Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of King Saud University – Science

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com

Original article

Morphological, chemoprofile and soil analysis comparison of Corymbia

citriodora (Hook.) K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson along with the green
synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles
Sukanya Panikar a, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini a,⇑, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy b,⇑, C. SumathiJones c,
Amitava Mukherjee d, Palanisamy Prakash e, Taimoor Hassan Farooq f,⇑
a
Department of Biotechnology, Mother Teresa Women’s University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Depatment of Public Health Dentistry, Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital, Pallikaranai, Chennai 600100, India
c
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital, Pallikaranai, Chennai 600100, India
d
Centre for Nanobiotechnology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
e
Department of Botany, Periyar University, Periyar Palkalai Nagar, Salem 636011, Tamil Nadu, India
f
Bangor College China, a Joint unit of Bangor University and Central South university of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, Hunan, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Objective: The objective of this research study was to identify the morphological characteristics and
Received 27 February 2022 essential oil components of Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K. D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson grown in two differ-
Revised 22 April 2022 ent geographical locations-Kodaikanal and Nashik. A comparative soil analysis was also carried out to
Accepted 25 April 2022
detect the soil quality under Corymbia citriodora (C. citriodora) plantation. Green synthesis of Iron oxide
Available online 18 May 2022
nanoparticles from C. citriodora leaf extract has been carried out.
Methods: Hydro-distillation method was used to extract the essential oils from both the species and GC–
Keywords:
MS analysis was carried out to detect the chemical components. A comparative morphological analysis
Corymbia citriodora
GC–MS
was carried out for both the plant specimens while soil analysis from three different places- forest soil,
Agriculture soil soil under C. citriodora plantation and agricultural field soil was performed. Iron oxide nanoparticles were
Forest soil synthesized by using leaf extract of C. citrodora and its reduction by FeSO4
7H2O solution was found. The
C. citriodora soil structural properties of Iron oxide nanoparticles were studied by UV, X-ray diffraction, FTIR and SEM.
Iron oxide nanoparticles Results: The morphological result showed that both the C. citriodora species had the same characteristics
with a slight variation in the bark and leaf colour. The essential oil profile showed citronellol as the major
compound in both the species, dI- Isopulegol was found only in C. citriodora from Kodaikanal in more con-
centration (less than citronellol) while the eucalyptol content was found to be more in Nashik species. For
soil analysis it was observed that, even though the soil in the C. citriodora area is more acidic than forest
soil, with lower quantities of organic matter and minerals, it also has high levels of organic matter and
nutrients, as well as low pH when compared to the soil in agricultural field. The characterisation of iron
oxide nanoparticles by UV, FTIR, XRD and SEM confirmed its formation.
Conclusions: The two varieties of C. citriodora from two different locations have not shown wide differ-
ences in their morphological characters. The amount of essential oil was observed to be low in Nashik
when compared to Kodaikanal, which is due to the geographical area difference. These results showed
that the essential oil content varies depending on location, as well as the fact that C. citriodora has little
or no negative effects on soil quality. The green method used for synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles was
found to be effective.
Ó 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: biotechurn@gmail.com (A.U.R. Nanthini), t.farooq@bangor.ac.uk (T.H. Farooq).
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Production and hosting by Elsevier

