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THE MEANING OF HISTORY
HISTORY
- the study of the past, particularly how it relates to
humans.
- umbrella term that relates to past events, memory,
discovery, collection, organization, presentation and
interpretation of information about certain events.
- can be referred as academic discipline that uses
narrative to examine and analyze a sequence of past
events, and objectively determine the patterns of
cause and effect that determine them.
- it is taught as part of primary and secondary
education, and the academic study of history is a
major discipline in university studies.
HISTORIANS
- scholars who write about history.
- They sometimes debate the nature of history and its
usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline
as an end in itself and as a way of providing
“perspective” on the problems of the present.
PREHISTORY
- Events that occurred prior to written record.
CULTURAL HERITAGE/LEGENDS
- these are stories common to particular culture, but
not supported by external sources (such as the tales
surrounding King Arthur)
- this doesn’t show “disinterested investigation”
required of the discipline of history.
HERODOTUS
- A 5th-century BC Greek historian considered by the
Western tradition to be the “FATHER OF HISTORY”
- along with his contemporary THUCYDIDES (an
Athenian historian), they help form the foundations
for the modern study of human history.
- their works continue to be read today, and the gap
between the culture – focused Herodotus and the
military – focused Thucydides remains a point of
contention or approach in modern historical writing.
THE SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS
- A state chronicle in Asia was known to be compiled
from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd century
BC texts survive.
ANCIENT INFLUENCES have helped spawn variant
interpretations of the nature of history which have
evolved over the centuries and continue to change today.
The MODERN STUDY OF HISTORY is wide-ranging,
and includes the study of specific regions, and the study
of certain topical or thematical elements of historical
investigation.
THE MEANING OF HISTORY,
SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA, &
HISTORICAL CRITICISMS OVERVIEW
Lesson 1: THE MEANING OF HISTORY
HISTORY
- derived from Greek word “historia” which means
learning inquiry.
- deals with the study of past events
- Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, looked upon
historyas the systematic accounting of a set of
natural phenomena, that is, taking into consideration
the chronological arrangement of the account. This
explained that knowledge is derived through
conducting a process of scientific investigation of
past events.
- History is referred usually for accounts of
phenomena, especially human affairs in
chronological order.
- There are theories constructed by historians in
investigating history: the factual history and the
speculative history.
1. Factual history presents readers the plain and
basic information vis-à-vis the events that took
place (what), the time and date with which the
events happened (when), the place with which
the events took place, and the people that were
involved (who).
2. Speculative history, on the other hand, goes
beyond facts because itis concerned about the
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reasons for which events happened (why), and
the way they happened (how). It tries to
speculate on the cause and effect of an event
(Cantal, Cardinal, Espino & Galindo, 2014).
HISTORIANS
- Individuals who write about history
- They seek to understand the present by examining
what went before.
- They undertake arduous historical research to come
up with a meaningful and organized rebuilding of the
past.
But whose past are we talking about? This is the basic
question that the historian needs to answer because this
sets the purpose and framework of a historical account.
Hence, a salient feature of historical writing is the facility
to give meaning and impact value to a group of people
about their past.
HISTORIOGRAPHY
- The practice of historical writing
- the 2 traditional methods in doing historical research
that focus on gathering of documents from different
libraries and archives to form a pool of evidence
needed in making a descriptive or analytical
narrative.
- The modern historical writing does not only include
examination of documents but also the use of
research methods from related areas of study such
as archeology and geography.
THE LIMITATION OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE
- The incompleteness of records has limited man‘s
knowledge of history. Most human affairs happen
without leaving any evidence or records of any kind,
no artifacts, or if there are, no further evidence of the
human setting in which to place surviving artifacts.
Although it may have happened, but the past has
perished forever with only occasional traces.
- The whole history of the past (called history-
asactuality) can be known to a historian only
through the surviving records (history-as-record),
and most of history-as-record is only a tiny part the
whole phenomenon. Even the archeological and
anthropological discoveries are only small parts
