Contents * Paper 2017 Chapter 1 GEOMETRY OF CUTTING TOOLS Chapter 2 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING Chapter 3 CUTTING FLUIDS AND TOOL LIFE Chapter 4 ECONOMICS OF METAL MACHINING Chapter 5 MILLING PROCESS Chapter 6 DRILLING MACHINE Chapter 7 SPECIFICATION OF MACHINE TOOL Chapter 8 METROLOGY 112 13-35 36—44 57—79 80—87 88—97PAPER 2017 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY-1 UNITI Q.1. (a) With reference to geometry of multipoint cutting tool, explain the geometry of milling cutters and drills ? 8 ‘Ans. (a) Refer to Q.5 on Page 9 and (.6 on Page 10 of Chapter 1. Q.1. (b) Explain the SRA and ERA in details, Ans. (a) Refer to Q.3 on Page 3 of Chapter 1. End Relief Angle (ERA) : It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to the base. It is usually measure in a plane perpendicular to the end flank. The end relief angle prevents friction can flank of tool. 7 Q.2. Explain stress and strain in chip formation. 1s Ans. Refer to Q.8 on Page 27 of Chapter 2. UNIT I Q.3. (a) Write down three reasons of tool failure ? 10 Ans. (a) Refer to Q.4 on Page 38 of Chapter 3. Q.3. (b) Explain desired properties of cutting fluid. 5 Ans. (a) Refer to Q.2 on Page 36 of Chapter 3. Q.4. (a) Explain any three factors affecting the tool life. 7 Ans. Refer to Q.6 on Page 42 of Chapter 3. Q.. (b) During orthogonal machining, the tool had rake angle 10°, chip thickness measured as 0.45 mm, uncut metal thickness 0.16 mm. Find : (a) Shear angle, (b) Shear strain. Ans. a= 10°, £,=0.45mm, t=0.16 mm 8 t 16 rang 70356 reosa 0,356 cos10 As 'an¢ Tsing 1-0356sin10 ” 03737 $= 205° Ans. Shear Strain : €= cot ¢+ tan (b=) € = cot 205° + tan (205 - 10) = cot 205° + tan 105° €= 2.86 Ans, UNIT Ii Q.5, (a) What is indexing and explain different methods of indexing ? 10 Ans. (a) Refer to Q.9 om Page 72 and (2.10 on Page 73 of Chapter 5, Q55. (b) Discuss fixed bed type of milling machine. 5 Ans. Refer to Q.4 on Page 61 of Chapter 5. ”Q.6. (a) Given : Hole diameter; 20 mm, depth to be drilled 70 mm: fed 1.2 mmv/rev; cutting speed 60 m/min; find out drill rpm, feed speed, cutting time and metal remova] Tate, assuming tool approach and over travel as 5 mm ? i 0 Ans. (a) d= 20mm, !=70 mm, f= 1.2 mm/rev, V= 60 m/min, @= 5mm We know, ya iN 1000 : Vx1000 _ 60x 1000 N xd . x20 el N=955 rpm Ans. Feed speed (f,) = fx N= 1.2 « 955 f= 1146 mm/min Ans. L I+a 70+5 Cutting tim -_——* alee B time, To AF Nef 7 12%955 T=3,9 sec Ans. = 0,065 min MRR = = Diy, = & (20) « 1146 » 360026.5 mm"/min 0.36 m/min Ans, Q.6. (b) Explain types of drills used on drilling machines? 5 Ans. Refer to Q.1 on Page 80 of Chapter 6. UNITIV Q.7. Write short note on following : (752=15) (a) Specification of gear teeth generating machine. Ans. (a) Refer to Q.8 on Page 96 of Chapter 7. Q.7. (b) Sine bar. Ans, Refer to Topic 8.4 on Page 109 of Chapter 8. Q.8. Write short note on the following : (7.5% 2=15) (a) Electrical comparators. Ans, (a) Refer to Topic 8.8 om Page 113 of Chapter 8, Q.8. (b) Piezo electric instrument used to measure raughness, ‘Ans. There are certain materials that generate electric potential or voltage when mechanical strain is applied to them or conversely when the voltage is applied to them, they tend to change the dimensions along certain plane. This effect is called as piezoelectric effect. There are various materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect. The materials used for ‘measurement purpose should posses desirable properties like stability, high output, insensitive to extreme température and humidity and ability to be formed or machi into any shape. Quartz which is a natural crystal, is highly stable but the output obtained from it is very small. Italso offers the advantage of measuring very slowly varying parameter such as roughness. wdGEOMETRY OF CUTTING TOOLS CHAPTER seein enn —<-------- 4 | TOPICS COVERED/SYLLAUS ' i Introduction | I * Goomatry of Single Point Turning Point | | *Systom of Description of Too! Geomatry I | * Geometry of Mutti-Point Tools | te 4 1.1 INTRODUCTION Q.1. What is Metal cutting ? Discuss various elements of Cutting tools? ‘Ans. Metal cutting generally known as machining produces a desired shape, size and finish on a rough block of workpiece material with the help of a wedge shaped tool that is constrainted to move relative to the workpiece in such a way that a layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip. © Basic elements of cutting tools : The Basic Elements of all Machining operations are the following as described below : y Workpiece v Tool ¥ Chip * The following elements are depicted in Fig. 1.1 which represents the Cutting action of a Tool in Two-dimensional or Orthogonal cutting. * For providing the cutting action, a relative motion between the Tool and the Work piece is necessary. ¥ Fig. 1.1. Basic Bements of Cutting Tool. * This relative motion can be provided by either keeping the workpiece stationary and moving the too! or by keeping the tool stationary and moving the work or by moving both in relation to each other. * The Workpiece provides the parent metal, from which the unwanted metal is removed by the cutting action of the tool to obtain the predetermined shape and size of the component. © The chemical composition and the physical properties of the metal of the workpiece have a significant effect on the machining operation. Similarly, the too! material and its Geometry are equally significant for successful machining. ”2 Mester Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-!) @ 2 __Mastor Mina Soived Question Papers (Production Technology!) * The type and geometry of the chip formed are greatly affected by the metal of the work piece, geometry of cutting tool and the method of cutting, etc. Chemical composition, and the rate of flow of the cutting fluid also provide considerable influence over the machining operation. 1.2 GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT TURNING TOOL Q.2. Draw a Single point cutting tool. Show different angles on it? [KU, 2005] OR Explain the importance and function of different tool angles and other parameters associated with the geometry and single point cutting tool ? (KU, 2009, 2011] Ans. A single point tool has only one cutting edge and is most widely used in industries. This is designed with sharp edges to minimize rubbing contact between tool and workpiece. Factors like cutting tool life, surface finish on workpiece, force required to shear a chip are affected by variations in shape of cutting tools. Such a tool is available in two forms. In one form it is a solid tool and in the other a tipped tool. The tip either brazed or mechanical is held on an alloy steel shank. These tools are described below: 1. Base : This is the support of tool shank. 2. Flank: This is the end surface, i.e. adjecent to the cutting edge and below it when the tool is in horizontal position. 3. Shank: This is the body of the tool or that part on which cutting edge is formed. If the tool is of insertion type, then shank is that part in which cutter is inserted, 4, Nominal Size of tool : This is expressed by width and height of the shank and tool length. 5, Face: This is that part against which chips are borne. 6. Nose Radius: The nose is the corner or arc which joints the side cutting edge and the end cutting edge. The nose radius is the dimension of the round arc which forms the nose of the tool bit. The nose radius from zero avoids high heat concentration at a sharp point, 7, Point: The point of the tool includes that portion of the tool which is shaped to produced the tool face and the cutting edges. 8. Cutting edge: The cutting edge is that part of the tool bit that does the actual cutting. It is the edge on the face of the tool while removes the materials from the workpiece or job. = Tool-Angles The tool angles are affected by the amount of clearance and rake angle. More clearance and rake angle decrease the tool angle, there by reducing the strength of the cutting edge. In a single point tool, there are various angles, each of them has a definite purpose. They are described below: Cutting Angle Rake Angle Lip-Angle (Metal cutting Angle) Clearance Anglew Chapter 1 : Geometry of Cutting Tools 3 ms Chiepler it Geomelry or: Cinting Toe 1, Cutting Angle. The term cutting angle means the angle between the face of the tool and the line tangent to the machine surface at the cutting point. 