Elasticity

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Mechanical properties of matter is the study of behavior of materials when forces are applied
on then. Such properties include strength, brittleness, toughness, ductility, stiffness, elasticity
etc….
TERMS USED
 Strength: This is the ability of a material to withstand or to resist an applied force
before breaking. Examples of materials that are strong are metals.
(OR)
It is the maximum force which can be applied to a material without it breaking.
 Stiffness: This is the ability of a material to resist a change in shape or size i.e. it’s the
ability of a material to resist being bent.
Examples of such materials are metals, a piece of chalk, etc.
Stiffness depends on Young’s modulus. The bigger the Young’s modulus, the higher the
stiffness of the material.
 Shear force: This is the force which changes the shape of a body by making the layers
to slide over each other.
 Tensile strength/force: This is the force which changes the shape of a body by
stretching/pulling apart.
 Compression strength/force: This is the force which changes the shape of a body by
twisting/ squeezing it.
Differences between tensile strength and compression strength
Tensile strength Compression strength
Thickness increases Thickness reduces
Molecules are pulled apart Molecules are squeezed
Length of the material increases Length of the material reduces
 Ductility: This is the ability of a material to be hammered, bent or rolled into different
shapes without breaking. It therefore follows that a ductile material stretches elastically
first, then stretches plastically before it breaks when a tensile force acts on it.
Examples of such materials are metals such as steel, iron copper etc...
1|Page
©George Ssempiira 0776835276/0702835276
(OR)
It is the ability of the material to be stretched appreciably beyond elastic limit without breaking
i.e. It can be folded into different shapes.
 Brittleness: This is the ability of the material to break immediately if its elastic limit is
exceeded.
Brittle materials are substances that bend very little and they suddenly crack without any
warning when a force acts on them. They don’t undergo plastic deformation. Brittle materials
fracture at low strains close to their elastic limit.
Examples of brittle materials include glass, ceramic, cast iron, bricks, clay, concrete, etc…
 Elasticity: This is the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size when the
deforming force is removed.
When a tensile force is applied on a material, the material stretches due to its particles being
pulled further apart from one another. As a result, an extension is produced.
The extension produced depends on:
(a) Size of the force applied on the material
(b) Nature of the material
(c) Original length of the material (a long material produces a longer
extension)
(d) Cross sectional area of the material a thin material produces a bigger
extension as compared to a thick one.
Elastic material: This is a material which regains its original shape and size when the deforming
load has been removed. E.g. Rubber band, spring.
 Elastic deformation: This is when a material can recover its original length and shape
when the deforming force is removed.
 Elastic limit: This is the maximum load which a material can experience and still regain
its original size and shape once the load is removed.
(OR)
This is the maximum deforming force beyond which the material undergoes plastic deformation.
The elastic limit sometimes coincides with the limit of proportionality.
2|Page
 Proportional limit: This is the maximum load a material can experience for which the
extension created on it is directly proportional to the load applied.
(OR)
This is the maximum deforming force beyond which the extension is not directly proportional to
the deforming force i.e. Is the point beyond which the material is elastic but does not perfectly
obey Hooke’s law.
 Toughness: This is the ability of material to resist crack growth.
 Malleability: This is the ability of the material to change its shape or size.
Malleable materials do not resist forces that are aimed at changing their shapes or sizes.
Tensile stress and strain
Consider a force, F being applied to stretch the wire of original length, 𝑙 and cross sectional
area, A so that the wire stretches by an extension, e.
 Tensile stress: It is force acting per unit area of cross-section of a material.

(OR)
Tensile stress is the force acting on a material of cross section area 1m2.
Force
Stress 
Area
The S.I unit of stress is newtons per square metre Nm -2  or pascals Pa 
Dimensions of stress
Stress  Force
Area 
Stress  Mass Acceleration

Area 
Stress  M  LT
-2
2
L
3|Page
Stress  ML-1T -2
 Tensile strain: It is the extension per unit original length of the material.
(OR)
Tensile strain is the ratio of extension of the material to the original length.
Extension
Strain 
Original length
Strain has no units because it is a ratio of two similar units and hence no dimensions.
 Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
Tensile stress
E
Tensile strain
Force
E Area
Extension
Original length
Fl
E
Ae
The S.I unit of Young’s modulus is newtons per square metre Nm -2  or pascals Pa  .
Dimensions of Young’s modulus
Young' s modulus   Stress