discovered from the total past.
- Historians study the records or evidences that
survived the time. They tell history from what they
understood as a credible part of the record. However,
their claims may remain variable as there can be
historical records that could be discovered, which
may affirm or refute those that they have already
presented. This explains the ―incompleteness of the
object that historian’s study.
HISTORY AS THE SUBJECTIVE PROCESS OF
RECREATION
- From the incomplete evidence, historians strive to
restore the total past of mankind. They do it from the
point of view that human beings live in different times
and that their experiences maybe somehow
comparable, or that their experiences may have
significantly differed contingent on the place and
time.
- For the historian, history becomes only that part of
the human past which can be meaningfully
reconstructed from the available records and from
inferences regarding their setting. In short, the
historian ‘s aim is verisimilitude (the truth,
authenticity, plausibility) about a past.
- Unlike the study of the natural science that has
objectively measurable phenomena, the study of
history is a subjective process as documents and
relics are scattered and do not together comprise the
total object that the historian is studying. Some of the
natural scientists, such as geologists and
paleozoologists who study fossils from the traces of a
perished past, greatly resemble historians in this
regard, but they differ at certain points since
historians deal with human testimonies as well as
physical traces.
HISTORICAL METHOD AND HISTORIOGRAPHY
- HISTORICAL METHOD - the process of critically
examining and analyzing the records and survivals of
the past
- HISTORIOGRAPHY - The imaginative reconstruction
of the past from the data derived by that process.
- By means of historical method and historiography
(both of which are frequently grouped together simply
as historical method), the historian endeavors to
reconstruct as much of the past of mankind as
he/she can. Even in this limited effort, however, the
historian is handicapped. He rarely can tell the story
even of a part of the past as it occurred. For the past
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conceived of as something that ―actually occurred
places obvious limits upon the kinds of record and of
imagination that the historian may use. These limits
distinguish history from fiction, poetry, drama, and
fantasy.
- HISTORICAL ANALYSIS is also an important
element of historical method.
- In historical analysis, historians:
1. select the subject to investigate 2. collect
probable sources of information on the subject 3.
examine the sources genuineness, in part of in
whole
4. extract credible particulars from the sources (or
parts of sources).
- The synthesis of the ―particulars, thus derived is
historiography.
- SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS cannot be entirely
separated since they have a common ground, which
is the ability to understand the past through some
meaningful, evocative and convincing historical or
cross-disciplinary connections between a given
historical issue and other historical contexts, periods,
or themes.
SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA
- HISTORICAL DATA ARE SOURCED FROM
ARTIFACTS THAT HAVE BEEN LEFT BY THE
PAST. These artifacts can either be relics or remains,
or the testimonies of witnesses to the past.
- HISTORICAL SOURCES - materials from which the
historians construct meaning.
- SOURCE - an object from the past or a testimony
concerning the past on which historians depend to
create their own depiction of that past. A historical
work or interpretation is thus the result of such
depiction.
- The source provides evidence about the existence
of an event; and a historical interpretation is an
argument about the event.
- RELICS OR REMAINS, whose existence offer
researchers a clue about the past. For example, the
relics or remains of a prehistoric settlement. Artifacts
can be found where relics of human happenings can
be found, for example, a potsherd, a coin, a ruin, a
manuscript, a book, a portrait, a stamp, a piece of
wreckage, a strand of hair, or other archeological or
anthropological remains.
- These objects, however, are never the happenings or
the events; if written documents, they may be the
results or the records of events. Whether artifacts or
documents, they are materials out of which history
may be written (Howell and Prevenier, 2001).
Testimonies of witnesses, whether oral or written,
may have been created to serve as records or they
might have been created for some other purposes. All
these describe an event, such as the record of a
property exchange, speeches, and commentaries.
- THE HISTORIAN deals with the dynamic or genetic
(the becoming) as well as the static (the being) and
aims at being interpretative (explaining why and how
things happened and were interrelated) as well as
descriptive (telling what happened, when and where,
and who took part). Besides, such descriptive data as
can be derived directly and immediately from surviving
artifacts are only small parts of the periods to which
they belong.
- A HISTORICAL CONTEXT can be given to them only
