phone?

2. Could we have some more coffee?
We use could followed by the past particle verb to indicate annoyance

because of something that has not been done. The if condition is often
unstated and implied.
1. They could have told me that they were coming late!

2. We could have gotten a free dessert!
We use could to indicate a person’s strong inclination to do something or

behave in a certain way.
1. He irritates me so much that I could scream.

2. She could be so negative sometimes.

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Let’s get the ball rolling!

Should and Ought To

I’m not hungry because I already ate.

Adjectives include objective words like colors, sizes, and shapes.

Adverbs that modify verbs indicate how the action happens.

Adverbs that modify adjectives indicate the degree of that

Let’s go to the park tomorrow.

Please put the paper in this box.

Listening to jazz helps me relax.

To listen to jazz is to experience the soul of music.

We went to the mall and I bought a new suit.

Today I saw a dog and a cat.

1. (NG) I am going to Paris two weeks later.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. I’ll be finished with work in an hour. (“In an hour” means one

1. I saw Brad a week ago in a deli. Two days later, we went to a

1. (NG) All car has four wheels.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. All cars have four wheels.

We use all of plus a determiner when we refer to a particular or specific thing

1. All of the cars in that shop are very expensive.

1. All the cars in that shop are very expensive.

1. Every car in that shop is very expensive.

However, we generally tend to use each when we think of things individually

However, we tend to use every when we think of things as part of a group,

1. (NG) Almost people like pizza.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. I almost missed my train today. The train leaves at 7:18, and I

1. It’s almost 11pm. We should go home.

We use almost plus words like everywhere, everyone, everything. Almost

1. Almost everyone at the party drank wine.

1. Almost all Americans like pizza.

1. Most Americans like pizza. → Almost all Americans like

We use most plus a plural noun to talk about general things.

1. Most Americans like pizza.

1. Most of my friends like pizza.

1. I like tea, but I mostly drink coffee.

1. (NG) I don’t still know what I need to do.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. Jack started working here two years ago, but he is already a

It is common to use already with the present perfect tense.

1. I’m not hungry now because I’ve already eaten.

1. I’m not hungry now because I already ate.

1. It was warm yesterday, and it is still warm today.

1. It’s warm outside, but it’s not July yet.

1. I haven’t yet found a good pizza shop in this town.

1. I have yet to find a good pizza shop in this town.

1. (NG) Even though rain, I went to the beach.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. Although it rained a lot, I had a good time in London.

Even though is a stronger form of although and is also used before a

It’s also possible to use though, which is a weaker form of although.

1. Though it rained a lot, I had a good time in London.

In conversational English, we sometimes put though at the end of the second

1. It rained a lot and it was cold. We had a nice vacation though.

1. (NG) I know another people who like pizza.

Grammar words and phrases in context

1. Let's meet another day.

1. I have an appointment at 2, so can we meet at another time?

1. I like bebop, but I know there are other kinds of jazz.

1. I have two brothers. One of them lives in Canada. The other

1. (NG) Jack lives in Brooklyn no longer.

Grammar words and phrases in context

Everything Your Grammar Book Didn't Teach You

Everything Your Grammar Book Didn't Teach You

1. Most Americans like pizza. →　Almost all Americans like