Strain 
E  Force Original length 

Area  Extension 
L
-2
E  MLT2
L L
E  ML-1T -2
 Yield point: This is a point at which there is a sudden increase in extension when the
stress or load is increased beyond the elastic limit.
4|Page
(OR)
This is the point beyond which any increase in extension causes permanent deformation.
Here molecules begin to slide over each other causing permanent deformation.
 Plastic deformation: This is when a material cannot recover its original shape and size
when the deforming force is removed.
 Breaking stress/ultimate tensile strength: This is the maximum stress (force) which
can be applied to a material without breaking.
(OR)
It is the corresponding force per unit area of the narrowest cross section of the wire.
HOOKE’S LAW
It states that; the extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the applied force
provided the proportional limit (elastic limit) is not exceeded. i.e. F e
F  ke, where k is the constant of proportionality.
A graph of extension against force.
From O to L the graph is a straight line and this means that the applied force is directly
proportional to the extension, and so Hooke’s law is obeyed. Beyond L, the graph is no longer
straight implying that the applied force is no longer directly proportional to the extension. L is
called the elastic limit. When the wire stretches beyond L, it becomes plastic. Point B is called
the yield point of the wire. Beyond point B, the extension of the wire increases rapidly when
more load is added, and the wire finally breaks.
5|Page
A graph of Stress (Force) against strain (Extension) for a ductile material
Stress
C D
L B
A
O P Strain
OA is a straight line. Stress is directly proportional to strain and thus Hooke’s law is perfectly
obeyed in this region. Region OA is where young’s modulus is defined (proportional region). A
is called the proportional limit.
Along OA and up to L just beyond A, the wire returns to its original length when stress is
decreased to zero. L is called elastic limit (OL is called elastic deformation region, Hooke’s law
is approximately obeyed).
Beyond L up to B the material becomes plastic (LD is called plastic deformation region). The
molecules of the wire begin to slide across each other and some of the energy of the material is
dissipated as heat. Point B is the yield point. With further increase in stress, work hardening
occurs; this is due to the dislocations. When the dislocation density is high slippage of atomic
plates became difficult. The dislocations become tangled up with each other.
Point C is the breaking stress or maximum stress. At this point the material develops cracks.
Point D is the where the wire breaks.
N.B: Region OP is called the permanent plastic extension caused.
 Creep (Cold flow): Creep occurs when a material is under constant stress over time. Strain
slowly and gradually increases causing eventual fracture after some time.
Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly and deform permanently under the
influence of mechanical stress. The thickness of the material is reduced by pressure. Unlike fatigue,
it also occurs even when stress is constant.
6|Page
 Fatigue: This is the weakness or failure induced in a material by repeatedly stressing it in
opposite directions. It can also occur when a material is repeatedly stressed and unstressed.
 Dislocation: A dislocation is the movement of a broken bond through a crystal.
(Dislocations are defects along lines of atoms). The atomic bonds along the line of a
dislocation are strained or even broken. The broken bond creates a small imperfection
between molecules. When a force is applied, the imperfection moves across lattices in
opposite direction of the force.
 Fracture: A fracture is the separation of a material into two or more pieces under the action
of stress. The fracture of a solid is due to development of certain displacement discontinuity
surfaces within a solid.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES DURING
(a) Elastic deformation
The particles are slightly displaced from their equilibrium positions. The work done to move the
particles is stored as elastic potential energy. When the deforming force is removed, the elastic
potential energy changes to kinetic energy that moves particles back to their equilibrium
positions.
(b) Plastic deformation.
It takes place only in metals. Metals are crystalline in nature. In a crystal some planes are richer
in atoms and are called atomic or crystal planes. During plastic deformation, the crystal planes
undergo a slip (permanent displacement) or slid over each other and part of the work done to
displace them is converted into heat which is lost to the surrounding. When a deforming force is
removed, the material does not regain its original shape and size. (Since some energy is lost)
(c) Work hardening
When a metal is deformed by bending it repeatedly, it becomes harder and brittle, and its
resistance to plastic deformation increases (This is due to dislocation lines moving into a crystal
and entangle around an impurity in one crystal). The increase in deformation leads to an increase
in the density of dislocations. This process is called work hardening of metals.
Definition: Work hardening is the increase in resistance to plastic deformation when a metal is
repeatedly deformed.
7|Page
(OR)
Work hardening is the process of increasing the strength of a ductile material by applying
repeated stress on it or by repeatedly deforming it.
N.B
1. An impurity is a foreign or missing atom in a crystal

2. A dislocation is the movement of a broken bond through a crystal.
(d) Annealing: It is a process by which a material restores its ductility
The metal is heated to high temperature above its melting point and maintained in this
temperature for a period of time and relaxes the internal strains and hence the metal is re-
crystallized and returns to the ductile state.
STRESS-STRAIN GRAPHS FOR COPPER (METAL), GLASS AND RUBBER (NON-

METAL)
Glass has only a small elastic region, no plastic region (deformation), and fractures easily.
Its brittle and concentration of stress at any crack in glass makes it break. It also has no yield
point. Glass breaks easily when its elastic limit is reached due to presence of cracks on its
surface which widen under tension and then breaks.
Rubber stretches very easily without breaking compared to metals such as steel and copper.
It’s less stiff than metals. The range of elasticity for rubber is greater, and hence its value of
Young’s modulus of elasticity is much smaller than that of most metals.
Such behavior for rubber is due to its molecular structure. Rubber consists of coiled molecules
and the molecules uncoil when it’s stretched. It becomes stiff when the molecules are fully
8|Page
stretched. Rubber does not undergo plastic deformation and does not obey Hooke’s due to
presence of coiled molecules.
Metal. When a metal is stretched, its inter-atomic spacing increases. When a force is removed,
the atoms return to their equilibrium positions. Thus metals obey Hooke’s law. When a metal is
stretched beyond its elastic limit, slip (permanent displacement) occurs and it undergoes plastic
deformation.
Question: Sketch graphs on the same axes of stress against strain for glass, metal wire and
rubber and explain the nature of the graphs.
EXAMPLES
1. Explain the energy changes that occur during plastic deformation.