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102081
1018-3647/Ó 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
1. Introduction
The Corymbia genus is a member of the Myrtaceae family,
which is divided into three groups: Angophora, Corymbia and
Eucalyptus commonly called as the Eucalyptus group. The Corym-
bia genus was first included alongwith the Eucalyptusgroup but
in 1995, certain studies and new evidence which majorly
included genetic variation showed that some Eucalyptus species
had more prominence to Angophora genus. Due to this, such Euca-
lyptus species were then split into the new genus Corymbia (Hill
and Johnson, 1995). The species of Corymbia is widely distributed
in Australia, while the Eucalyptus group, including the Corymbia
genus, has a long history in India. Tipu Sultan, the ruler of
Mysore, first planted these species in 1790 at the palace garden
near Bangalore, and after sometimes these species was commonly
cultivated and used for firewood and paper pulp industry needs
(Sundar, 2021).
C. citriodora has long been treasured for its wood and essential
oil from its leaves, and this species has well adapted to the agro cli-
matic conditions in the southern belt of India (Singh et al., 1998). It
has been reported that Eucalyptus essential oil ranks first in the
world trade in which C. citriodora essential oil is the major variety.
Different studies have been carried out to study the composition,
biological activities and commercial uses of C. citriodora essential
oil, but not much has been studied about the influence of climate
on essential oil or the effect of C. citriodora growth on the soil prop-
erties. A lot of debate has been carried out on the influence of
Corymbia along with Eucalyptus on the soil properties with a focus
on the possibility of fertility and productivity loss. Some soil qual-
ities are influenced by tree species, according to research (Lugo
et al., 1990; Lemma, 2006).Various research and findings have sta-
ted the negative impact of Eucalyptus and Corymbia on the soil’s
characteristics, however the increase in organic carbon content,
pH and available nutrients has been observed under young C. citri-
odora plantation (Prakasarao et al., 1999; Balamurugan et al.,
2000).
Various parts of plants like leaf, root, latex, seed and stem are
being mostly used for metal nanoparticle synthesis. Nanoparti-
cles produced by plants are more stable, the rate of synthesis
is fast and the shape and size of the synthesised nanoparticles
are unique when compared with chemically synthesised
nanoparticles (Balamurugan et al. (2014)(b)). Synthesis of Iron
oxide nanoparticles by using plant extract has been widely
reported and this has motivated researchers to synthesise Iron
oxide nanoparticles because of their interesting magnetic proper-
ties useful for application in biomedical sector, technological
areas and agricultural sector (Herelkar et al., 2014).Various
works have been reported for the synthesis of Iron oxide
nanoaprticles from Eucalyptus leaf extract (Yong et al., 2018;
Andrade et al., 2022). C. citriodora has been mostly used to syn-
thesise zinc oxide and manganese nanoparticles (Yuhong et al.,
2015; Joao et al., 2022).
An attempt has been carried out in this work to compare and
analyse the morphological traits of C. citriodora growing in two dif-
ferent environmental conditions, to determine the effect of regio-
nal variation on the essential oil chemical profile as well as
quantity. Considering the soil quality factors, an attempt has been
made in this work to figure out the effect of C. citriodora growth on
the soil properties and also a comparison has been carried out with
forest and agriculture field soil. And also the leaf extract of C. citri-
odora was used for the synthesis of green iron nanoparticles. The
findings and studies of this investigation would add detailed infor-
mation on C. citriodora.
2
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study sites
Two areas with different environmental conditions were
selected for the current study. The mountainous area of Kodaika-
nal, Tamilnadu (10.2381° N, 77.4892° E) and the plain area of
Nashik, Maharashtra (19.9975° N, 73.7898° E). Kodaikanal is
located at an altitude of 2,133 m, has a monsoon-influenced sub-
tropical highland climate. The temperature is cool throughout the
year. On the other hand, Nashik at an altitude of 584 m is in trop-
ical location with mild version of tropical wet and dry climate.
2.2. Sample collection of C. citriodora and soil
The plant specimen(consisting of flowering twig) from Kodaika-
nal (A) was collected and identified at BSI, Coimbatore, while the
plant specimen from Nashik (B) was collected and identified at
the Department of Botany, KTHM College in the month of February.
The leaf, flower, fruit, and bark characters were all noted down and
observed for the morphological characterisation. Soil sampling was
carried out from both the areas by standard procedure. Soil was
collected from three different areas from both locations (A and
B): soil from below the C. citriodora tree, soil from an agricultural
field, and soil from a forest (Figs. 1 & 2).
2.3. Morphological characterisation of plant specimens
A detailed morphological characterisation was done for both A
and B specimens by visual assessment (Lutatenekwa et al., 2020)
(Fig. 3 A-A4 & B-B4).
2.4. Extraction of essential oils and GC–MS analysis
The leaves of C. citriodora from both the study areas- Kodaikanal
and Nashik were collected and the same day, essential oil was
extracted using the hydro distillation process 0.4 kg of freshly
cleaned leaves were added to sufficient quantity of water in copper
hydro distillation unit. The essential oils were extracted and iso-
lated after 4 h and stored at room temperature in sealed bottles.
Both the essential oils were analysed for the identification of
metabolites by GC–MS analysis according to Dey and Harborne
(1997), method, with considerable modifications. For compound
separation and identification, an Agilent 7890B gas chromatogra-
Fig. 1. Kodaikanal; 1- Corymbia citriodora (AC); 2- Agriculture field (AA); 3- Forest
patch (AF) Latitude-10.26951, Longitude-77.48110 Altitude-2,133 m.
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
Fig. 2. Nashik; 1- Corymbia citriodora (BC); 2- Agriculture field (BA); 3- Forest patch
(BF) Latitude-19.94129, Longitude-73.78307 Altitude-584 m.
phy system with an Agilent 5977B MS detector was used (Paul
et al., 1999).
2.5. Study of soil properties
All soil samples were chemically analysed at the District soil
testing laboratory in Nashik. A pH metre was used to determine
the pH by making an aqueous suspension of soil (soil and water
in a 1:2.5 ratio) (Jackson, 1967). The electrical conductivity was
measured by using an EC meter (Wagh et al., 2013). The organic
carbon in soil was measured by standard chromic acid wet oxida-
tion method (Walkley and Black, 1934). The organic matter was
found out with the formula, Organic matter (%) = Total Organic
carbon  1.72. The nitrogen content available from the soil was
calculated with the alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and
Fig. 3. A - Corymbia citriodora (Kodaikanal). A1 - Leaves; A2 - Fruits; A3 - Bark; A4 - Flower and Buds; B - Corymbia citriodora (Nashik). B1 - Leaves; B2 - Fruits; B3 - Bark; B4 -
Flower and Buds.
3
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
Asija, 1956). The available phosphorous was estimated by Olsen,
Bray, and Kurtz extraction methods (Wagh et al., 2013).
2.6. Preparation of C. citriodora leaf extract and the synthesis of iron
oxide nanoparticles
The leaves were washed with double distilled water and dried;
about 20 gm of leaves were boiled with 500 ml of deionised water.
After the sample was cooled, the extract was vacuum filtered and
stored in the fridge. A solution of 0.10 M FeSO4.7H2O was prepared
with deionised water. After 5 min, 10 ml of the aqueous solution of
C. citriodora leaf extract was added to the chemical mixture, and
immediately the yellowish colour of the mixture changed into a
greenish black colour. After a few minutes, solution of sodium
hydroxide was added to the mixture for the nanoparticles to pre-
cipitate and settle uniformly. After the addition of sodium hydrox-
ide, the mixture showed black suspended particles. The Iron oxide
nanoparticles were separated by carrying out centrifugation for
20 min at 30,000 RPM/hr two times. The Iron Oxide nanoparticles
pellet were purified by dispersing in sterile distilled water and
again centrifuged 3 times.
2.7. Characterisation of iron oxide nanoparticles
The UV-spectrophotometer analysis characterization of iron
oxide nanoparticles were carried out by using UV–visible spec-
trophotometer (Elico- SL 218 model). The nanoparticles were then
subjected to FT-IR spectroscopy measurements to identify the
available functional groups responsible for the reduction and cap-
ping of Iron oxide nanoparticles (FTIR spectroscopy (PerkinElmer
Spectrum). X-ray diffraction (XRD, Bruker D8 Advance model)
was carried out to determine the crystalline structure of Iron oxide
nanoparticles. SEM analysis was done using software-controlled
scanned electron microscope, and the size and morphology were
determined by SEM.
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081

Table 1 3. Results
Morphological characters of C. citriodora.