2. Rake Angle. Rake angle is the most important angle of the tool. The nominal rake angle is the angle made by the face of tool and the plane parallel to the base of cutting tool. If the rake angle is measured in the direction of tool shank, it is called back rake angle and if measured in a direction at right angles to it, then it is called side rake angle. Rake angle controls the chip formation and in turn is governed by the mechanical properties of the material being cut. The force on the tool is reduced by increasing the rake angle but tool is weakened. Thus, a compromise between the two factors has to be obtained. 3. LIP-Angle (Metal Cutting Angle) : Lip angle is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of flank. It is usually between 60° to 80°. 4, Clearance-Angle (Relief Angle) : Clearance angle is the angle of the end of side surfaces which are below the cutting edge. The tool is in horizontal position, the normal clearance angle is measured from the plane perpendicular to the base of tool shank. “Et Fake, © The effective clearance depends upon the position of the tool relative to the job. The purpose of this angle is to avoid any H frictional damage of the tool on the Ste Clesrance—? Ene Hele!" \. Front Caarance Angle job and prevent the tool from de rubbing on the surface already cut. Fig. 1.2. Angles of a single point cutting tool, 1.3 SYSTEM OF DESCRPTION OF TOOL GEOMETRY Q.3, Define the term tool signature for a single point cutting tool. How will you describe tool signature of a single point tool in ASA system ? (KU, 2011] Ans, Tool signature or tool designation is used to denote a standardised system of specifying the principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. Some common system used for tool designation or tool nomenclature are the following describe below: 1, The American System (ASA) : In the ASA system, the angles of tool face, that, is its slope, are defined in two orthogonal planes, one parallel to and the other perpendicular to, the axis of the cutting tool, both planes being perpendicular to the base of the tool. For simple turning operation, this system is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The typical right hand single point cutting tool terminology is given in Fig. 1.3(a) Bg. 1.3(b) gives the three views of the single point cutting tool, with all the details marked on it. li4 ‘Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) m Fig. 1.3. ASA System, a,-Back Rake Angle, a,-Side Rake Angle 6 -End Relief Angle, 6,-Side Relief Angle C;-End cutting Edge Angle, C,-Side Cutting Edge Angle The various tool angles are defined and explained below: Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA). Side cutting edge angle, Cs, also known as lead angle, is the angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank. The complimentary angle of SCEA is called the “Approach angle”. End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA). This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the tool shank. Side Relief Angle (SRA), It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to the side flank, 2, Continental System. This category of Tool Nomenclature system includes the German or DIN System (DIN-6581), Russian System (OCT-BKC 6897 and 6898) and Czechoslovakian System (CSN-1226). The various Tool parameters in this system are specified with reference to the Tool Reference Planes. 3, International system. It is an internationally adopted system, developed recently. It incorporates the salient features of Tool nomenclature of different systems in it. 4. British system. This system, according to B-S 1886-1952, defines the Maximum rake. The various tool parameters in this system are indicated in the order of Back rake, . Side rake, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting angle, Side cutting edge angle and Nose radius. Q.4. Discuss of brief with diagram : () Machine Reference system (ii) Orthogonal Rake system. ii) Normal Rake System.| Chapter 1: Geometry of Cutting Tools Ans. (i) Machine Reference system: In this system it is assumed that the tool, although held in position in space with reference to the work piece, is not operating on the workpiece. © This situation can be conceived as the tool being held in position by hand against a stationary workpiece. Its for this reason that this system is also known as tool in hand system. © This system consists of three principal reference planes. The horizontal plane which contains thebase of theshank _Fig.1.4. Tool and Workpiece in coordinates of the cutting tool is known as base plane. system of reference planes. * The second reference plane is vertical plane, normal to the base plane and parallel to the direction of feed (f) of the cutting tool. It is called the longitudinal plane (XX’). ® The third reference plane, called the transverse plane (YY’) is perpendicular to both the above reference planes and is parallel to the transverse motion of the tool, i.¢., the depth of cut (d). This combination of reference planes is known as coordinate system of reference planes. * The system, having been adopted by American standards association (A.S.A), is also known as A.S.A system of Tool Signature. Also, Because of the nomenclature of reference planes as X,Y and Z, Some authors describe it as X-Y-Z plane system. * This system is quite convenient in describing the tool angles of a single point cutting tool. This system of reference planes, together with the principal angles of a single point cutting tools, is shown in Fig. 1.5. Yaobex a Section i Along X- x’ : a, = Top Rake/Back rake angle a, = Side rake angle 8, = End relief/Clearance angle B, = Side relief/Clerance angle "4, End cutting edge angle 4,7 Side cutting edge angle @ = Nose angle Fig.1.5. Tool Angles in coordinates system (A.S.A System)6 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) i) Orthogonal Rake system : In this system of reference planes it is assumed that the cutting tool is operating against the workpiece. As usual, there are three main reference planes. One of these, of horizontal plane, contains the base of the cutting tool and is known as the base plane. The second plane, which is perpendicular to the base plane, contains the principal cutting edge (c) and is called the cutting plane. The third plane, which is perpendicular to both the above plane, is known as orthogonal plane. This set of reference plane is known as orthogonal system of reference planes. Fig.1.6. Tool and workpiece in orthogonal system of reference planes. * This system is also knowns orthogonal rake system (O.R'S) or international system. Further, because of the nomenclature (L, M and N) of the principal planes it is also described by some authors as L-M-N planes system. As already stated earlier, the tool in this system is supposed to be operating on the workpiece. 4% Plane approach angle or principal cutting ‘ecige angle or primary cutting edge angle or major cutting edge angle or simply approach angle 4, + Auxiliary cutting edge angle or Auxillary Plane cutting angle or minor cutting edge angle or secondary cutting edge angie ‘Am Angle of inclination of inclination angl2 ‘= Orthogoral rake angle Sido relief angle B= Wedge angle 3 Cutting Angle oy r+B) a, Side rake angle of 1,7 End relief angle RY b,=Side wedge angle. Fig,1,7. Tool Angles in Orthogonal (0.R.S) or Intemational system.Chapter 1 : Geometry of Cutting Tools 7 © Therefore, many tool parameters are variable in this system and their actual values are affected by the tool position with regard to the workpiece in actual operation. The different tool angles in the system, are shown in Fig. 1.7. To Designation in ORS system : In ORS system, only the main parameters of a single point cutting tool are designated in the following order : y Inclination angle (A) v Side relief angle (7), y Auxiliary cutting angle (9,), y Nose radius (R). ¥ Orthogonal rake angle (), v End relief angle (y,), v Approach angle ($,) and * Generally, symbols for degress and millimeters are not indicated. Each parameters is indicated by a number only. © For example, a cutting tool designated as 0-10-5-5-8-90-1 will have the following values of its different parameters : (Inclination angle) (Orthogonal rake angle) (Side relief angle) (End relief angle) (Auxiliary cutting angle) (Approach angle) (Nose Radius) * Inter-Relationship Between ASA and or Systems : Scveral times we are required to convert some tool parameters in ASA system to ORS system and vice versa. The following relationship will help in such conversions : tan a= tan a,, cos + tan a, sin 4, tan A= tan a, sin §, - tan a. tan 9 tan a, =sin 4,. tan @ — cos $y. tan A tan a, =cos ¢,. tan a — sins 9, tan A (ii) Normal Rake System : This system is also known as oblique reference system or ISO-new. * ASA system has limited advantage and use like convenience of inspection. ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool performance. But ORS does not reval the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges are inclined from the reference plane, i.e., 4 #0. Besides, sharpening or resharping if necessary, of the tool by grinding in ORS requires some additional calculations for correction of angles.Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) @ * These two limiationsof ORS are overcome by using NRS for description and use of tool geometry. The basic difference between ORS and NRSis the fact that in ORS, rake and clearance angles are visualized in the orthogonalpisne 7, where in NRS those angles are visualized in another plane called normal plane, m,, The orthogonal plane, x, is simply normal to x, and x, irrespective of the inclination of the cutting edges, i.e., ?.. but x,, (and x,’ for auxiliary cutting edge) is always normal to the cutting edges. The difference between ORS and NRS and been depicted in Fig.1.8. The planes of reference and the coordinates used in NRS are : Nay ~ Re ~My and X,- Y,-Z, where, 7,,, = Normal reference plane x, = Normal plane : Plane normal to the cutting edge X,=Xy Y, = Cutting edge, Z, = Normal to X, and Y, -, * It is to be noted that when 4 = 0 NRS and ORS become same, i.¢., %, approximated equal to x,, Y,, approximate equal to Y, and Z, approximate equal to Z,. Fig.1.8. Comparison of ORS and NRS. * Definition (in NRS) of Rake Angles : a, = Normal rake : angle of inclination angle of the rake surface form 7, * and measured on normal plane x, @, = Normal clerance : angle of inclination of the principal flank from *, and measured on ,- a, = Auxiliary clerance angle : Normal clerance of the auxiliary flank * (measured on m,,~ plane normal to the auxiliary cutting edge. ‘the angle, ¢ and ¢, and nose radius, r{am) are same in ORS and NRS.1 Chapter 1: Geometry of Cutting Tools 9 4.5 GEOMETRY OF MULTI POINT TOOLS Q.5. Give the geometry of milling cutter in brief ? Ans. GEOMETRY OF MILLING CUTTER : As far as metal cutting action is concerned, the pertinent angles on the tooth are those that define the configuration of the cutting edge, the orientation of the tooth face, and the relief to prevent rubbing on the land. * Outside diameter : The outside diameter of a milling cutter is the diameter of a circle passing through the peripheral cutting edges. Itis the dimension used in conjunction with the spindle speed to find the cutting speed (SFPM). * Root Diameter : This diameter is measured on a circle passing through the bottom of the filters of the teeth. * Tooth : The tooth is the part of the cutter starting at the body and ending with the peripheral cutting edge. Replaceable teeth are also called inserts. * Tooth Face : The tooth face is the surface of the tooth between the fillet and the cutting edge, where the chip slides during its formation. * Land : The area behind the cutting edges on the tooth that is relieved to avoid interference is called the land. ¢ Flute : The flute is the space provided for chip flow between the teeth. * Gash Angle : The gash angle is measured between the tooth face and the back of the tooth immediately ahead. * Fillet : The fillet is the radius at the bottom of the flute, provided, to allow chip flow and chip curling. The terms defined above apply primarily of milling cuting eage. cutters, particularly to plain Relief angie primary clearance angle milling cutters. In defining the configuration of the teeth on the cutters, the following terms are important. Lip angle * Peripheral cutting edge : The cutting edge aligned principally in the direction of the cutter axis is called the peripheral cutting edge. In peripheral milling, itis this edge that removes the metal. * Face Cutting Edge : The face cutting edge is the metal removing edge aligned primarily in a radial direction. In side milling and face milling, this 1 edge actually forms the new Secondary clearance angie Tooth depth Fig.1.9. Geometry of Milling Cutter.10 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-!) @ i TO Te surface, although the peripheral cutting edge may still be removing most of the metal. It corresponds to the end cutting edge on single point tools. * Relief Angle : This angle is measured between the land and a tangent to the cutting edge at the periphery. * Clerance Angle : The clerance angle is provided to make room for chips, thus forming the flute, normally two clerance angles are provided to maintain the strength of the tooth and still provide sufficient chip space. * Radial rake Angle : The radial rake angle is the angle between the tooth face a cutter radius, measured in a plane normal to the cutter axis. * Axial Rake Angle : The axial rake angle is measured between the peripheral cutting edge and the axis of the cutter, when looking radially at the point of intersection, * Blade Setting Angle : When a slot is provided in the cutter body for a blade, the angle between the base of the slot and the cutter axis is called the blade setting angle. Q.6. Explain the geometry of drill. Ans, Drills are used to make or to enlarge round holes in the work- piece. It has two cutting edges. Ina fitting shop, three types of drills are commonly seen-flat drill, straight- fluted drill and the twist drill. However, today twist drill, flat drill and straight fluted drill, are extensively used in a fitting shop. * Geometry of Twist drill. It is the most commonly used variety of drill and is made with two, three or four cutting lips. The two lip drill is used to drill holes into solid metal while the three and four lip drill is used for enlarging holes previously drilled. The twist drills, as shown in Fig. 1.10(b) and (a) has a cylindrical body on which the grooves are cut. Bod) clearance Cutting edge Tang pj] Nock (@) Tapred shank drill Neck (b) Parallel shank drill Fig. 1.10a Chapter 1: Geometry of Cutting Tools "1 © These grooves are called flutes, The flutes of a twist drill are always made with a right hand helix. This forces the chips up the flutes and away from the cutting, edges. While drilling, the drill is held by the shank. * The shank may be parallel or tapered, as shown in Figs. 1.10(b) and (a) respectively. ‘The parallel shank is provided on small sized drills (i.e., upto 12.5 mm). «The tapered shank drills have a taper called the morse taper. The size of taper on any particular drill depends upon the drill diameter. These drills are provided with a tongue (also called tang) at the end of the tapered shank. © The drill is held by the shank while drilling . The shank fits into the slot in a adrill sleeve, or in the machine spindle. It drives the drill and keeps the shank from slipping especially on large drills. © The drills are taken out from the machine spindle with the help of a draft, as shown in Fig. 1.11. The drills are made of high speed steel containing 18 percent tungsten, 4 percent chromium and 1 percent vanadium. Cutting angie or Angle of lip Up cleararce Rake angie angle Fig. 1.11. Drill with dratt. Fig. 1.12. Angles of twist drills. Various angles of twist drills : The various angles of twist drills are described below and shown in Fig. 1.12 above. 