if they can be placed in a human setting. The lives of
human beings can be assumed from the retrieved
artifacts, but without further evidence of the human
contexts of these artifacts can never be recaptured
with any degree of certainty.
- WRITTEN SOURCES OF HISTORY written sources
are usually categorized in three ways:
1. narrative or literary 2. diplomatic or juridical
3. social documents.
- NARRATIVE OR LITERATURE - chronicles or tracts
presented in narrative form, written to impart a
message whose motives for their composition vary
widely. For example:
1. a scientific tract is typically composed in order to
inform contemporaries or succeeding generations
2. a newspaper article might be intended to shape
opinion;
3. the so-called ego document or personal
narrative such as a diary or memoir might be
composed in order to persuade readers of the
justice of the author‘s actions
4. a 7 novel or film might be made to entertain, to
deliver a moral teaching, or to further a religious
cause
5. a biography might be written in praise of the
subject‘s worth and achievements (a panegyric, a
public speech or published text in praise of
someone or something or hagiography, the writing
of the lives of saints).
- A narrative source is therefore broader than what is
usually considered fiction (Howell & Prevenier, 2001).
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Diplomatic sources are understood to be those
which document/record an existing legal situation or
create a new one, and it is these kinds of sources that
professional historians once treated as the purest, the
―best source.
- The CLASSIC DIPLOMATIC SOURCE is the
charter, which a legal instrument. A legal document is
usually sealed or authenticated to provide evidence
that a legal transaction has been completed and can
be used as evidence in a judicial proceeding in case
of dispute. Scholars differentiate those legal
instruments issued by public authorities (such as
kings or popes, the Supreme Court of the Philippines
and Philippine Congress) from those involving only
private parties (such as a will or a mortgage
agreement).
- Diplomatic sources possess specific formal
properties, such as hand and print style, the ink, the
seal, for external properties and rhetorical devices and
images for internal properties, which are determined
by the norms of laws and by tradition. Such characters
also vary in time (each generation has its own norms)
and according to origin (each bureaucracy has its
own traditions).
- Social documents are information pertaining to
economic, social, political, or judicial significance.
They are records kept by bureaucracies. A few
examples are government reports, such as municipal
accounts, research findings, and documents like
these parliamentary procedures, civil registry
records, property registers, and records of
census. Non-written Sources of History unwritten
sources are as essential as written sources. There are
two types:
1. MATERIAL EVIDENCE
also known as archeological evidence, is one
of the most important unwritten evidences. This
includes artistic creations such as pottery,
jewelry, dwellings, graves, churches, roads, and
others that tell a story about the past. These
artifacts can tell a great deal about the ways of
life of people in the past, and their culture.
These artifacts can also reveal a great deal
about the socio-cultural interconnections of
the different groups of people especially
when an object is unearthed in more one place.
Commercial exchange may also be revealed
by the presence of artifacts in different places.
Even places that are thought to be insignificant,
such as garbage pits, can provide valuable
information to historians as these can be traces
of a former settlement.
Sometimes, archeological sites that are of
interest to historians are unearthed during
excavations for roads, sewer lines, and big
building structures. Known historical sites are
purposely excavated with the hope of
reconstructing and understanding their
meaningful past. Moreover, archeological finds
such as coins or monies can provide historians
with significant information relating to
government transactions during which the
currencies were in circulation. Similarly,
historians can get substantial information
from drawings, etchings, paintings, films, and
photographs. These are the visual
representations of the past.
2. ORAL EVIDENCE - an important source of
information for historians. Much are told by the
tales or sagas of ancient peoples and the folk
songs or popular rituals from the premodern
period of Philippine history. During the present
age, interviews is another major form of oral
evidence.
PRIMARY VERSUS SECONDARY SOURCES
- There are two general kinds of historical sources:
1. DIRECT OR PRIMARY – original, first-hand
account of an event or period that are usually
written or made during or close to the event or
period. These sources are original and factual,
not interpretive. Its key function is to provide
facts. Examples of primary sources are diaries,
journals, letters, newspaper, and magazine
articles (factual accounts), government records
(census, marriage, military), photographs, maps,
postcards, posters, recorded or transcribed