During plastic deformation, molecular separation increases leading to gain in elastic potential
energy and heat is evolved. This heat is not recoverable when stress is removed.
2. Explain why a piece of rubber stretches much more than a metal wire of the
same length and cross sectional area.
Rubber consists of coiled molecules while a metal does not. When a load is applied on rubber,
the molecules uncoil leading to a larger extension.
3. A uniform steel wire of density 7800 kgm -3 weighs 16g and is 250cm long. It
stretches by 1.2mm a force of 80N is applied. Calculate, the;
(i) Young’s modulus of elasticity for steel
(ii) Energy stored in the wire.
Fl
(i) E .........................(i)
Ae
mass
Also, volume = Al, and still, volume 
density
m m
Al  A
 l
Fl Fl 2
Substituting for Ain equation (i) gives: E  
 m  em
e 
 l 
80  2.5  7800
2
E  2.03 1011 Nm2
1.2 10  16 10 
3 3
9|Page
1
(ii) Energy stored  ke 2 but from Hooke's law, F  ke
2
Energy stored 
1
2
1
 
Fe   80  1.2 10 3  4.8 10 2 J
2
4. A vertical wire 350cm long, diameter 0.1cm has a load of 8.50kg applied at its lower
end. If its Young’s modulus is 2.0 1011 Pa , calculate the;
(i) Extension of the wire,
(ii) Energy stored in the wire.
Fl Fl 8.5  9.81 350 10 2
(i) E  and A  r 2 e   1.857 10 3 J
Ae  
r 2 E   0.05 10 2 2  2.0 1011
(ii)
2 2
1
2

Energy stored  ke 2  Fe  8.5  9.81 1.857 10 3  0.077463 J
1 1

5. A load of 60N is applied to a steel wire of length 2.5m and cross sectional area
0.22mm2. If the Young’s modulus of steel is 210GPa, find the extension produced.
Fl Fl 60  2.5
E e  7
 3.25 10 3 m
Ae AE 2.2 10  210 10 9
Trial questions
1. The table below is for a uniform metal bar of length 63cm, width 10.8cm, and thickness
3.50mm fixed at one end and a tensile force applied at the other end.
Tension/N 170 285 505 780 815 815 815
Extension/mm 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5
Plot a suitable graph, and from it determine Young’s modulus of elasticity for the metal
bar, and its yield point.
Which point (set of values) in the table would require experimental checking?
2. A copper wire 20cm long and of diameter 0.96mm stretches when loaded according to
the table below.
Load/kg 0 2 4 6 8 10
Extension/mm 0 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.45
10 | P a g e
Plot a suitable graph, and from it determine Young’s modulus of elasticity for the copper wire in
question. Also find the work done in stretching the wire when a load of 9kg is applied.
Experiment to determine Young’s modulus of elasticity of a ductile material
Two thin, long wires P and Q of the same material and same length are suspended from a
common rigid support.
Initial loads are added to the ends of P and Q to remove kinks and make them taut.
The diameter of the test wire Q is measured by a micrometer screw gauge at several places and
d2
the average diameter, d is calculated. The cross sectional area, A   is determined.
4
The original length, l of the test wire, Q is measured and recorded.
Various loads are added on the scale pan at the end of the test wire Q and the corresponding
extensions caused are read and recorded from the vernier scale, but after each reading, the load is
removed to check that the wire returns to its original position, implying that the elastic limit has
not been exceeded.
The results are tabulated and a graph of load against extension is plotted.
The slope, s of the graph is calculated.
11 | P a g e
sl
Young’s modulus, E of the material is calculated from, E 
A
Theory behind the expression
Fl  EA 
E F .e
Ae  l 
Compare with y  mx  c
EA sl
slope, s  E
l A
Alternatively A graph mass (in kg) is plotted against extension in meters, then,
s lg
Young’s modulus, E 
A
Explain the precautions taken when determining Young’s modulus of a wire.
The test wire should be long such that measurable extensions are produced.
It should be thin such that a measurable extension is produced when a small force is applied.
Two identical wires are used to eliminate errors due to temperature changes.
Both wires are suspended from the same support to eliminate errors in extension due to yielding
of the support when loads are added to Q. (To eliminate errors that would result due to any
changes in position due to bending of the rigid support)
Vernier readings are taken as masses are loaded and unloaded to ensure that the elastic limit is
not exceeded.
The wires should be free of kinks to get accurate original length.
Average diameter of the wire is got to obtain accurate cross section area.
Work done in stretching an elastic material (Energy stored in a stretched wire)

The work done in stretching an elastic material is stored as elastic potential energy.
Consider a wire of original length, l stretched by an amount, e on applying a force, F, such that
the elastic limit is not exceeded.
12 | P a g e
When the wire is unstretched, the force acting on it is zero.
0F 1
Average stretching force   F
2 2
Work done in stretching the wire  Average force distance  

1
F e
2
But the work done in stretching the wire is stored as energy in the wire
1 EeA
Energy stored  Fe but F 
2 l
EAe 2
Energy stored 
2l
Alternatively:
Consider the graph of force against extension as shown below
The small work done 𝛿𝑤 in extending the wire from x through a small distance to (x+𝛿𝑥) is
given by: 𝛿𝑤 = 𝐹 𝛿𝑥.
But from Hooke’s law, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥 ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
𝛿𝑤 = kx 𝛿𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
The total work done in increasing the extension from 0 to e is therefore given by:
𝑒 𝑒
𝑘𝑥 2 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( ) =
0 2 0 2
It can be noted that this work done/ energy stored is equal to the area under the graph of force
against extension i.e.
13 | P a g e
Force
0 e Extension
Work done  Area under the graph