1, Cutting angle or angle of lie. The two lips must be of the same length and the angles of both lips must be equal. The cutting angle for ordinary work is 59° and varies with the metal to metal. (i) If the cutting angle is more, the drill will not cut the metal easily and will not hold its position centrally because of being too flat. (ii) If the cutting angle is less, more power will be needed to turn the drill and the drill will cut at a slower rate due to the longer cutting edges. (iif) If the angles on the cutting edges are different, then one cutting edge will wear quickly and the hole will be larger than the drill. This results in the wobbling of spindle and the drill wears out quickly.12 ‘Master Mind Solved Question Papera (Production Technology-!) a ie 2. Lip clearance angle. It is the angle formed by grinding away the heel (it is the part of the point) behind the cutting edge. The cone shaped cutting end is the point from the lips and varies from 12 to 15 degrees. This angle may be increased for drilling soft materials under heavy feeds. In cases of drilling the hardest material, this angle is 9 degrees and if itis reduced further, the drill cannot cut into the metal and may break in the centre along the web. 3. Rake angle. It is the angle between the flute and the, work. It is usually 70 to 75 degrees. This helps to secure the lip over the correct space to curl the chips. If this angle is more, then there will be no edge for cutting and if itis less, the cutting edge Is too thin and may break under the strain of the work, “ po == —MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING CHAPTER , | TOPICS COVERED/SYLLAUS | | | *Cutting Too! Materials | | *Chip | |» Matal Cutting | | Velocity Relationship i | * Merchant's Analysis | * Stress and Strain on Chip I * Force on Single Point Cutting Tool | * Equations | * Use of MCD | Popular Theories | * Factors Affecting Temperature in Metal Cutting I ~ a J 2.1 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS Q.1. What are the different types of cutting tool materials ? Ans. Tool material should prossess low coefficient of friction, softening resistance at high temperature, high abrasive resistance and sufficient toughness to resist fracture. Following are the cutting-tool materials that have progressively contributed to increased speeds and feeds: 1 High speed steels (H.S.S.) 2 Diamonds 3 High carbon steels 4 Castalloys-stellite 5 Ceramics 6 Cemented Carbides 1. High Speeds Steel (H.S.S): High speed steels are highly alloy steels, having high resistance to wear. They lose hardness at 600°C. This high temperature resistance is caused mainly by the contents of tungsten. «It enables turning with high speed. Since high speed steel is expensive, only the cutting edge or a tip consists of it. The tip is. welded to a shank of carbon steel. (13)14 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-!) m 2. Diamonds: Diamonds of less than gem quality are shaped for use as single point cutting tools to turn light metals with a very high degree of accuracy and surface finish or to machine hard materials that are difficult to cut with other tool materials. * The diamonds are brazed in a suitable shank or clamped in a mechanical holder. They must be rigidly supported because of their high hardness and brittleness. 3. High Carbon Steels: High carbon steels were being used entirely for all cutting tools before the development of high speed steels. Their carbon content ranges from 0.9 to 1.2%. * These steels have good hardening ability, and with proper heat treatment, yet as much hardness as any of the high speed alloys. At the maximum hardness the steel is quite brittle. * Ifsome toughness is desired, it can be obtained at the cost of hardness. The hardness is lost at 250°C. Therefore, they are not suitable for high speeds and heavy duty work 4. Cast Alloys—Stellites : Cast alloys are better known by the trade name of Stellites, These alloys principally contain 12 to 25% tungsten, 40 to 50% cobalt, 15 to 35% chronmiurn, 1 to 4% carbon, and with smaller percentage of carbide-forming elements like tantalum, molybedenum, or boron. * They are excellent materials for cutting tools. These alloys are cast to shape and have a high red hardness, being able to maintain good cutting edges on tools at temperatures upto 900°C. + Compared with high-speed steels, they can be ‘used at twice their cutting speeds and still maintain the same feed. However they are more brittle, do not respond to heat treatments, and can be machined by grinding. 5. Ceramic Tools: Fused and sintered aluminium oxide materials have proved to be most successful for cutting steel. These ceramic tool materials are commercially produced in the form of inserts and bits that can be clamped in mechanical tool holders to make single-point tools. * These tool materials are able to cut work materials at cutting speeds which are two to ten times faster than those which may be employed with cemented carbides, * The ceramic tool does not heat up in service; therefore, it is nor necessary to use a coolant/cutting fluid except in situations where the work- piece will become distorted by the heat generated within itself during cutting operations. SSS Fig. 2.1. Uso of Tool Materials in Tuming Tools. 6. Cemented carbides: Cemented or sintered carbide cutturg-to0i inserts are nade only by powder-metallurgy technique. Powdered crystals of tunysten carbide are cemented together with a binder or matrix of 3 to 12 per cabalt. Small amounts of tantalum carbide titanium carbide, or both are added in making some grades of this tool material.jechanics of Metal Cutting 15 w Chapter © It is the hardest metallic tool material that is made by man and has the highest degree of red hardness. Therefore, it can be used to cut harder work materials at higher cutting speeds than are possible with other metallic tool materials. 22 CHIP Q.2. Discuss the mechanism of chip formation. What are the different types of chip formed ? [KU 2008, 2011] ‘Ans. A wedge shaped tool is made to move relative to the workpiece. As tool make contact with metal, it exerts a pressure on it. Due to the pressure exerted by the tool tip, metal will shear in the form of chips on the shear plane AB. A chip is produced ahead of the cutting tool by deforming and shearing the metal continuously, along the shear plane AB. + The shear plane is actually a narrow zone and extends from the cutting edge of the tool to the surface of the workpiece. The cutting edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces. A detailed about various terminologies is given below : () Rake Surface : It is the surface between chip and top surface of the cutting tool. It is the surface along which the chip moves upwards. (i) Flank Surface : It is the surface between work piece and bottom of the cutting tool. This surface is provided to avoid rubbing with the machined surface. (i) Rake Angle (a) : It is the angle between the rake surface and the normal to work piece. Rake angle may be positive or negative. (io) Flank Angle/Clearance Angle/Relief angle (7) : It is the angle between the flank surface and the horizontal machined surface. It is provided for some clearance between flank surface and machined surface of work piece to avoid rubbing action of cutting tool to the finish surface. (v) Primary Deformation Zone : It is the zone between tool tip and shear plane AB. (vi) Secondary deformation zone : It is the zone between rack surface of the tool and chip. (vii) Tertiary Deformation zone : It is the zone between flank surface of the tool and machined of work piece. + Almost all the cutting processes involve the same shear deformation theory. The cutting tool used in cutting process may be single point or multi point cutting tool. Turning, threading and shaping, boring, chamfering, and facing are some cutting operations done by single point cutting tool. © Milling, drilling, grinding, reaming and broaching are some cutting operations done by multi-point cutting tool. * As the tool is forced into the materials, the chip is formed by shear deformation alonga plane called the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle f with the surface of the work. © The size of zone of plastic deformation depends upon cutting parameters. The size of this zone decreases with the increase of cutting speed. In the analysis of thin zones, itis6 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology!) q assumed that the work material shears across a plane and forms the chip. This plane is called shear plane. L-Primary Deformation Zone a-Rake angle T-Secondary Deformation Zone Flank Angle (Relief Angle) Il-Tertiary Deformation Zone Shear Angle AB-Shear Plane tyChip thickness before cut (Depth of cut) ~ r= 4,/t,= Chip thickness ratio t-Chip thickness. Fig. 2.2 Principle of metal cutting. There are two types of zone formed : @) Primary Shear Zone (b) Secondary Shear Zone (a) Primary Shear Zone : vy As the tool is forced into the material the chip is formed by shear deformation within a thin shear zone, referred to it as primary shear zone, ; TE which is oriented at an angle 6 with : see the surface of work as shown in Fig ‘Secondary shear zone given below. Fig. 2.3. Shear Zone. < Failure of material due to plastic deformation occur at the cutting edge of tool, resulting in separation of chip from the parent material. y Bulk of mechanical energy of machining is consumed in this zone, ¥ The thickness of shear zone is only a few thousands of an inch. Since, it is so thin! we can refer to it as plane. (b) Secondary Shear Zone : y Second shear action occurs in the chip after it has been formed, referred to it a5 secondary shear. i ¥ This results from friction between chip and the tool as the chip slide along tht rake face of the tool.@ Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 7 ¥ Its effect increase with increased friction between tool and chip ¥ Type of material being machine ¥ Cutting conditions of operation. Types of chips : It is formed in the metal cutting Chip. Friction between process and undergoes a plastic chip and to! deformation process, then it becomes L), shorter and its cross section increases, that is called chip contraction. Li * Due to contraction the length of the sotonof chip obtained is much shorter than the "o"#0° sontnuovs shearing length of travel of the tool along the surface Fig. 2.4. Modal of metal cutting . of the work. The following types of chips cup are described: 1 Continuous chips 2 Continuous Chips with built up edge primary zone of . deformation 3 Discontinuous chips. 1. Continuous Chips. In the cutting of ductile materials as low carbon steel, copper, aluminium and brass alloys, etc. a continuous Fig. 2.5. Continuous Chip. ribbon type chip is produced. The pressure of the tool makes the material ahead of the cutting edge deform plastically. It commonly suffers compression and shear. * The material then slides over the tool rake face at some distance and then leaves the tool. Friction between the chip and tool may produce secondary deformation on the chip material. * The plastic zone ahead of the tool edge is called the primary zone of deformation, and the deformation zone on the rake face usually referred to as the secondary zone of deformation as shown in Fig. 2.5. ¢ These zones and the sliding of chip on rake face produce heat which results in increase of temperature on the tool chip interface as well as increase in temperature of the tool as a whole, . © The work material characteristics which influence the size of the primary zone are as strain rate, strength heat conductivity and strain hardening. 2. Continuous Chips with built-up edge. Under certain conditions the friction between the chip and the tool is so great that the chip material welds itself to the tool face. © The presence of this welded material further increases the function and this friction leads to the building up of layer upon layer of chip material. The resultant pile of material is referred to as a built up edge as shown in Fig. 2.6.Master Mind Solved Question Papers. (Production Technology-I) Fig. 2.6. Continuous chip with built up edge. Fig. 2.7. Discontinuous chip. 3. Discontinuous chips: Discontinuous chips are produced during the-cutting of brittle materials like cart irons and brasses containing higher percentage of zinc etc. The chip formation mechanism in this case is quite different from that of ductite materials, * Even a slight plastic deformation produced by a small advance of the cutting edge into the job lead to a crack formation in the deforming zone. With further advance of the cutting tool, the crack travels and a'small lump of material starts moving up the rake face as shown in Fig. 2.7. * The force and constraints of motion acting on the lump make the crack propagate towards the surface and thus a small fragment of the chip gets detached. As the tool moves further this sequence is repeated. Q.3. Discuss Chip control and Chip breakers in brief. Ans, The Chips produced during machining, specially while employing higher speeds in machining of high tensile strength materials, need to effectively controlled. © This requirement is more pronounced is carbide tipped tools are being used form machining, because in that case higher speeds will be used and therefore, due to high ~ temperatures the resulting chip will be continuous, of blue colour and take the shape of a coil. * Such a chip, if not broken into parts and removed from the surroundings of the metal cutting area as it is, likely to adversely affect the machining results in one more of the following ways : 1. It may adversely affect the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge, creating crater and raising temperature. 2. Its presence may lead to a poor surface finish on the workpiece. 3. It the chip gets curled around the rotating workpiece and/or cutting tool , it may be hazardous to the machine operator. 4. If large and continuous coil is allowed to be formed, it may engage the entire machine and even the workpiece. It is quite dangerous. 5. Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal. * Such difficulties are, however not encountered while machining materials like brass and cast iron, because in their machining continuous chips of the above type are not produced.'@ Chapter 2: Mechanics of Metal Cutting 19 But, in case of continuous chips some means must be used to overcome the above difficulties and adverse effects mentioned above. For this purpose, the chip breakers are used. © These chip breakers break the produced chips into small pieces. The work hardening of the material of the chip makes the work of the chip breakers easy. * If the job requirements do not call for a very strict chip control, the common methods used for chip breaking are : (@ By Control of tool geometry i.e., grinding proper back Rake and side rake according to the feeds and speeds to the used. (i By obstruction methods, i,, by interposing a metallic obstruction in the path of the coil. But, when a strict chip control is desired, some sort of a chip breaker has to be employed. The Following types of chip breakers are commonly used : 1. Groove type : It consists of grinding a groove on the face of the tool, behind the cutting edge, leaving a small land near the tip. 2. Step Type : It consists of grinding a step on the face of the tool, adjacent to the - cutting edge. pa OO) ) Fig. 2.8. Type of chip breakers : (a) Grove type (b) Step type. 3. Secondary rake type : It consists of providing a secondary rake on the tool through grinding, together with a small step. chp breaker Land ‘Clamp: (-—? ( can insert (NP) () @) Fig. 2.9. Type of chip breakers : (c) Secondary rake type (d) Clamp type 4, Clamp type : This type of chip breaker is very common with the carbide tipped tools. The chip breaker is a thin and small plate which is either brazed to or head mechanically on the tool face. Q.4. Discuss chip thickness ratio. Also derive the relation for shear angle. Ans. During the cutting action of a metal it will be observed that the thickness of the deformed or upward flowing chip is more than the actual depth of cut. It is because the chip flows upwards at a slower rate than the velocity of the cut.20 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) q ee The velocity of chip flow is directly affected by the shear plane angle. The smaller the angle slower will be chip flow velocity and therefore larger will be thickness of chip, t, = Chip thickness prior to deformation t, = Chip thickness after deformation. The above discussion leads to the result that, >t, The Chip thickness ratio ‘r’is given by t rep afl) 2 * Since t, is always greater than f,, the value of chip thickness ratio ’r’ is less than unity. The higher the value of ’r the better is supposed to be the cutting action. The reverse of ‘r’ is known as Chip Reduction Coefficient. If ‘k’ is the Chip Reduction Coefficient, then : 1 . res Fig. 2.10. An Orthogonal cutting operation. * Now, in Orthogonal cutting the width of the chip equals the width of the cut, Considering the specific gravity of the metal as constant, the volume of the chip produced will be equal to the volume of the metal cut, widths of both being equal, the product of the chip thickness and its length will, therefore, be equal to the product of the thickness and the length of the metal cut. If L, and L, are the lengths of the metal cut and the chip respectively, it follows that: t, Lyet,.L, 44 a. or, ty L A But, =r t ho rote +2) 4,7 L 44 ine (8 om, reer a 8) In the given Fig. 2.10, we have two right angled triangles OAP and OBP, Considering the right angled triangle OAP, we have AF asin AOP= sin ¢ AP i OP = ng [But AP =#] °1B Chapter 2: Mechanics of Metal Cutting 2 tL OP = sind wf) Now, considering the right angled triangle OBP, we have # =sin BOP = sin (90 - $ + a) = cos( - a) BP cos(>-a) t o—2 * OP = =a) ofS) Now, by equating the equations (4) and (5) for OP, we get oe sing ~ cos(b—a) sing * cos(b-a) “7 sing 2 ”* Ss(-a) (6) ‘The equation (6) above can be explained as : pei cosdcosa +singsina or, 7 (cos. cosa) + r(sind . sina) = sind r(cos$.cosa) 5 r(sing.sina) <4 sing sing rcosa. tan oP= [But BP =¢] 5 or, t, t+rsina=1 rcosa tang =1-rsina “ics, by substituting the value of ‘r’ in terms of t, and t,, we get t/t, cosa ee tan 6" 7 7i,sing (8) 2.3 METAL CUTTING Q.5. Discuss orthogonal and oblique metal cutting. Also write the difference between Orthogonal and oblique metal cutting?22 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) Ans. On the basis of the angular relationship between the cutting velocity vector and the cutting edge of the tool, different metal cutting processes can be classified into two types described below: (1) Orthogonal cutting (2) Oblique cutting. ak Orthogonal Cutting. It is the cutting in which the tool approaches the workpiece with its cutting edge parallel to the uncut surface and at right angles to the direction of cutting. * Thus, tool approach angle and cutting edge inclination are zero. In the study af * force acting on a tool during the process of metal cutting is necessary for marking the analysis of the process on a qualitative basis. 