S. Characters A species B species 3.1. Morphological characterisation

No.
1. Tree Tall and straight trunk, Tall and straight trunk, While observing the morphological features of the leaves of
around 25 m around 20 m both A and B species, it was found that the leaf length and width
2. Bark White in colour with White in colour mottled
of B species were greater than that of A. The B species leaves were
prominent brown strips
falling out darker green and had a rough texture when compared to the A spe-
3. Twig Woody, cylindrical in Woody, cylindrical in cies. Another difference observed was the size of flowers, the flow-
older part and older part and ers in B species were bigger and more dense than the A species. The
quadrangular towards quadrangular towards A species fruit was bigger than the B species fruit. The rest of the
younger part. younger part.
morphological characters like bark, twigs and inflorescence were
Colour- Red Colour- Dark brown
4. Leaf Leaf arrangement- Leaf arrangement- found to be similar to each other and were not affected by the dif-
Alternate Alternate ference in altitude or climate (Table 1).
Shape-Lanceolate shape Shape-Lanceolate shape
in both young and old in both young and old
Texture- Soft in both Texture- Rough in old and
young and old soft in young
3.2. Essential oils and GC–MS analysis
Colour- Light green in Colour- Dark green in
older leaves; reddish both old and young leaves Both A and B essential oil were obtained in dark yellow colour
green in young leaves Size- 14–30  1–2 cm and with strong lemon scented aromatic odour. The yield of A
Size- 10–26  0.9–2 cm Petiole – Petiolate
essential oil was 7 ml/4 kg of leaves and for B it was 3.2 ml/4 kg.
Petiole – Petiolate Size- 1–2.4 cm in length
Size- 0.8–1.9 cm in length Colour- Red on outside The difference in the essential oil quantity is due to the geograph-
Colour- Red on outside and light green beneath ical location differences. The essential oils of Eucalyptus and Corym-
and light green beneath Leaf has prominent bia produce mostly terpenoidal hydrocarbons. The essential oil of A
Leaf has prominent midrib and reticulate showed 26 compounds, which represents a total percentage of
midrib and reticulate venation
venation
91.86% of the oil profile (Fig. 4). The major compound found
5. Inflorescence Position- Axillary Position- Axillary was citronellal (49.17%) followed by dI-isopulegol (25.39%), euca-
Arrangement- Alternate Arrangement- Alternate lyptol (3.54%), caryophyllene (3.15%) and a-pinene (2.21%). Rest
Peduncle – 1 cm long Peduncle – 1 cm long of the compounds were found to be below 2%. Similarly, in the
Umble with 3 buds, green Umble with 3 buds, green
essential oil of B, 27 compounds were shown and represented a
in colour, conical in colour, conical
operculum operculum total percentage of 93.4% of the oil profile (Fig. 4). Citronellal
Pedicel length- 0.4– Pedicel length- 0.3– (44.56%) was the most abundant compound followed by eucalyptol
0.6 mm 0.6 mm (13.30%), cyclohexanol, 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl) (12.43%),
The flowers were white in The flowers were white in isopulegol (6.55%), a-pinene (4.51%) caryophyllene (3.30%), 3,6-
colour colour
6. Fruit Shape- urceolate Shape- urceolate
octadien-3-ol (2.02%) and camphene (2.01%) (Table 2)Most of the
Size- 1.5–2 cm long Size-1–1.5 cm long compounds in both A and B essential oils were the same, but some
Colour- Brownish black Colour- Black minor amount of compounds were absent in either one of the
essential oils. Fenchone, cyclohexanol, 5-methyl-2-(1-

Fig. 4. GC–MS analysis of A and B species.

4
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081

Table 2
Compounds identified in both A and B essential oil along with its Concentration (%).

S. No Compound identified RT A B
1. a-phellandrene 3.5 0.14 0.16
2. a-pinene 3.6 2.21 4.51
3. Camphene 3.8 0.03 2.1
4. b-pinene 4.2 2.07 0.01
5. b-myrcene 4.3 0.15 0.17
6. 3-carene 4.7 0.12 0.04
7. p-cymene 4.8 0.29 0.95
8. D-limonene 4.9 0.71 –
9. b-ocimene 5.2 0.08 0.05
10 Eucalyptol 5.0 3.54 13.30
11. c-terpinene 5.4 1.34 0.99
12. (+)-4-carene 5.9 0.57 0.44
13. Fenchone 5.11 – 0.19
14. Linalool 6.0 0.38 –
15. dI- isopulegol 6.9 25.39 –
16. citronellal 7.0 49.17 44.56
17. Menthone 7.2 0.09 –
18. isopulegol 7.3 0.94 6.55
19. a-terpineol 7.7 0.37 0.67
20. cyclohexanol, 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl) 8.0 – 12.43
21. cis-carveol 8.5 – 0.10
22. Citral 9.0 0.01 0.06
23. citronellic acid 9.8 0.10 0.10
24. 3,6-octadien-3-ol 10.0 – 2.02
25. 2(1H)-naphthalenone 10.6 0.03 0.16
26. aromadendraane 11.6 0.09 0.30
27. caryophyllene 11.7 3.15 3.30
28. naphthalene 12.1 0.16 0.02
29. a-humulene 12.3 0.19 0.12
30. alloaromadendrane 12.4 0.17 0.10
31. oleic acid 13.3 0.37 –

methylethyl), cis-carveol were absent in essential oil A, while D-

limonene, linalool, dI-isopulegol, menthone and oleic acid were
Table 3 absent in essential oil B.
Classification of the essential oil compounds from both A and B.