1 1
Work done  Fe  ke 2
2 2
Comparing this energy stored with the one derived earlier, i.e. equation shows:
1 Ee 2 A
Energy stored  ke 2 and Energy stored 
2 2l
1 2 Ee 2 A
Equating the two ‘energies’ gives: ke 
2 2l
EA
k
l
Energy stored per unit volume
For a wire of cross sectional area A, and original length l, Volume  Al , Therefore,
Energy stored
Energy stored per unit Volume 
Volume
1
Fe
Energy stored per unit Volume  2
Al
1 F  e
Energy stored per unit Volume      
2 A  l 
1
Energy stored per unit Volume   Stress  Strain
2
In terms of Young’s modulus and Strain
14 | P a g e
Stress
From, E , Stress  E  Strain
Strain
Energy Stored per unit Volume   E  Strain

1 2
2
Exercise
6. A wire of length l and cross- sectional area, A has a force constant k. the wire is
stretched to a length (𝑙 + 𝑥) by a constant force.
EA
(i) Assuming Hooke’s law, show that k 
l
2
1  x
(ii) Show that the energy stored per unit volume of the wire  E  
2 l
Examples
7. A uniform steel wire of length 4m and area of cross section 3 10 6 m 2 is extended by
1.0mm. Calculate the energy stored in the wire if the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Young' s modulus  2.0 10 11

Nm2 .
1 EAe
Energy Stored  Fe, F 
2 l
Energy stored 

AEe 2 2  1011  3  10 6  1 10 3

 2
 0.075 J
2l 2 4
8. A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross sectional area of 1.2mm2 and original length of
0.72m is stretched to 0.84m to fire a small stone of mass 15g at a bird. Calculate the initial
velocity of the stone when it just leaves the catapult. Assume that young’s modulus for rubber
is 6.2 108 Nm2 . State any assumptions made.
Force Stretching rubber 

   
EAe 6.2 10 8  1.2 10 6  0.12
  124 N
l 0.72
1 1
Energy stored  Fe  124  0.12  7.44 J
2 2
Energy stored  Kinetic energy of the stone
1
7.44  mv 2
2
15 | P a g e
1
7.44   0.015  v 2
2
v  31.5ms 1
It is assumed that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
9. A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross sectional area of 2mm2 and initial length 0.24m is
stretched to 0.24m to fire a small object of mass 10g. Calculate the initial velocity of the object
when it just leaves the catapult. Assume that young’s modulus for rubber is 6.0 108 Pa
v  31ms 
1
10. (a) Explain the physical processes involved during

(i) Elastic deformation
(ii) Plastic deformation
(b) Derive in terms of stress and strain the energy stored in the wire per unit volume.
(c) A rubber cord of a catapult of original length 12cm and stretched length of 15cm has a
cross sectional area of 2mm2 . It is stretched to fire a small mass 10g to a bird. Calculate the
initial velocity of the mass when it just leaves the catapult. Assume that young’s modulus for
rubber is 108 Pa and state the assumption made.
(d)(i) Differentiate between plastic deformation and elastic deformation.
(ii) Sketch the Stress verses strain curve for rubber and glass on the same axes.
(iii) State the differences between the two materials.
(e) Explain the energy changes which occur during plastic deformation.
Force in a metal bar due to expansion or contraction
If a metal bar is heated, it expands or contracts. However, if the bar is prevented from
expanding or contracting by fixed supports, as it cools a large forces is exerted at the ends of the
metal bar. This force is equal to the tensile force that would have caused the same expansion or
contraction if the bar was free to expand/contract.
16 | P a g e
Coefficient of Lin ear expansion/expansivity (𝜶)
Coefficient of linear expansion is thermal expansion or contraction in a material of original
length 1m when the temperature changes by 1 kelvin.
Consider a metallic rod of length, l and cross section area, A heated through a temperature, θ
Let, E = Young’s modulus
e = thermal expansion
F = Force exerted on the supports by the rod when it is prevented from expanding
α = Coefficient of Linear expansion
change in length(exp ansion)
Coefficien t of linear expansion,  
original length  change in length 
 e  l  
e

l 
EeA El A
F F
l l
F  E  A
Fe  E  Ae but e  l  

1 1
Energy stored 
2 2
Energy stored 
1
E  A l    1 E 2  2 Al
2 2
Examples
1. (a) What is meant by; Stress, Strain and Young’s modulus
(b) Write in terms of stress and strain an expression for energy stored per unit Volume for a
stretched wire.
(c) A uniform metal bar of length 1.0m and 2cm diameter is fixed between two rigid supports
at 250C. Young’s modulus for the metal bar is 2.0 1011 Pa , and the coefficient of linear
expansivity,   1.0 10 5 K 1 . If the temperature of the rod is raised to 750C, Find the:
(i) Force exerted on the supports, (ii)
Energy stored in the rod at 750C.
EeA El  A

ci  F   E  A  E  r 2
l l
17 | P a g e
   
F  2.0 1011  1.0 10 5  50    0.01  3.14 10 4 N
2
ii  Energy stored  1 Fe but e  l  