6 Fig. 2.11. Orthogonal Cutting. 2, Oblique Cutting: In fact there are various examples of oblique cutting in machining process. Orthogonal cutting is only a particular case of oblique cutting. © The practical requirements of rake and other angles on the tool mean that ideal conditions of orthogonal cutting are rarely achieved. However, the analysis of oblique cutting is much more difficult than that of orthogonal cutting. (Fig, 2.12) Angle of Obliquity Fig. 2.12, Oblique Cutting.@ Chapter 2; Mechanics of Metal Cutting 23 The various point of difference between orthogonal and oblique cutting systems are described as. below: Oblique Cutting 1. The chip -flows on the tool face making an angle with the normal on the cutting edge. ‘The chip flows sideways in a long curl. Orthogonal Cutting . The chip flows over the tool face and the direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge. The chip coils ina tight, flat spiral. 2. Only two components of the cutting force are acting on the tool. These two components are perpendicular to each other and can be represented in a plane. 3. Maximum chip thickness occurs at its middle. For same feed and depth of cut, the force which acts or shears the metal acts on a smaller area and, therefore, the heat developed, per unit area due to friction along the tool work interface is less and the tool life is less. . The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of tool travel. 2. Three components of the forces (mutually perpendicular act at the cutting edge.) 3, The maximum chip thickness may not occur at middle. 4. It acts on larger area and thus tool life is more a 5. The cutting edge is inclined at an angle i (known as inclination angle) with the normal to the direction of tool travel. 6. The cutting edge mayor may not clear the width of the workpiece. 2.4 VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP Q.6. Derive the relationship between cutting. Velocity chip flow velocity and velocity of shear ? Ans. The relationship of different velocities for orthogonal cutting is shown in Fig.2.13. Let the velocities depicted in the diagram be as follows : V, = Velocity of tool relative to work, or the cuiting velocity V, = Velocity of chip flow relative to tool, or the chip flow velocity V, = Velocity of displacement of tne chip along the shear plane relative to work to the velocity of shear. . The cutting edge clears the width of the workpiece on either ends. Fig. 2.13. Velocity relationships.Be nr aint tes cenn Pago eeeion Tete Perm * Of the above the three velocities the cutting velocity V, is always known. The other two can be computed with its help of the following relations, which refer to the velocity diagram shown on the right hand side in Fig. 2.13. From standard trigonometrical ratios, we get : V, V, y, sin(90-$+a) ~ sing” sin(90-c) v. we sin|90-($+a)] ~ sing cosa Ve MMe cos($—01 sing cosa ¢ From these relations the values of V,and V, can be derived in terms of the known velocity V, as follows : and v= Ve But, we know __ Chip thickness prior to defomoration Chip thickness after deformation So, V,=Vcxr © The Same relationship can also be derived by equating the two volumes of materials which are equal in orthogonal cutting, such as : Volume of material cut per unit of time = Volume of the material flowing up as chip Veet tv = Vyty to Iw = width of cut] Vet oy t f 2 t, VV a t, as Ve Vor [ou a ‘| 2.5 MERCHANTS'S ANALYSIS Q.7. Discuss force relationship in Orthogonal Cutting with merchant circle diagram ? ‘Ans, Number of force act on the chip during metal cutting. The relationship among _ the forces were established by merchant circle diagram with the following assumptions:m Chapter 2: Mechanics of Metal Cutting 25 1, Cutting velocity always remains constant. 2, Cutting edge of the tool remains sharp throughout cutting and there is no contact between the workpiece and tool flank. There is no sideway flow of chip. Only continuous chip is produced. There is no built up edge. No consideration is made of the inertia force of the chip. The behavior of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of a stable equilibrium due to the action of two resultant forces which are equal, opposite and collinear. « However, there were a number of flows and practical difficulties in these assumptions and that is why they were modified later, . © Figure 2.14 illustrates the forces acting on a chip in orthogonal cutting. The forces represented are the following: F, = Metal resistance to shear in None chip formation, acting along the shear plane, or shear Fig. 2.14. Forces acting on as chip in force, orthogonal cutting. F, = Backing up force exerted by the workpiece on the chip acting normal to the shear plane. N= Force exerted by the tool on the chip, acting normal to the tool face. F = uN = Frictional resistance of the tool against the chip flow, acting along the tool face, ‘y’ being the coefficient of friction between the tool face and the chip. o H=FIN * These forces are vectorially represented in the Free-body diagram shown in the right hand side in Fig. 2.14. It will be observed that force F, and F, can be easily replaced by their resultant R and force F and N by their resuitant R’. * Thus, all these forces are resolved to only two forces R and R’, For equilibrium these force R and R’ should be equal, act opposite to each other and should be collinear ie, and, or, . R=R * For the convenience in studying further relationship the two triangles of force of the above free body diagram have been combined together in Fig. 2.15 called the merchant's circle diagram for cutting forces, in which the following new components figure :26 Master Mind Sotved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) @ _-—_—_—lC SS F, = Horizontal cutting force exerted by the tool on the workpiece F, = Vertical or tangential force which helps in holding the tool in position and acts. # These two forces can easily be found out.with the help of strain gauges or force dynamometers. The angle a is a known quantity, being the rake and angle of the tool. * When these four value i.e, of Fy F, aand 6 are known all the other forces can be easily calculated with the help of geometry. F=AQ+QB =AQ+DC [> QB=Dc] ie, and N=QD=PQ-PD N=F, cos a-F,sina Again F,= AH - HK = AH - PE F, =F, cos $-F, sing F,=CK=CE+EK =CE+PH ai F.= AC cos (t- a) or F,=R cos (t- a) F=F,sina+F,cosa F,=F, cos $+F.sin$ F,=R cos ($+ t- a) Reos(t-a) _ Fig. 2.15 Force acting in orthogonal cutting (Merchant's circle diagram) en(1) eu(2) [v HK = PE] wn) (4) 8) (6) cos(t-«) E a Now, F. ~ Reos(o+t-a) c0s(+4-a) cos(p++ From equation (4.16) and 4.17 we have : cos(t-c) F _ Fsina+Fcosa _ W © F.cosa-F sina Also, by dividing the numerator and denominator both by cos 0, we get FF +Ftana_ NF -ftanc wn(9)fm Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 27 From right angle triangle ABC, we also have : 4 stant=p (10) where, = Kinetic coefficient of fricition between the upward sliding chip and tool and + = Angle of friction or, t= tant p= tan cp Further, ap 7 tan PAC By substituting the values of CP, AP and angle PAC, we get : F, = =tan (t-@) «.