speeches, interviews with participants or
witnesses, interviews with people who lived
during a certain time, songs, plays, novels,
stories, paintings, drawings, and sculptures.
2. INDIRECT OR SECONDARY - materials made
by people long after the events being described
had taken place to provide valuable
interpretations of historical events. A secondary
source analyzes and interprets primary sources.
It is an interpretation of second-hand account of a
historical event. Examples of secondary sources
are biographies, histories, literary criticism, books
written by a third party about a historical event,
art and theater reviews, newspaper or journal
articles that interpret.
HISTORICAL CRITICISMS
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- examines the origins of earliest text to appreciate
the underlying circumstances upon which the text
came to be (Soulen and Soulen, 2001).
- It has two important goals:
1. to discover the original meaning of the text in
its primitive or historical context and its literal
sense or sensus literalis historicus.
2. to establish a reconstruction of the historical
situation of the author and recipients of the
text
- Historical criticism has two types
1. EXTERNAL CRITICISM 2. INTERNAL CRITICISM
- Historical criticism has its roots in the 17th
century during the Protestant Reformation and
gained popular recognition in the 19th and 20th
centuries (Ebeling, 1963). The absence of
historical investigation paved the way for
historical criticism to rest on philosophical and
theological interpretation. The passing of time
has advanced historical criticism into various
methodologies used today such as source
criticism (which analyzes and studies the
sources used by biblical authors), form criticism
(which seeks to determine a unit‘s original form
and historical context of the literary tradition),
redaction criticism (which regards the author of
the text as editor of the source materials),
tradition criticism (which attempts to trace the
developmental stages of the oral tradition from its
historical emergence to its literary presentation),
canonical criticism (which focuses its
interpretation of the bible on the text of biblical
canon), and related methodologies (Soulen,
2001).
- There are two parts to a historical criticism.
1. to determine the authenticity of the material
TEST AUTHENTICITY
also called provenance of a source. The critic
should determine the origin of the material, its
author, and the sources of information used.
External criticism is used in determining these
facts.
2. to weigh the testimony to the truth
The critic must examine the trustworthiness of the
testimonies as well as determine the probability
of the statements to be true. This process is
called internal criticism or higher criticism
since it deals with more important matters than
the external form.
External Criticism determines the authenticity of
the source. The authenticity of the material may
be tested in two ways, by palaeographical (the
deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts)
and diplomatic criticism (critical analysis of
historical document to understand how the
document came to be, the information
transmitted, and the relationships between the
facts purported in the document and the reality).
The material must be investigated based on the
time and place it is written.
The critic must determine whether the material
under investigation is raw, meaning unaltered,
and it exists exactly as the author left it. The
content must be viewed in every possible angle,
as forgery was not unknown during the Middle
Ages. The authenticity of the material can be
examined from other genuine sources having the
same subject or written during the same period.
The similarities or agreements and differences or
disagreements of some common details, such as
the culture and traditions, and events during the
period by which the document was made can be
a basis for judging the authenticity of the text.
Internal Criticism determines the historicity of
the facts contained in the document. It is not
necessary to prove the authenticity of the
material or document. However, the facts
contained in the document must first be tested
before any conclusion pertaining to it can be
admitted. In determining the value of the facts,
the character of the sources, the knowledge of
the author, and the influences prevalent at the
time of writing must be carefully investigated. It
must be ascertained first that the critic knows
exactly what the author said and that he/she
understands the document from the standpoint of
the author. Moreover, the facts given by the
author or writer must be firmly established as
having taken place exactly as reported.
- To distinguish a hoax or a misrepresentation from a
genuine document, the historian must use tests
common in police and legal detection. Making
the best guess of the date of the document, he/she
examines the materials to see whether they are
not anachronistic:
paper was rare in Europe before the fifteenth
century, and printing was unknown
pencils did not exist there before the 16th century
typewriting was not invented until the 19th
century
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Indian paper came only at the end of that