2
Energy stored 
1
2
1
2
 
Fl     3.14 10 4  1.0 10 5 1 50  7.85 J
2. A metallic rod of length, l and temperature  has its ends rigidly fixed. If the temperature of the
rod is reduced to 𝜃0 0C, find the stress in the rod in terms of young’s modulus, E, coefficient off
linear expansivity,  and the temperature change.
 Stress  E  Strain  E 
Stress e
E
Strain l
But e  l    0 
l    0 
Stress  E   E    0 
l
3. Why does the roof make cracking sound at night?
During day, the roof is heated. It expands and buckles (bends) since it is fixed. At night, the roof
contracts due to fall in temperature. As it straightens again sound is produced.
4. (a) State Hooke’s law.
(b) A rod of original length 1.2m and cross sectional area 1.5 10 4 m 2 is extended by 3.0mm
when the stretching tension is 6N. Calculate the Young’s modulus of the material of the wire
and the energy density of the stretched matrial.
Stress
Young' s modulus 
Strain
Force 6
Stress    40,000 Nm 2
Cross sec tion Area 1.5 10 4
Extension 3.0 10 3

Strain    2.5  10 3
Original Length 1 .2
40000
E  1.6 10 7 Nm 2
2.5 10 3
Energy density   Stress Strain   40000  2.5 10 3  50 J

1 1
2 2
18 | P a g e
5. Two identical steel bars A and B of radius 2.0mm are suspended from a ceiling. A mass
of 2.0kg is attached to the free end of the bar A. Calculate then temperature by which B should
be raised so that the bars are again of equal length.
Young' s modulus of steel  1.0 10 11
Nm2 , Coefficien t of linear expansivit y of steel  1.2 10 -5 K 1 
For A
Fl Fl 2  9.81 l
E e   1.5607 10 5 l....................(i)
eA EA 1.0 10    2.0 10 
11  3 2
For B
e of A  e of B Since e  l  
1.5607 10 5 l  1.2 10 5  l   

1.5607
   1.3006 K
1 .2
6. A load of 60N is applied to a steel wire of length 2.5m and cross sectional area 0.22mm2 .
If Young’s modulus of steel is 210GPa,
(a) Find the expansion produced
(b) If the temperature rise of 1K causes a fractional increase of 0.001%, find the change in
length of steel wire of length 2.5m when temperature changes by 4K.
60  2.5
a  E
Fl
e
Fl
 7
 3.247 10 3 m
eA EA 2.2 10 1.10 10 11
b 1K  0.00% of 2.5  2.5 10 -5 m
4K  4  2.5 10 -5  1.0 10 4 m

Change in length  1.0 10 -4 m
7. A steel wire of cross sectional area 1mm2 is cooled from 60 0 C to 15 0 C . Find the
(i) Strain
(ii) Force needed to prevent it from contracting.
Young' s modulus  2.0 10 11
Pa,   1.110 -5 K 1 
l  
i  Strain  Extension
      1.110 5  45  4.95 10 4
Original length l
ii  Force  EA    2.0 1011 1.0 10 6 1.110 5  45  99 N

(OR)
19 | P a g e
Sress
E  Stress  E  Strain
Strain
Force
 E  Strain  Force  A  E  Strain
A
Force  1.0 10 -6  2.0 1011  4.95 10 4  99 N

8. A copper wire of length 200cm and diameter 1.22mm is fixed horizontally to two rigid
supports which are 200cm apart. Find the mass of the load which when suspended at the
midpoint of the wire produces a sag (depression) of 2cm at that point.
Young' s modulus of copper  1.23 10 11
Pa 
AC2  12  0.022  AC  1.0002m but AC  BC  1.0002m
New length  2 1.0002  2.0004m

Extension  2.0004  2  0.0004 m
Force, F  Tension, T  

EeA 1.23 1011  0.0004    0.61  10 3 
2
l 2
T  28.757N
Ressolving verticall , 2Tcos  mg
0.02
2  28.757 
2T cos 1.0002  0.1173 kg
m 
g 9.81
9. One end of a copper wire of length 0.8m and diameter 0.5mm is welded to a steel wire
of length 1.6m and diameter 1.0mm, while its other end is fixed. A load of 10kg is suspended
from the free end of the steel wire. If Young’s modulus of steel Es  2.0 1011 Pa , and that of
copper is E c  1.2 1011 Nm2 , calculate the;
20 | P a g e
(i) Extension which results,
(ii) Energy stored in the compound wire.
i 

A1  r12    2.5 10 4  2
 1.96 10 7 m 2
A 2  r22    5.0 10 

4 2
 7.85 10 7 m 2
If the wires are in series as in question, then the stretching force is the same for both wires but the
wires undergo different extensions.
Fl
E
eA
For Copper
T1  l1 10  9.81  0.8
e1   7
 3.34  10 3 m
E1  A1 1.2  10  1.96  10
11
For steel
T2  l 2 10  9.81  1.6
e2   7
 1.0  10 3 m
E2  A2 2.0  10  7.85  10
11
Total extension, e  e1  e 2
   
e  3.34  10 3  1.0  10 3  4.34  10 3 m
21 | P a g e
ii  Energy stored  1 Fe  1  10  9.81  4.34  10 3   0.213 J
2 2
10. A uniform wire of un-stretched length 2.51m is attached to two points A and B which
are 2.4m apart and in the same horizontal line. When a 6kg mass is attached to the midpoint, C
of the wire, the equilibrium position of C is 0.52m below the line AB. Neglecting the weight of
the wire and taking its modulus of elasticity to be 2.0 1011 Nm2 , find the:
(i) Strain in the wire,
(ii) Stress in the wire,
(iii) The energy stored in the wire,
(iv) State any assumptions made.
Solution
Consider triangle BOC1:
BC   OC   OB