Monoterpenes (Acyclic) 1. b-myrcene 3.3. Classification of the essential oil compounds

2. b-ocimene
3. citral Both the essential oil A and B has high concentration of
4. 3,6-octadien-3-ol
monoterpenes and low concentration of sesquiterpenes (Table 3).
Monoterpenes (Cyclic) 1. a-pinene The monoterpene concentration in A essential oil (Citronellal and
2.camphene
Eucalyptol) is 87.51% and 3.76% of sesquiterpenes, while in B
3. b-pinene
4. a-phellandrene essential oil (Citronellal and Eucalyptol) it is 89.11% of monoterpe-
5. p-cymene nes and 3.84% of sesquiterpenes. Cyclic monoterpenes are more in
6. d limonene concentration; the major compound citronellol belongs to acyclic
7. gamma-terpinene alcohol monoterpene group. Two types of ketones and acids are
8. (+)-4-Carene
present in each essential oil which contributes to 1% of essential
Monoterpene (Epioxides) 1. eucalyptol oil profile. A slight increased variation of monoterpenes and
Monoterpene (Acyclic alcohol) 1. linalool sesquiterpenes is observed in B essential oil (Low altitude) when
2. citronellal compared with the A essential oil (High altitude).
3. isopulegol
4.di-isoplulgeol
5. terpineol 3.4. Effect of C. citriodora species on soil properties when compared
Monoterpene (cyclic alcohol) 1. alpha-terpineol with forest soil and agriculture field soil
2. cis-carveol
3.cyclohexanol,5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl) According to our knowledge C. citriodora affecting the soil
Monoterpene (Bicyclic) 1. 3-carene parameters has been not studied widely and due to lack of research
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons 1. aromadendrene in this group, our soil parameters study comparison was done with
2. a-humulene Eucalyptus group (C. citriodora belongs to this group).
3. allo-aromadendrene
4. naphthalene
3.4.1. Soil pH and EC
5. caryophyllene
The acidity or alkalinity of the soil is expressed by the soil pH.
Ketones 1. fenchone
The samples collected in our study reflected a moderately weak
2. menthone
acid range of 5.02–6.7. The AA soil showed a 5.02 pH and it was
Acids 1. citronellic acids
the highest when compared with the rest of the AC (5.92) and AF
2. oleic acid
(6.7). A similar pattern was seen in BA with a 5.45 pH value, which
Non-terpioneodal 2(1H)-naphthalenone
showed the more acidic nature of the soil when compared with BC
5
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
Table 4
Chemical parameters of soil.
Parameters AA AC (Kodaikanal
(Kodaikanal C. citriodra soil)
agriculture field)
pH 5.02 5.92
EC (ds m 1) 0.28 0.17
OC (%) 2.30 3.28
OM (%) 3.956 5.64
N (kg ha 1) 320 356
P (kg ha 1) 85 92
(5.96) and BF (6.5). In both soil samples, it has been observed that
the agriculture soil is more acidic when compared to soil under C.
citriodora. The electrical conductivity of aqueous soil extracts
determines the total soluble salts. It is also one of the important
factors to be noticed while studying soil properties. The EC level
in our study was normal (<0.8 dS m 1), with a range of 0.16–0.28
dS m 1. While comparing the AA and BA with AC and BC, a slight
variation is observed where agriculture soil shows more EC than
C. citriodora soil. Similarly, while comparing AE and BE with AF
and BF it is shown that, the C. citriodora soils have fewer EC values
(0.17dS m 1 and 0.16 dS m 1). While there is no large variation
observed among the soils while observing the EC values (Table 4).
3.4.2. Organic carbon and organic matter
The result showed that the organic carbons as well as organic
matter were highest in both forest soil samples when compared
with agriculture soil and Eucalyptus species soils. Organic carbon
and organic matter for AF were observed to be 5.60% and 9.63%,
while for BF it was 5.23% and 8.99%. Both organic carbon and
organic matter were observed to be in greater percentages in AC
and BC when compared to AA and BA (Table 4).
3.4.3. Nitrogen and phosphorous
The nitrogen values in our study ranged from 320 to 396 kg ha 1.
The nitrogen quantity in AF (396 kg ha 1) and BF (390 kg ha 1)
were found to be higher than the other two soils. When compared
to AA (320 kg ha 1) and BA (350 kg ha 1), the AC (356 kg ha 1) and
BC (373 kg ha 1) were abundant. The available phosphorous was
recorded from 85 kg ha-1to 98 kg ha 1. The AF (98 kg ha 1) and
BF (97 kg ha 1) had more amount of when compared to agriculture
soil and C. citriodora soils. Similar to nitrogen content, the phos-
phorous content in AC (92 kg ha 1) and BC (94 kg ha 1) was more
than AA (85 kg ha 1) and BA (90 kg ha 1) (Table.4).
3.5. Characterisation of iron oxide nanoparticles
In the typical synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles, C. citriodora
leaf extract was added slowly into FeSO4.7H2O solution at room
temperature. After adding the leaf extract into FeSO4.7H2O solu-
tion, within 3 min, a visible colour change was observed, the bluish
green colour aqueous solution of FeSO4.7H2O turned to black
indicating the synthesis of Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fig. 5A). UV–
visible spectroscopy image of the synthesised iron oxide nanopar-
ticles, the colour changes from yellow to greenish black and this
indicates the formation of iron oxide nanoparticles. The analysis
of UV was done in the range of 200–800 nm and the maximum
absorbance was observed at 310 nm region (Fig. 5B). FT-IR spec-
trum was recorded within the wavelength range 4000–400 cm 1
which ensured the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles and also
some of the functional groups of the C. citriodora leaf extract. The
peak 3400.1 cm 1 indicates –OH stretching, 1628.7 cm 1 indicates
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
AF (Kodaikanal BA (Nashik BC BF (Nashik
Forest soil) agriculture field) (Nashik Forest field)
C. citriodora soil)
6.7 5.45 5.96 6.5
0.20 0.22 0.16 0.24
5.60 2.32 2.80 5.23
9.632 3.99 4.81 8.99
396 350 373 390
98 90 94 97
H–O–H bond, 1267.55 and 1121.02 cm 1 indicates plant materials
and 596.31 cm 1 were assigned to Fe–O stretching (Fig. 5C). The
XRD analysis determines the average size, the crystalline nature
of the particles and quality of the compound. The XRD pattern dis-