(11) c 2.6 STRESS AND STRAIN ON CHIP Q.8. Discuss in brief about the stress and strain occurs on chip. Ans. A chip is supposed to experience both the stress and strain during metal machining because it is produced as a result of plastics deformation of the metal. For calculating their values the conditions at the cutting plane are considered. The average stresses on the shear plane area are : Mean shear stress (1) = (katie) wa(1) and mean normal stress(o,) = Fe (retin) (2) where, F, = Shear force in kgs, F, = Normal force in kgs A, = Area of shear plane * sing [where A, = area of chip before removal = ¢,.w] We know F,=F, cos ¢-F, sing By substituting the value of Fs and As in equation (1) we get Fi _ Fecoso-F sind "7A, A,/sing - SOs +A SiNd ny kg/mm? E,coso+F singe, i 2 0 Tsing kg/m2 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) Now, _ let the shear strain = 7 Considering no loss of work during shearing : Work done in shearing a unit volume of the metal = Shear stress x shear strain te ExV, er txwxV, ~S*Y EV, roti a) xt xxV But we know that t, By substituting this value of t, in the above equation we get Fy Fx * Fsing Fsindx (20) _ Altxw) 1 (6) Ve _ 50s V. cos(}-a) By substituting this value in equation (6), we get cosa Y> Gos(—a)sing ial We know that 2.7 FORCE ON SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL Q.9. Discuss force on single point cutting tool in turning ? Ans. It is a case of oblique cutting in which three component forces act simultaneously on the point as shown in Fig. 2.16. The component are : F, = The feed force acting in horizontal plane parallel to the axis of the work. F, = The radia! force, also acting in the horizontal plane but along a radius of the workpiece ie, along the axis of the tool. Fig. 2.16. Force acting on a single point too! in tuning operation.@ Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 29 ae“ F, = The cutting force, acting in vertical plane and is tangential to the work surface. Also called the tangential force. © Out of these three component forces F, is the largest and F, the smallest. It has been found out that the value of F, for turning varies between 0.3 F_ to 0.6 F_ and that of F, between 0.2 F, to 0.4 F.. : © In case of orthogonal cutting, only two component force come into play since the value of F, is ‘zero’ in that case. ‘In the present case of turning operation, the component F,, F, and F, can be easily determined with the help of suitable force dynamometer. Their resultant R can be computed from the following relation : R= (R+R +E and for orthogonal cutting, R= jf+P 2.8 EQUATIONS Fe F,sina+F,cosa N=F,cosa-F, sina F,=F,.cos$-F, sing F,=F, sin 6+F, cos $ where, a. = Rake angle 9 =Shear angle F, = Cutting force (Horizontal) F, = Tangential force (Vertical) F = Friction resistance force (Along tool face) N = Force exerted by tool on chip(Normal to tool face) F, = Shear force F, = Normal force. Orthogonal Turning : In Fig 2.6, F_ or F, = Primary cutting force account for 90% of power consumption = tangential component of force. F, or F, = Axial component or feed force accounts for small percentage of power consumption (50 % of F.) F, or F, = Radial force or thirst force accounts for very little power consumption and a equal to 50% of f. ie., 25% of F.. Conversion formula : Turning (3D) is orthogonal cutting F,= F, EF, Fe—hs ‘sinkx Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-1) » where, 4=90°-C, = Approach angle, C, = Side cutting edge angle For single point cutting tool : t=fsind a b= —— sink where, f= feed, b= width of tool, d= depth of cut. For orthogonal turning : a=90° Metal removal rate (MRR) : MRR = A.V = biV = fav where, A, = Gross-sectional area of uncut chip (mm*) V =Cutting speed = DN (mm/min) Power consumed during cutting : Power =F,.* V F. = Cutting force (N) V =Cutting Speed = a = m/min Specific energy consumption : 100 Power (w) = % of heat going ee z= 07 ees = MRR (mm®/s) & 80 be worrpicce, FV = 70 Of heat going Set ee g i tool “AV 1000 fa E 6 a Also known as specific power consumption ¥ ic tochip Heat generated : / Bs Hot generated = F, » V kgf m/min in 10 = amin © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 % = Cutting speed V (m/min) Fig. 1 2.9 USE OF M.C.D Q.10. What are the advantages of merchant circle diagram ? Ans. Merchant circle diagram has following advantages : 1. It is used to analyse the force acting in metal cutting. 2. In this analysis of three force system which balance each other cutting to occurs a triangle of force. Each system is represented as triangle with diameter of circles common side. 3. It is easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a few known forces.Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 31 4. Friction at tool chip interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily determined. 5, Equation relating the different forces can be easily derived. 6. Relation between various angles can be determined xa B =24+2-5 where, =Shear angle, a = Rake angle B= Friction angle = tan” » i= Coefficient of friction. 2.10 POPULAR THEORIES Q.11. Describe various theories related to mechanics of metal cutting. ‘Ans, Metal cutting theory will be observed from the various relationships derived above for forces, velocities, energy etc. that they involve parameters like rake angle a, shear angle $ and friction angle 8. Angle a on the tool can be easily measured but values of $ and 8 can be obtained only by computation. Earnst and Merchant, Merchant, Stabler, Lee and Shaffer, Polymer and Oxley and many other investigators have carried out lot of work to establish relationship between a, B and 6, and have proposed their own theories. 1. Earnst-Merchant Theory : This theory, first proposed by Earnst and Merchant in 1941, is based on the principle of minimum energy consumption. It implies that during cutting the metal shear should occur in that direction in which the Energy requirement for shearing is minimum. The other assumptions made by them include: (i) The behaviour of the metal being machined is like that of an Ideal plastic. (if) At the Shear plane the Shear stress is Maximum, is Constant and Independent of Shear angle (9). They deduced the following relationship: ail) 2. Christopherson, Oxley and Palmer’s Theory. Christo Pherson palmer and Oxley made detailed study of mechanics of chip formation on the flow of grains in the material and found that the grains flow showed a streamlined pattern and that the boundary between elastic and plastic zones was not a straight line but anarrow wedge shaped zone. * This theory is proably the most important recent development in the theory of metal cutting. 3. Stabler Theory. He modified the Ernst-Merchant equation as Ra.@ o= a ety vne(2) 4, Lee and Shaffer's Theory. Lee and Shaffer analysed the process of Orthogonal Metal Cutting by applying the Theory of plasticity for an ideal and rigid plastic material. The Principal Assumptions made by them include:— Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-t) ( The workpiece material ahzad of the cutting tool behaves like an idea! plas material, (i) The deformation of the metal occurs on a single shear plane. (ii) There is a stress field within the produced chip which transmits the Cuttin; force from the shear plane to the tool face and, therefore, the chip does not get hardened. (i) The chip separates from the parent material (of the workpiece) at the shea plane. * Based on these assumptions, they developed a Slip-line Field for stress zone, in which no deformation would occur even if itis stressed to its yield point. From this, they derived the following relationship: o= Fra-Bassr+a-p or $+B-a=45° (3) This was further modified as : o- F+a+0-B =45°+a+0-8 or + B-(a+6)=45° afd) * The term ‘6’ was introduced to cover the changes in different Parameters on account of the formation of Built-up-edge. 2.11 FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE IN METAL CUTTING Q.12. Discuss different factors affecting temperature in metal cutting. Ans. Factors affecting temperature in metal cutting are : (a) Influence of cutting parameters : 1. Cutting speed : With the increase in cutting speed cutting the bottom of roke face occurred with strong friction produce large amount of heat, cutting temperature increased. 