1 2 1 2 2
BC   0.52  1.2

1 2 2 2
 BC  1.31m
New length  2  BC   2  1.31  2.62 m

Extension  New length  Original length  2.62 - 1 51  0.11m
Extension 0.11
Strain    0.044
Original length 2.51
 
(ii) Strain  E  Strain  2.0  1011  0.044  8.8  10 9 Nm2
22 | P a g e
0.52
(iii) cos   66.6 0
1.31
Resolving vertically at point C1 gives:
6g 6  9.81
Tcos  Tcos  6g  T    74.14 N
2cos 0.52
2
1.31
1 1
(iv) Energy stored  Fe   74.14  0.11  4.077 J
2 2
(v) It is assumed that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
11. The ends of a uniform wire of length 2.00m are fixed to points A and B which are 2.00m
apart on the same horizontal line. When a 5kg mass is attached to the mid-point C, the
equilibrium position is 7.5 cm below the line AB. Given that Young’s modulus for the material
of the wire is 2.0 1011 Nm2 , find
(i) 
the strain in the wire 3.0  10 3
(ii) the stress in the wire 5.6  10 Nm 
8 2
(iii) the energy stored in the wire T  327 .1N , E  0.9813J 

(iv) State the assumption made
12. A uniform wire of un-stretched length 2.5m is attached to two points A and B which are
2.4m apart and in the same horizontal line. When a 2kg mass is attached to the mid-point C is
0.52m below the line AB. Neglecting the weight of the wire and taking E  2.0 1011 Nm2 ,
Find the;
(i) Strain in the wire 0.0463 J 
(ii) 
Stress in the wire 9.25  10 9 Nm 2 
(iii) Energy stored in the wire T  24.67 N , E  1.426J 
13. A metal wire of diameter 2.0 10 4 m and length 2m is fixed horizontally between two
points 2m apart. Young’s modulus for the wire is 2.0 1011 Nm2 .
(i) What force shall be applied at the mid-point of the wire to depress it by 1.0 10 1 m ?
(ii) Find the work done in (i) above F  6.252 N , Work done  0.1570J 
14. A uniform wire of un-stretched length 2.49m is attached to two points A and B which
are 2m apart and in the same horizontal line. When a 5kg mass is attached to the mid-point, C of
23 | P a g e
the wire, the equilibrium position of the wire is 0.75m below line AB. Neglecting the weight of
the wire and taking Young’s modulus of the wire to be 2.0 1011 Pa , find the;
(i)  
strain in the wire 4.02  10 3
(ii) stress in the wire 8.03 10 Nm 

8 2
(iii) energy stored in the wire 0.204375 J 
15. A copper wire and steel wire each 2.0m long and 3.0mm2 cross-sectional area are laid
side by side on a rigid support. The composite wire is placed vertically with the lower end
supporting a mass of 1.2kg . Assuming that Young’s modulus for steel is 2.0 1011 Pa and that
for copper is 1.2 1011 Pa , calculate the;

(i) tension in each wire,
(ii) potential energy of the whole system,
(iii) state any assumptions made.
Solution
i 
At equilibrium, T1  T2  1.2 g
Fl EeA
From E  , F
eA l
E1e1 A1 E 2 e2 A2
T1  and T2 
l1 l2
E1e1 A1 E 2 e2 A2
  1.2 g but e1  e2  e, A1  A2  3.0  10 6 m 2 , l1  l 2  2.0m
l1 l2
24 | P a g e
 eA  1.2  9.81  2.0
 E1  E 2   1.2 g
1.2gl
e 
 l      
AE 1  E 2  3.0  10  1.2  1011  2.0  1011
6

e  2.4525 10 5 m
E1e1 A1 1.2  1011  2.4525  10 5  3.0  10 6 
T1    4.4145 N
l1 2.0
T2 
E 2 e2 A2

    
2.0  1011  2.4525  10 5  3.0  10 6 
 7.3575 N
l2 2.0
ii  Potential energy 

1
Fe   T1  T2   e   4.4145  7.3575   2.4525  10 5
1 1
2 2 2
Potential energy  1.4435  10 -4 J
(iii) The assumption made is that the elastic limit is not exceeded
16. A light rigid bar is suspended horizontally from two vertical wires one made of steel and
the other made of brass, as shown in the figure.
Each wire is 2m long. The diameter of the steel wire is 0.6mm, and the length of the light rigid
bar is 0.2m. When a mass of 10kg is suspended from the centre of the light rod, the bar remains
horizontal. If Young’s modulus of elasticity for steel, Es  2.0 1011 Pa , and that of brass
Eb  1.0 1011 Pa , calculate the

(i) Tension in each wire,
(ii) Extension of the steel wire and the energy stored in it,
(iii) Diameter of the brass wire
(iv) If the brass wire were replaced by another brass wire of diameter 1mm, where would the
mass be suspended so that the light rod remains horizontal?
25 | P a g e
(i)
For Steel, d1  0.6mm  r  0.3mm  3.0  10 -4 m
For brass, d 2  ?
For equilibrium of the light rigid rid,
T1  T2  10 g .........................(i)
Taking moments about point O gives; 0.1  T1  0.1  T2  T1  T2
Substituting for T in equation (i) gives: 2T1  10 g  T1  T2  5 g  49.05 N
EeA E s e1 A1 Tl
From F  , T1   e1  1 1
l l1 E s A1
5  9.81  2
2 10    3.0 10  
e1   0.001735 m
11 4 2
e1  e2  0.001735 m
1 1
Energy stored  Fe   5  9.81  0.001735  4.255  10 1 J
2 2
(iii) T2 
Eb e2 A2
 A2 
T2 l 2