played nine characteristic 2h peaks at 25°, 34°, 37°, 42°, 52°, 56°,
64°,66° and 73° marked by their indices (0 1 2), (1 0 4), (1 1 0),
(1 1 3), (0 2 4), (1 1 6), (1 1 8), (2 1 4) and (3 0 0) respectively
(Fig. 5D) which indicated the formation of iron oxide nanoparticles.
The sharp intense peaks showed that the iron oxide nanoparticles
synthesised by C. citriodora leaf extract was crystalline in nature.
SEM images revealed that the synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
were aggregated as irregular rhombic shapes with panoramic view
and range from 50 to 80 nm in size (Fig. 5E).
4. Discussions
It has been observed that morphological changes in leaves occur
in response to the changing environment, and these changes are
readily acquired by the plants (Yang et al., 2015). Sultan, 1995
has reported that in response to the environmental variations
plants have the ability to bring out changes in their morphological
characters, hence same species plant growing in different locations
can show different morphological characteristics. Even though the
difference is not large between A and B species, McDonald et al.,
(2003) studied that the leaf size decreases with increasing altitude,
and this is due to precipitation, as well as a reduction in soil nutri-
ent concentration. The micro environment surrounding the Euca-
lyptus and Corymbia species can bring about changes in the leaf
development pattern (Shelly and David, 2000).The difference in
the essential oil quantity is due to the geographical location differ-
ences. Various exogenous factors like light, precipitation, growing
site which includes the latitude and altitude, nature of the soil
(chemical properties) etc affects the yield of essential oils (Barra,
2009). A previous study has reported the higher altitude plants
produces higher oil yield when compared to lower altitude plants
(Singh et al., 2012).Differences in essential oil yield show that the
source of seed (area or region) within a species has a significant
impact on the success and productivity of forest tree plantings
(Missanjo et al., 2014). Kodaikanal has high altitude and more
amount of rainfall when compared to Nashik area, due to this dif-
ference, it was observed that some compounds (>1% concentration)
like, a-pinene, camphene, eucalyptol, isopulegol and caryophyllene
increased in quantity with the decrease in altitude, while a few
compounds like b-pinene, c-terpinene and citronellal increased
with the increase in altitude. The same result was found by Sanli
and Karadogan (2017) when compared with essential oils com-
pounds of Kundmanniaanatolica Hub.-Mor. At different altitudes,
chemical components, such as a-thujene, a-phellandrene, b-
pinene, b-myrcene and c-terpinene decreased in quantity with
altitudinal increase, while constituents like alpha-pinene increased
in quantity with a decrease in altitude. The difference in climatic
6
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
Fig. 5. A - Visual observation; B - UV–Vis spectrum of iron oxide nanoparticles; C - FT-IR spectrum of synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles; D - XRD spectrum of synthesized
iron oxide nanoparticles; E - SEM analysis of Iron oxide nanoparticles.
factors especially, rainfall and humidity may attribute to the pres-
ence of compounds like D-limonene, linalool, dI-isopulegol, men-
thaone and oleic acid in Kodiakanal C. citriodora species while
these compounds were absent in Nashik C. Citriodora species.
The essential oils of Eucalyptus and Corymbia produce mostly
terpenoidal hydrocarbons. Tobla et al. (2015) reported the major
7
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
compounds were citronellal (69.77%), citronellol (10.63%), and
isopulegol (4.66%) in the essential oil of E. citriodora from Algeria
(C. citriodora). Our study showed the presence of 4 acyclic
monoterpenes, 8 Cyclic monoterpenes, 1 monoterpene (epioxides),
5 acyclic alcohol monoterpene, 3 cyclic alcohol monoterpene, 1
bicyclic monoterpene, 5 sesquiterpene hydeocarbons, 2 ketones,
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
2 acids and 1 non-terpioneodal comnpounds. The percentage of
sesquiterpene hydrocarbon decreased with an increase in altitude
(Talebi et al., 2019). Bilger et al. (2007) have stated that plants at
higher altitudes face higher UV-B radiations that havepleiotropic
effects on contents of secondary metabolites. Our results agreed
with previous findings. Concentrationof terpenes differ in essential
oil compositions along the altitude gradient. The sesquiterpenes
accounted for the majority of the altitudinal variations in terpene
chemistry, with most sesquiterpenes decreasing as altitude
increased (Lockhart, 1990).
Soil analysis study showed that even though the difference is
not drastic, the acidity of soil in agricultural land can be due to
the addition of fertilizer or use of chemical materials. Soil acidity
increases with exhausting farming, which is prolonged for many
years with the use of fertilisers. The findings matched those of
Alemie’s, (2009) investigations, which found lower soil pH and val-
ues shifting from 3.5 to 4.0 beneath eucalyptus species plantations
in Ethiopia’s Koga watershed. Liang et al. (2016) reported the same
results when compared to nearby agricultural land. The forest soils
in both the areas are showing less acidic level when compared to C.
citriodora and Agricultural soil. It has been found that forest soils
should be mildly acidic in order to maintain a balanced nutrient
flow (Leskiw, 1998). The electrical conductivity of aqueous soil
extracts determines the total soluble salts. It is also one of the
important factors to be noticed while studying soil properties.
While there is no large variation observed among the soils while
observing the EC values. The high EC values in AA and BA (when
compared to AC, BC, AF and BF) can be due to the use of fertilizers
or increased amount of irrigation (Visconti and de Paz, 2016).
Soil physical properties are affected by changes in SOC (Soil
Organic Carbon) concentration. Organic matter in the form of sur-
face residues can also have a direct impact on water retention by