century.

- The historian also examines the inks for signs of

age or of anachronistic chemical composition.
Making the best guess of the possible author of

the document, he/she sees if he/she can identify

the handwriting, signature, seal, letterhead, or
watermark.

- Even when the handwriting is unfamiliar, it can be

compared with authenticated specimens. One of
the unfulfilled needs of the historian is more of
what the French call ―isographies or the
dictionaries of biography giving examples of
handwriting.

- For some period of history, experts using

techniques known as paleography and
diplomatics have long known that in certain
regions at certain times handwriting and the style
and form of official documents were
conventionalized. The disciplines of paleography
and diplomatics were founded in 17th century by
Dom Jean Mabillon, a French Benedictine monk
and scholar of the Congregation of Saint Maur.

- Seals have been the subject of special study by

sigillographers, and experts can detect fake
ones.
Anachronistic styles (idiom, orthography, or
punctuation) can be detected by specialists who
are familiar with contemporary writing. Often spelling
particularly of proper names and signatures, reveal
forgery as would also unhistorical grammar.

Anachronistic references to events (too early or

too late or too remote) or the dating of a document at
a time when the alleged writer could not possibly
have been at the place designated (the alibi)
uncovers fraud.
Sometimes the skillful forger has all too carefully
followed the best historical sources and his product
becomes too obviously a copy in certain passages;
by skillful paraphrase and invention, he/she is given
away by the absence of trivia and otherwise
unknown details from his/her manufactured
account.

However, usually if the document is where it ought to

be (e.g., in a family‘s archives, of in the governmental
bureau‘s record) its provenance (custody, as the
lawyers refer to it), creates a presumption of its
genuineness (Gottschalk, 1969).
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INTRODUCTION TO READINGS IN
PHILIPPINE HISTORY
HISTORY
• the English word history is derived from the Greek
noun istoia, which means learning.
• used by Greek philosopher Aristotle, history meant a
systematic account of a set of natural phenomena,
whether or not chronological factoring was a factor in
the account.
• equivalent Latin word scientia (science) came and
was used more frequently to designate
nonchronological systematic accounts of natural
phenomena.
• thus, the word history was reserved for accounts of
phenomena ( esp. human affairs) in chronological
order.
“By its most common definition, the word history
now means, ‘the past of mankind’...”
PHILIPPINE HISTORY (OVERVIEW)
• History tackles what men and women have
experienced in the past, and how they have
understood and represented their experiences.
• The study of the beliefs and desires, practices and
institutions of human beings.
• an active factor in the study of the Philippine
Society
• development of Philippine culture
• influences of the colonizers
According to Ambeth Ocampo:
• prefers the word kasaysayan than the word history.
• Kasaysayan has two word components, salaysay
and saysay.
• we are not just learning about the narratives, the
events that happened in the past but are also able
to draw out and understand meaning from what
happened in the past.
TYPES OF HISTORY
• FACTUAL HISTORY which the primary concern of
this approach is simply to present the basic and
plain information to the reader with the emphasis
only of who, what, when and where of history; while,
• SPECULATIVE HISTORY goes beyond dates,
places, persons, events.
• it can be understood as the chronological
presentations of past events, as well as the
discovery, collection, and organization of these
events which is based on the critical examination of
various sources and authentic materials.
THE HISTORIAN
• responsible for studying, reviewing, and writing about
past events.
• records evidences that survived during the time
• does historical research, meaningful and organized
rebuilding of the past
• Verisimilitude (truth, authenticity, and plausibility)
• HISTORIOGRAPHY
- the practice of historical writing
- understands the different approaches of
historical method, to meaningfully rebuild past
events
- supplemented with archaeological and
anthropological evidences
• HISTORY-AS-ACTUALITY, meaning the quality of
being part of history instead of being a historical
myth, legend, or fiction.
Ex. People who first-hand experienced the
eruption of Taal Volcano back on January 12, 2020.
• HISTORY-AS-RECORD, a historical narrative based
on a written record or other documented
communication.
Ex. Modern people today can only read evidence
that gives authentication about the Hanging Gardens
of Babylon.
HISTORICAL METHOD
• process of critically examining and analyzing the
records and survivals of the past.
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
• Select the subject to investigate
• collect probable sources of information
• examine the source’s genuineness
• Extract credible particulars
• SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA, written
sources are categorized in three ways:
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1. Narrative or Literary
• are chronicles or tracts presented in • DECALOGUE OF THE KATIPUNAN
narrative form, written to impart a MOVEMENT
message whose motives for their
composition vary widely.
2. Diplomatic or Juridical
• understood to be which document/record an
existing legal situation or create a new
one, and these kinds of sources that
professional historians once treated as
the purest, the best source.
3. Social documents
• information pertaining to economic, social,
political, or judicial significance.
They are records kept by bureaucracies.
• Written by Andres Bonifacio
NON-WRITTEN SOURCES • Batayan on how to be a Katipunero /
Filipino
• Material Sources • Changed to adopt the “Primer of the
• archaeological sources Katipunan Movement”