5  9.81  2  5.65  10 7 m 2
l2  
Eb e2 1.0  10  0.001735 
11
A2  r 2 r
A2

5.65 10 7
  0.000424 m
 
d 2  2r  2  0.000424  8.84  10 4 m
26 | P a g e
(iv)
For this case, diameter for brass, d  1.0mm ,  r  5.0  10 -5 m

A 2  r 2    5.0 10 4 
2
 7.854 10 7 m 2
Taking moments about point O gives: xT1  0.2  x T2
E s e1 A1 Eb e2 A2
But T1  and T2 
l1 l2
 E s e1 A1  E e A 
  x   b 2 2 0.2  x 
 l1   l2 
Also e1  e2 and l1  l 2 E s A1 x  Eb A2 0.2  x 
2 10    3.0 10   x  1.0 10  7.857 10  0.2  x

11 4 2 11 7
5.65 10 4 x  7.854 10 4  0.2  x   x  0.116 m
Therefore, the mass should be hanged at 0.116m from the steel wire.
17. Two vertical wires X and Y, suspended at the same horizontal level are connected by a
light rod XY at their lower ends. The wires have the same length, l and cross sectional area, A.
A weight of 30N is placed at O on the rod, where XO:OY=1:2. Both wires are stretched and the
rod XY remains as shown in the figure below.
27 | P a g e
1 O 2
X
Y
30N
If Young’s modulus of wire X is 1.0 1011 Pa , Calculate the Young’s modulus of wire Y
assuming that the elastic limit is not exceeded for both wires
𝐹1
𝐹2
1 O 2
X
Y
30N
Taking moments about X

F2  3  30  1  F2  10 N
But F1  F2  30  F1  20 N
Since the rod remains horizontal, then the extension in the wires is equal
EAe Fl
From, F , e 
l EA
But e1  e 2
F1l F2 l F2 E1 10  1.0  1011

  E2    5.0  1010 Nm 2
E1 A E 2 A F1 20
18. A copper wire and a steel wire each of length 1m and diameter 1.0mm are joined end to
end to form a composite wire 2.0m long. Find the strain in each wire when the composite
stretches by 2.0 10 3 m .
Young' s modulus for copper and steel are 1.2 10 11
Nm2 and 2.0  1011 Nm2 respectively 
28 | P a g e
Fl
From e
EA
250  0.6
e1   5.0  10 4 m
For steel,
  
1.5  10 6  2.0  1011 
250  0.39
For Copper, e 2   2.5  10 4 m
  
3.0  10 6  1.3  1011 
19. (a) Define the terms elastic limit and proportional limit.
(b) The figure below shows the variation of the force, F applied to two wires X and Y and their
extension, e both wires are made of the same length.
Force
0 Extension
(i) Which wire has a smaller cross section area? Explain.

(ii) Explain how you would use the graph for X to obtain the Young’s modulus for iron, listing
down the additional measurements needed.
b (i) wire Y because for a smaller strtching force, a bigger extension is produced thanin wi re X
ii  Determine the original length of wire, 𝑙0 .

Use a micrometer screw gauge to obtain the average diameter, 𝑑 of the wire.
𝑑2
Calculate the cross section area of wire, 𝐴 = 𝜋 ( 4 )
Determine the slope, S of the graph.