lowering evaporation rates and enhancing water infiltration
(Gairola et al., 2012).When compared to agriculture and C. citri-
odora soil, the high organic carbon and organic matter in forest
can be attributed to the extended canopy cover and increased pro-
ductivity in dense, indigenous (Liang et al., 2016). The forest vege-
tation is also diverse in species of trees, including grasses and a
limited number of animals grazing, which all adds to the increased
organic material (Singwane and Malinga, 2012). Both organic car-
bon and organic matter were observed to be in greater percentages
in AC and BC when compared to AA and BA. Despite the fact that
our findings contradict a few comparative studies on soil nutrients
from exotic Eucalyptus species plantations and other land uses,
(Michelsen et al., 1996) similar results have been shown by
research conducted out by Ashagrie et al. (2005) and Bekel et al.
(2006), who showed that plantation of Eucalyptus species has
increased the total soil organic matter after 20 years of plantation.
In most ecosystems, nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient
found in soil (Fenn et al., 1998).Our result was found to be in line
with Yitaferu et al., 2013 who stated that there was more nitrogen
in eucalyptus planted land than other lands. Nitrogen and phospho-
rous are both linked with the quantity of organic matter, as
increased litter falling in the forest and C. citirodora area increases
the microorganisms’ breakdown, which generates more nitrogen
and phosphorous which increases the organic matter (Alemayhu
and Yakob, 2020). A major reason is that the agriculture fields
are cultivated and harvested more frequently due to the fact that
which they lose a lot of additional nutrients in their topsoil.
Although fertilizers are added to increase the nitrogen and phos-
phorous content in soil, they are actively used up by the crops,
causing the soil to become depleted quickly (Alemie et al., 2013).
The degradation of soil by Eucalyptus and Corymbia species is
one of the most concerning parts. Studies have reported that these
species plantations make the soil unfit for future agricultural uses
(Palmberg, 2002). Overall physico-chemical characteristics show
8
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
that the C. citriodora growth has not affected the soil as compared
to the agricultural land. Of the three area soils, the forest soil from
both A and B locations had higher quality soil. However, in com-
parison to the agriculture field soil from both A and B, the C. citri-
odora soils with significantly higher level of organic matter and
comparable pH and nutrient levels suggest that C. citriodora plan-
tation may not always be as detrimental to soil properties as stated
in most of the studies. Cunha et al. (2019) has reported that long-
rotation nutrient cycling process of C. citriodora is important for
maintaining efficiency of the forest site. The soil under C. citriodora
has been found to show effect on concentration of P, K, OC, Ca, Mg,
Cu, Fe, Mn and B which was found to be reduced however the con-
centration of N,Z and Sn was found to be increased (Ramamurthy
et al., 2016).
One of the most important properties of Iron oxide nanoparti-
cles is to evaluate its optical and photo catalytic activity, UV–Visi-
ble spectroscopy is carried out as a preliminary testing to know the
above activity. The addition of C. citriodora extract to FeSO4
7H2O
solution showed an immediate colour change which determined
the formation of Iron oxide nanoparticles (Dadhore et al., 2019).
The absorption maxima iron oxide nanoparticles with a peak above
300 nm have been reported by Sravanthi et al. (2016). FTIR displays
three strong bonds around 1628.7 cm 1, 1121.02 cm 1 and
596.31 cm 1. The broad peak observed around 596.31 cm 1 (Fe–
O stretching) can be due to the presence of organic molecule from
the leaf extract on the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles. The
other broad peak 1628.7 cm 1 shows H–O–H stretching which
indicates phenolic compounds. The weak bond at 447.04 cm 1
and 9570.6 cm 1 may be indicating the presence of unsaturated
nitrogen compounds, alkaloids and tannins. The results obtained
have been found to be similar with Niraimathee et al. (2016) and
Sarvanthi et al. (2016). The XRD pattern and the peaks obtained
confirmed the presence of Iron oxide nanoparticles, the crys-
tallinity and the purity of the nanoparticles was denoted by the
sharp peaks (Balamurughan et al., 2014 (a)). The surface morphol-
ogy and size of particles were determined by SEM analysis. The
interaction between the iron nanoparticle and its magnetism
shows an agglomeration to some extent (Arokiyaraj et al., 2013).
Along with green fertilizer use of iron oxide nanoparticles it has
also shown antifungal, antibacterial and various other biomedical
applications (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2022).
5. Conclusions
C. citriodora has great commercial value due to its essential oil.
The two varieties of C. citriodora from two different locations have
not shown a wide difference in their morphological characters. The
amount of essential oil was observed to be low in Nashik when
compared to Kodaikanal, which is due to the geographical area dif-
ference. Temperature, altitude, rainfall, humidity all plays a major
role in a plant’s growth and in the synthesis of its secondary
metabolites. Citronellal was the major compound found in both
the species followed by alpha-pinene. In both species, eucalyptol
which is the major compound found in all Eucalyptus species,
was found to be in different concentration (lower than citronellal)
in both. The difference in essential oil amount between locations as
well as the presence and absence of some compounds could be
caused by various factors, counting internal and external factors.
These are the same factors that influenced oil accumulation in eu-
calyptus species. The impacts of the Eucalyptus group on soil health
remain highly debated among scientists and farmers. Our result
indicates that the soil under the C. citriodora is more acidic and
has fewer nutrients and organic matter when compared to the for-