• Oral evidences • THE PRIMER OF THE KATIPUNAN

• tales MOVEMENT
• folk songs
• legends

SOURCES OF HISTORY

• Primary Sources
- materials produced by people or groups directly
involved in the event or topic being studied

Primary Sources can be:

• Participants or eyewitnesses to the event
• Photographs • Written by Emilio Jacinto
• Sketches or drawings • “utak ng katipunan”
• Maps or cartography • Mas mainam sa pagiging katipunero /
• Cartoons for propaganda Pilipino
• Material evidences of prehistoric past
• Statistical tables, graphs and charts • DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA
• Oral history, recordings that will be
transcribed or electronic means of accounts
of eyewitnesses
• Orally transmitted materials
• Published or unpublished primary documents
• Artistic productions

EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY SOURCES IN PHILIPPINES

• First book published in the PH during the

1st phase of Spanish Colonization
• Written by Friar Fray Juan de Plasencia
• Published in Manila, 1593
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• Contained the Christian doctrine used to • External Criticism
educate Filipinos at the time • Internal Criticism
• MANUNGGUL JAR
• EXTERNAL CRITICISM
o Practice of verifying authenticity of evidence
by examining its:
- physical characteristics
- consistency with the historical characteristics of
the time when it was produced
- materials used for evidence
• Checking the source if its real or fake
- Paleographer, philologists, numismatics
- People in charge to check the physical
characteristics of historical evidences

• Ancient burial system in the Philippines • INTERNAL CRITICISM

• Remains of the dead are placed in burial jars • Examination of the truthfulness of the evidence
by looking at:
• Secondary Sources - The author of the source
- Its context
• Books, articles and scholarly journals that - Agenda behind its creation
had interpreted primary sources - Knowledge which informed it
• used them to discuss certain subjects of - Its intended purpose
history
• defined by Gottschalk as the testimony of 1. How close was the author to the event being
anyone who is not an eyewitness- that is of studied?
one who was not present at the event of 2. When was the account made?
which he tells 3. Who was the recipient of the account?
4. Is there bias to be accounted for?
EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY SOURCES IN 5. Does informed common sense make the account
PHILIPPINES probable?
6. Is the account corroborated by other accounts?
• THE REVOLT OF THE MASSES
EXAMPLES OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
CRITICISM

• Written by Teodoro Agoncillo

• Narratives of katipuneros
• Interviewed Emilio Aguinaldo
(alleged bones of Andres Bonifacio)
HISTORICAL METHODS
• Sentenced to death by Emilio Aguinaldo
• To determine the authenticity of the material • Attested by Gregorio Masangkay (katipunero),
• Weigh the testimony to the truth that these are the bones of bonifacio
• Lazaro Macapagal (head of the team who killed
the Bonifacio brothers)
• Manuel Quezon made use of the bones of
2 COMPONENTS Bonifacio against Emilio during the
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Commonwealth Elections - Success and failure of a nation
• Authenticity of the bones were questioned - Struggles and conflicts between people
• A set of bones were missing (Procopio - Causes and effects of the downfall of governance
Bonifacio’s bones) • History traces origin of human race
- Barbaric periods to civilizations
- Commencements of Imperial colonialisms
• History will make people understand the
uniqueness of history itself
- Making of critical analysis of events
• History will teach us a lesson to persevere in
building more humane society at present where
human dignity is well-respected not violated
which also shape a better future of human
community

(Tasaday Tribe in the Philippines)

• Allegedly lived with old stone culture even during

the contemporary period
• Pictures of the tribe were released during Martial
Law
• Anthropologists from National Geographic
attested they in fact lived with modernity
• Pres. Ferdinand Marcos diverted the attention of
the Filipino people with pictures of the tribe

(Code of Kalantiaw)

• Allegedly the first justice system of the

Philippines during prehistoric times
• Proposed by Jose Marco
• Attested by Dr. William Henry Scott walang
katuturan na Code of Kalantiaw ang first justice
system ng Pilipinas
• There were lapses in statements of Jose Marco
with the studies of Dr. William Henry Scott

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

• History plays a vital role in understanding the

evolution of change
- Transformation of society