l0  S
Calculate the Young’s modulus of the wire from; E 
A
29 | P a g e
Assignment
20. A copper wire and steel wire each of length1.5m and diameter 2mm are joined end to
end to form a composite wire. The composite wire is loaded until its length becomes 3.003m. If
young’s modulus of steel is 2.0 1011 Pa and that of copper is 1.2 1011 Pa .
(i) Find the strains in the copper and steel wire,
(ii) Calculate the force applied.
Strain in copper  0.0013, Strain in Steel  7.5 10 -4
, Force  4.7 10 2 N 
21. Two identical cylindrical steel bars each of radius 3.0mm and length 7m rest in a vertical
opposition with their lower ends on a rigid horizontal surface. A mass of 4.0kg is placed on the
top of one bar. The temperature of the other bar is to be altered so that the two bars are once
again of equal length. Given that the coefficient of linear expansivity of steel is
1.2 × 10−5𝐾−1
(i) By how much should the temperature be altered? 0.58 K 
(ii) 
Find the energy stored in the bar due to the temperature change. 9.6  10 1 J 
22. Two wires of steel and phosphor bronze each of diameter 0.40cm and length 3.0m are
joined end to end to form a composite wire of length 6.0m calculate the tension in the wire
needed to produce a total extension of 0.128cm in the composite wire.
E s  2.0 1011 Nm2 and E b  1.2 1011 Nm2   Ans : 100.5 N 
INTER MOLECULAR FORCES
Inter molecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules of a substance.
The forces which exists between molecules can explain many bulk properties of solids, liquids
and gases. These intermolecular forces arise from two main cases:
(a) The potential energy of the molecules. The potential energy of the molecules is due to the
interactions between given molecules and the surrounding molecules.
(b) The thermal energy of the molecules. This is the kinetic energy of the molecules and
depends on the temperature of the substance concerned.
30 | P a g e
A graph of intermolecular force against separation of atoms
F(N)
Repulsive
ro r
attractive
For some value of separation, 𝑟𝑜 the resultant force is zero. This is known as equilibrium
separation or position.
During compression (decrease in volume), the repulsive force increases i.e. the atoms repel each
other. (For separation less than the equilibrium separation, (𝑟 < 𝑟𝑜 ), repulsive forces exceed
attractive forces between the molecules.
During expansion (increase in separation), attraction increases. i.e. the atoms attract each other.
(For separation greater than the equilibrium separation(𝑟 > 𝑟𝑜 ), attractive forces exceed
repulsive forces between the molecules.
NOTE:
As temperature increases, the equilibrium separation increases. This causes the molecules to
move a part and as a result the substance expands. When the molecular separation increases,
molecules become more widely spaced and as a result a substance changes from one state to
another.
Potential energy and force between molecules
The potential energy of the molecules is due to the interactions between given molecules and
the surrounding molecules.
a b
P.E between molecules is given by; V  p
 q
r r
Where 𝑎 and b are constants p and q are powers of molecular separation, r
The positive term with constant 𝑎 indicates a repulsive force and the negative term with
constant 𝑏 indicates an attractive force.
31 | P a g e
Graph of potential energy (V) against molecular separation, r of atoms
A long part AB the potential energy is positive and P.E is negative along part BCD.
For a distance 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑜 , repulsive forces exceed attractive forces between the molecules.
At separation 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜 , the attractive forces and repulsive forces balance. The potential energy is
therefore minimum at 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜 which corresponds to equilibrium separation of molecules i.e. at
absolute zero, where the thermal kinetic energy is zero.
For 𝑟 > 𝑟𝑜 attractive forces exceed repulsive forces so that molecules return to equilibrium
position when slightly displaced from it. So the molecules of a solid oscillate about their
equilibrium or mean position.
32 | P a g e

Elasticity

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elasticity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 Tensile stress: It is force acting per unit area of cross-section of a material.

Stress  Mass Acceleration

Dimensions of Young’s modulus

Young' s modulus   Stress

E  Force Original length 

N.B: Region OP is called the permanent plastic extension caused.

(a) Elastic deformation

(b) Plastic deformation.

(c) Work hardening

1. An impurity is a foreign or missing atom in a crystal

STRESS-STRAIN GRAPHS FOR COPPER (METAL), GLASS AND RUBBER (NON-

1. Explain the energy changes that occur during plastic deformation.

Extension/mm 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5

Experiment to determine Young’s modulus of elasticity of a ductile material

The original length, l of the test wire, Q is measured and recorded.

The slope, s of the graph is calculated.

Theory behind the expression

Explain the precautions taken when determining Young’s modulus of a wire.

The wires should be free of kinks to get accurate original length.

Work done in stretching an elastic material (Energy stored in a stretched wire)

Work done in stretching the wire  Average force distance  

Work done  Area under the graph

Energy Stored per unit Volume   E  Strain

Force Stretching rubber 

10. (a) Explain the physical processes involved during

Fe  E  Ae but e  l  

EeA El  A

ii  Energy stored  1 Fe but e  l  

Extension 3.0 10 3

Energy density   Stress Strain   40000  2.5 10 3  50 J

1.5607 10 5 l  1.2 10 5  l   

b 1K  0.00% of 2.5  2.5 10 -5 m

4K  4  2.5 10 -5  1.0 10 4 m

ii  Force  EA    2.0 1011 1.0 10 6 1.110 5  45  99 N

Force  1.0 10 -6  2.0 1011  4.95 10 4  99 N

AC2  12  0.022  AC  1.0002m but AC  BC  1.0002m

New length  2 1.0002  2.0004m

copper is E c  1.2 1011 Nm2 , calculate the;

A 2  r22    5.0 10 

BC   OC   OB

BC   0.52  1.2

New length  2  BC   2  1.31  2.62 m

(iii) the energy stored in the wire T  327 .1N , E  0.9813J 

(ii) stress in the wire 8.03 10 Nm 

(iii) energy stored in the wire 0.204375 J 

for copper is 1.2 1011 Pa , calculate the;

ii  Potential energy 

Eb  1.0 1011 Pa , calculate the

For Steel, d1  0.6mm  r  0.3mm  3.0  10 -4 m

For equilibrium of the light rigid rid,

Taking moments about point O gives; 0.1  T1  0.1  T2  T1  T2

Substituting for T in equation (i) gives: 2T1  10 g  T1  T2  5 g  49.05 N

For this case, diameter for brass, d  1.0mm ,  r  5.0  10 -5 m

Taking moments about point O gives: xT1  0.2  x T2

2 10    3.0 10   x  1.0 10  7.857 10  0.2  x

5.65 10 4 x  7.854 10 4  0.2  x   x  0.116 m

Taking moments about X

F1l F2 l F2 E1 10  1.0  1011

(i) Which wire has a smaller cross section area? Explain.

ii  Determine the original length of wire, 𝑙0 .

Determine the slope, S of the graph.

(i) By how much should the temperature be altered? 0.58 K 

Where 𝑎 and b are constants p and q are powers of molecular separation, r