est soils, but the difference is not large. However, there is also evi-
dence from our study that C. citriodora plantations exhibit high
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
organic matter and nutrients in comparison to nearby agriculture
fields and there is no increase in acidity. Even though eucalyptus
appears to be more favourable than agricultural soil in our study
in terms of six soil characters, other ecological effects of C. citri-
odora like water use and allelopathic have not been carried out.
As a result future research needs to be carried out to understand
the role of C. citriodora on soil and the rehabilitation of agricultural
soil that has been previously degraded by extensive cultivation.
While the synthesis of Iron oxide nanoparticles by using green
method has been found to be eco-friendly and cost-effective when
compared to chemical ways. The prepared iron oxide nanoparticles
can be effectively applied as nano-fertilisers without any
modification.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by TNSCSCT/DST, reference number
TNSCSCT/DST-PRG/TD-AWE/VR/06/2017/3033. The authors would
like to acknowledge Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital, Pal-
likarani, Chennai, India for providing support and facilities for the
completion of this work.
References
Alemayhu, A., Yakob, G., 2020. Soil physicochemical properties under Eucalyptus
tree species planted in alley maize cropping agroforestry practice in
DechaWoreda, Kaffa zone, Southwest Ethiopia. Int. J. Agric. Res. Innovat.
Technol. 10 (2), 7–14.
Alemie, T.C., 2009. The Effect of Eucalyptus on Crop Productivity, and Soil Properties
in the Koga Watershed, Western Amhara Region, Ethiopia, M.Sc. Thesis. Faculty
of the Graduate School of Cornell University, p. 60.
Alemie, T.C., Collick, A.S., Adgo, E., Lehmann, C.J., Steenhuis, T.S., 2013. Eco-
hydrological impacts of Eucalyptus in the semi humid Ethiopian Highlands: the
Lake Tana Plain. J. Hydrol. Hydromech. 61 (1), 21–29.
Andrade, Z.K., Chacon, L.Y., Asmat, C.D., Raquel, C.N., 2022. Green synthesis of of
superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with eucalyptus globules extract
and their applications in the removal of heavy metals from agricultural soil.
Molecules 27 (4), 1367.
Arokiyaraj, S., Saravanan, M., UdayaPrakash, N.K., ValanArasu, M., Vijayakumar, B.,
Vincent, S., 2013. Enhanced antibacterial activity of iron oxide magnetic
nanoparticles treated with Argemone mexicana L. leaf extract: an in vitro
study. Mater. Res. Bull. 48, 3323–3327.
Ashagrie, Y., Zech, W., Guggenberger, G., 2005. Transformation of a
Podacarpusfalcatus dominated natural forest into a monoculture Eucalyptus
globulus plantation at munesa, Ethipoia: soil organic C, N and S dynamics in
primary particle and aggregrate-size fractions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 106, 89–
188.
Balamurughan, M.G., Mohanraj, S., Kodhaiyolii, S., Pugalenthi, V., 2014. (a). Ocimum
sanctum leaf extract mediated green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles.
Spectroscopic and microscopic studies. J. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 4, 201–204.
Balamurugan, M., Saravanan, S., Soga, T., 2014(b).. Synthesis of iron oxide
nanoparticles by using eucalyptus globulus plant extract. e-J. Surf. Sci.
Nanotech 12, 363–367.
Balamurugan, J., Kumar, K., Sawmy, A., Rajarajan, A., 2000. Effect of eucalyptus
citriodora on the physical and chemical properties of soils. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.
48, 491–545.
Barra, A., 2009. Factors affecting chemical variability of essential oils: a review of
recent developments. Nat. Prod. Commun., 1147–1154
Bekel, L., Dan, B.K., Ingvar, N., Mats, O., 2006. Soil carbon sequestration under
different exotic tree species in the south western highlands of Ethiopia.
Geoderma 136, 886–898.
Bilger, W., Rolland, M., Nybakken, L., 2007.UV. UV screening in higher plants
induced by low temperature in the absence of UV-B radiation. Photochem.
Photobiol. Sci. 6, 190–195.
Bhuvaneshwari, B., Bidipta, G., Richa, C., Raj, K.G., 2022. Iron oxides and their
prospects for biomedical applications. Metal oxides for biomedical and
biosensor applications. Metal Oxides, 503–524.
Cunha, G.M., Rodrigues, A.C.G., Rodrigues, E.F.G., Moreira, G.R., 2019. Nutrient
cycling in Corymbia citriodora in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Florest.
Ambient. 26 (2), e20170204.
9
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
Dadhore, H., Kaur, C., Shrivastava, S., Choudhary, R., 2019. Synthesis and
characterization of zero valent iron nanoparticles. AIP Conference Proceedings
Volume 2100.
Dey, P.M., Harborne, J.B., 1997. Plant Biochemistry. Academic Press, London. eBook
ISBN: 9780080525723.
Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D., Boron, J.S., Bormann, B.J., Johnson, D.W., Lenly, A.D.,
McNulty, S.G., Ryan, D.F., Stottlemeyer, R., 1998. Nitrogen excess in North
American ecosystems: predisposing factors, ecosystem responses and
management strategies. Ecol. Appl. 8 (3), 706–733.
Gairola, S., Sharma, C.M., Ghildiyal, S.K., Suyal, S., 2012. Chemical properties of soils
in relation to forest composition in moist temperate valley slopes of Garhwal
Himalaya, India. Environmentalist 32, 512–523.
Herelkar, M., Barve, S., Kumar, R., 2014. Plant-mediated green synthesis of Iron
nanoparticles. J. Nanopart., 140614
Hill, K.D., Johnson, L.A.S., 1995. Systematic studies in the eucalypts. 7. A revision of
the bloodwoods, genus Corymbia (Myrtaceae). Telopea 6 (2–3), 388–389.
Jackson, M. L., 1967.Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi, 123-126.
Lemma, B., 2006. Impact of Exotic Tree Plantations on Carbon and Nutrient
Dynamics in Abandoned Farmland Soils of Southwestern Ethiopia. PhD
dissertation, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of
Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala: SLU Service/Repro.
42.
Leskiw, L.A., 1998. Land Capability Classification for Forest Ecosystem in the Oil
Stands Region. Alberia Environmental Protection, Edmonton.
Liang, J., Reynolds, T., Wassie, A., Collins, C., Wubalem, A., 2016. Effects of exotic
Eucalyptus spp. plantations on soil properties in and around sacred natural sites
in the northern Ethiopian Highlands. AIMS Agric. Food 1 (2), 175–193.
Lockhart, L.A., 1990. Chemotaxonomic relationships within the Central American
closed-cone pines. Silvae Genet., 39; 5–6.
Lugo, A.E., Cuevas, E., Sanchez, M.J., 1990. Nutrients and mass in litter and top soil of
ten tropical tree plantation. Plant Soil 125, 263–280.
Lutatenekwa, D.L., Mtengeti, E.J., Msalya, G.M., 2020. A review of plant
characterization: First step towards sustainable forage production in
challenging environments. Afr. J. Plant Sci., 350–357
McDonald, P.G., Fonseca, C.R., Overton, J.M., Westoby, M., 2003. Leaf-size divergence
along rainfall and soil-nutrient gradients: is the method of size reduction
common among clades. Funct. Ecol. 217, 50–57.
Michelsen, A., Lisanework, N., Friis, I., Holst, N., 1996. Comparisons of understory
vegetation and soil fertility in plantations and adjacent natural forests in the
Ethiopian Highlands. J. Appl. Ecol. 3, 627–642.
Missanjo, E., Kandota, C., Thole, G., 2014. Essential oil yield of Corymbiacitrodora as
influenced by harvesting age, seasonal variation and provenance at citrifine
plantations in northern Malawi. J. Biodivers. Manage. For. 3, 3.
Niraimathee, V.A., Subha, V., Ravindran, E., Renganathan, S., 2016. Green synthesis
of iron oxide nanoparticles from mimosa pudica extract. Int. J. Environ. Sustain.
Develop. 15 (3).
Palmberg, C., 2002. Annotated Bibliography on Environmental, Social and Economic
Impacts of Eucalypts. FAO.
Paul, P.J., Perez, A.M.J., Velasco, N.V., Ramos, V.P., Gomez, C.F., Sanz, J., 1999.
Essential oil of Santlina rosamarinifolia L., ssp. Rosmarinifolia: first isolation of
capillene, a diacetylene derivative. Flav. Frag J. 14 (2), 131–134.
Prakasarao, E.V.S., Puttana, K., Ganeshrao, R.S., Gopinath, C.T., 1999. Eucalyptus
citriodora-agranomic potentials, distillation technology and soil fertility. Fafai
J., 44–47
Ramamurthy, V., Singh, M., Srinivas, A., Babu, A.C., Naidu, L.G.K., Rao, P., 2016. Effect
of age of plantation and Eason on leaf yield, content and composition of oil of
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. and soil properties in Semi Arid conditions of
Karnataka. Res. Crops 17 (1), 112–117.
Sanli, A., Karadogan, T., 2017. Geographical impact on essential oil composition of
endemic Kundmanniaanatolica Hub-Mor (Apiaceae). Afr. J. Trad. Complement.
Altern. Med. 14, 131–137.
Shelly, A.J., David, T.B., 2000. Influence of light availability on leaf structure and
growth of two Eucalyptus globules ssp. Globules provenances. Tree Physiol. 20
(15), 1007–1018.
Singh, K., Rao, B.R.R., Singh, C.P., Bhattacharya, A.K., Kaul, P.N., 1998. Production
potential of aromatic crops in the alleys of Eucalyptus citriodora in semi-arid
tropical climate of South India. J. Med. Arom. Plants Sci. 20, 749–752.
Singh, H.P., Kaur, S., Kumari, K., Saini, S.V., Batish, D.R., Kohli, R.K., 2012. Assessment
of in vitro antioxidant activity of essential oil of Eucalyptus citriodora (lemon-
scented Eucalypt; Myrtaceae) and its major constituents. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol. 48, 237–241.
Singwane, S.S., Malinga, P., 2012. Impacts of pine and eucalyptus forest plantations
on soil organic matter content in Swaziland -Case of Shiselweni forests. J.
Sustain. Dev. Afr. 14, 137–151.
Sravanthi, M., Kumar, D.M., Ravichandra, M., Vasu, G., Hemalatha, K.P.J., 2016. Green
synthesis and characterisation of Iron oxide nanoparticles using Wrightia
ticctoria leaf extract and their antibacterial studies. Int. J. Curr. Res. Acad. Rev. 4,
30–44.
Subbiah, B.V., Asija, G.L., 1956. A rapid procedure for the estimation of available
nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci. 25, 259.
Sultan, S.E., 1995. Phenotypic plasticity and plant adaptation. Acta Bot. Neerlandica
44 (4), 363–383.
Sundar, S.S., 2021. A Comparative study of the chemical composition of the essential
oil from Eucalyptus globulus growing in Dehradun (India) and around the
world. Orient. J. Chem. 32 (1), 331–340.
S. Panikar, Ayyakannu Usha Raja Nanthini, Vidhya Rekha Umapathy et al.
Talebi, S.M., Nohooji, M., Yarmohammadi, G.M., Khan, M., Matsurya, A., 2019. Effect
of altitude on essential oil composition and on glandular trichome density in
three Nepeta species (N.sessilifolia, N. Heliotropifolia and N. Fissa). Mediterr. Bot.
Tobla, H., Moghrani, H., Benelmouffok, A., Kellou, D., Maachi, R., 2015. Essential oil
of Algerian Eucalyptus citriodora: chemical composition, antifungal activity. J.
Mycol. Med., 128–133
Visconti, F., de Paz, J.M., 2016. Electrical conductivity measurements in agriculture:
the assessment of soil salinity. New Trends and Developments in Metrology.
InTech.
Wagh, G.S., Chavhan D.M., Sayyed, M.R.G., 2013. Physico-chemical analysis of soils
from Eastern part of Pune city. Univ. J. Environ. Res. Technol., 3(1), 93-99.
Walkley, A., Black, C.A., 1934.An. An examination of the Degtjareff method for
determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic
acid titration method. Soil Sci.. 40, 233–243.
10
Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102081
Yang, J., Spicer, R.A., Spicer, T.E.V., Arens, N.C., Jacques, F.M.B., Su, T., Kennedy, E.M.,
Herman, A.B., Steart, D.C., Srivastava, G., Mehrotra, R.C., Valdes, P.J., Mehrotra, N.
C., Zhou, K., Lai, J.S., 2015. Leaf form-climate relationships on the global stage:
an ensemble of characters. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 24, 1113–1125.
Yitaferu, B., Abewa, A., Amare, T., 2013. Expansion of Eucalyptus woodlots in the
fertile soils of the highlands of Ethiopia: Could it be a treat on future cropland
use? J. Agric. Sci. 5 (8), 97–103.
Yong, L., Xiaoying, J., Zuliang, C., 2018. The formation of iron nanoparticles by
Eucalyptus leaf extract and used to remove Cr (VI). Sci. Total Environ. 627, 470–
479.
Yuhong, Z., Li, F., Fuigui, H., Aiwu, W., Wen, C., Jinping, Y., Jun, Y., Feng, P., 2015.
Green biosynthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using
Corymbia citriodora leaf extract and their photocatalytic activity. Green Chem.
Lett. Rev. 8 (2), 59–63.