2. Feed : Feed rate increase metal removal per unit time increase the amount of heat so cutting temperature increased, 3. Depth of cut : With more depth of cut, force requirement increase by which strong friction comes into play, produce large amount of heat, cutting temperature increased, (b) Influence of cutting tool geometry on temperature : When rake angle increases, cutting deformation reduced, resulting in heat come from a cutting, the cutting temperature decreases. (©) Workpiece material impact : The higher strength and hardness workpiece material, cutting power consumption increases so cutting temperature is higher. (d) Tool wear impact: After blunt, tool on one hand, the front edge area compression increases the plastic deformation of metal cutting area increased the other hand, the‘Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 33 basic tool clerance angle it zero so the workpiece and the tool to increase the friction both the cutting temperature increases. (ec) Cutting fluid influence : Cutting fluid reduce the temperature of cutting area, to improve the cutting process of friction conditions, increases tool life. Q. 13. During orthogonal cutting process, a chip length of 75 mm was obtained with an uncut chip length of 195 mm and the rake angle used was 20° with depth of cut mm. The horizontal and vertical components of cutting force F, and F, were 1950 N and respectively. Calculate the shear plane angle, chip thickness, friction angle and resultant cutting force. Solution. Given that To calculate Ly 75 mm(Chip Length) P L, = xDN = 195mm (uncut chip length) 4 a= 20° t ,= 0.45 mm 8 F,= 1950 N R F,=190N (1) (2) 1-0.3846.sin20° =OAIS] or $ =22.59° (Ans.) (3) Chip thickness, t, depth of cut) t= 1.17 (Ans) F,+Ftana et htang @ tan F,-F,.tana __ 190+ 1950.tan20° _ 190+709.74 tan B= 7950-190°.tan20° ~ 1950—69.15 ~ ©4783 or p= 25.56° (Ans.) (5) Resultant cutting force, Rw Vey +R) Re (190)? + (1950)? = 1959.23 N (Ans.)4 ‘Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-1) @ I MRO Centon Mapere: ((RrecuetiOn! TRCROIONNS) Q. 14. In Orthogonal Turning of mild bar of 60 mm diameters on a lathe a feed of 0.8 mm was used. A Continuous Chip of 1.4 mm thickness was removed at a Rotational Speed of 80 rpm . of w ork. Calculate the chip thickness zatio ¢), chip reduction ratio (k) and the total length of the chip removed in one minute. Solution. From equation, we have Now, t= feed rate mnyrev. 0.8 mm and, 4, @ given thickness of cut chip = 1.4mm r= 08 0.57 An: 1g ABs Also, we have 2 , 1.75 An: 7 O57 7179 Ans. ab L, l= rl, =057xnxDxN = 0.57 * p « 60 x 80 = 3912 mm (Ans.) Q.15. In a tool wear test with a high speed steel cutting tool, the following values of tool life were recorded. Again, we have : Tool life, min Cutting Speed, m/min 30 25 15 70.0 Calculate the values of 1 and C of Taylor's equation. Solution. The Taylor's equation is VI" = C log V+ n log T=log C (a) When T= 30 and V = 25, then log 25 + 1 log 30= log C or 1.3979 +n + 1.4770 =k (i) (8) When T= 15 and V= 70, then log 70+ n log 1.5 = log 0.176 +n * 1.8451 =k Cif) Solving Eqns.(i) and (ii), we get the values as n= 0.344 k= log C= 1.9057 C= 80.43ws Chapter 2 : Mechanics of Metal Cutting 35 Q.16. The following observations were made during an orthogonal cutting operation : Depth of cut v0.3 mm Chip thickness ~- 0.6 mm Rake angle we 20° Cutting velocity ws 102 m/min Feed force + 120 N Determine : (@ Shear angle. i) Shear strain. (ii) Velocity of chip along the tool force. (iv) Work done in shear. Solution. Given : ¢ = 0.3 mm : t, = 0.6 mm, a = 20°; V = 102, m/min; F, = 300 N; F,=120N rcosa, ) -rsina (i Shear angle,@: = tan” t 0.3 = gg" 5 where, r = = tare (0520820 $= tan” |< o5sin20° 29.54° (if) Shear strain, ¢ ; € =cot 6 + tan (p-a) = cot 29.54% tan (29.54°- 20°) = 1.932. (Ans.) (iii) Work done in shear,W, : W,=F,*V, Now, F =F.cos $- sin} = 300cos 29.54°- 120 sin 29.54° = 201.84 N Vecosa and Vi= eenan38 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) @ 3.2 LUBRICANTS Q.3. Discuss lubricants with its types? Ans. A lubrications is a substance introduced to reduce friction between surfaces in metal contact, which ultimately reduces, the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles or heating or cooling the surfaces. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity. Types of lubricants : 1. Mineral Oils : These oils are principally composed of hydro carbons of different structures and moieculator weights. The main constituents of these are the paraffins, naphthenes and arcomatics. 2. Fatty oils and acids : They come as the first choice as friction reducing materials under extremely high pressure and are used for boundary lubrications. These oils are acids are used in various other forms. 3. Waxes : Waxes derived from petroleum find their application in various processes like drawing, rolling extrusion, and wet coating on mould surfaces, 4. Graphite Suspensions : Graphite suspension in some suitable fluid generally oil or water, are vastly used in foundary and foreign work and other lubrication requirements, such as in extrusion and wire drawing. 5. Compound emulsions : Emulsion is the term used to denote the solution made by diluting the soluble oil in water. These are best suited for use in heavy duty operation. 6. Conventional Emulsion : These emulsion are prepared by mixing the net soluble oils in water. Most of the cutting and grinding work done in workshops involve the use of such emuslion. 7. Aqueous Solutions : Aqueous solution i.c., various types of soap and salt solutions in water, find a fairly wide use in different metal working operations. 8. Compounded mineral oils : Straight mineral oils are compounded with various other substances such as fatty acids and oils etc. These are called compounded mineral oils. These are used in various operations like metal cutting, drawing, grinding, extrusion forming etc. 9. Minerals : Various type of minerals are used as metal working lubricants or coolants 10. Water : It is principally a coolant and not a lubricant 11. Air : It is also widely used as coolant for various tools, grinders, moulds and in hot treatment like annealing. / 12, Synthetics ; Various types of synthetic materials are used as metal working lubricants. 3.3 TOOL FAILURE Q.4. Discuss tool failure? Ans. A properly designed and ground cutting tool is expected to perform the metal cutting operation in an effective and smooth manner.@ Chapter 3 : Cutting Fluids and Too! Life 39 ee * If however, it is not giving a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the tool failure and the same is reflected by the following adverse effects observed during the operation : 1. Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece. 2. Higher consumption of power. 3. Work dimenions not being produced as specified. 4, Overheating of cutting tool. 5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface. During the operation a cutting tool may fail due to one or more of the following reaons : ¥ Thermal cracking and softening ¥ Mechanical chipping y Gradual wear. 1. Thermal cracking and softening: Lotof heat is generated during the process of metal cutting. Due to this heat the tool tip and the area closer to the cutting edge Fig, 5.4, Tool failure due to Thermal Cracking. becomes very hot. * Although the cutting tool material is quite hard to withstand this temperature still every tool materials has a certain limit to which it can withstand the elevated temperature without losing its hardness. « If that limit is crossed the tool material starts deforming plastically at the tip and adjacent to the cutting edge under the action of cutting pressure and high temperature. © On account of fluctuation in temperature and severe temperature gradients the toot material is subjected to local expansion and contraction. This gives rise to the setting up of temperature stresses or thermal stresses. Due to which cracks are developed in the material. 2. Mechanical Chipping : Mechanical chipping of Face: the noise and or the cutting edge of the tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure. © The common reaons for such failures are Too nigh cutting pressure, Mechanical impact, Excessive wear, Too Chipped Tip high vibrations and chatter, weak tip and cutting edge _ Fig, 3.2. Tool Failure due to ete. mechanical chipping. * A typical form of mechanical chipping is shown in Fig. 3.2. This type of failure is more pronounced in carbide tipped and diamond tools due to the high brittleness of the tool material. 3, Gradual wear: When a tool is in use for some time, it is found to have lost some weight or mass, implying that it has lost some material from it which is due to wear. The following two types of wears are generally found to occur in cutting tools :40 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-J) @ (a) Crater Wear : The principal region where wear takes place in a cutting tool it its face, at a small distance (say ‘a’) from its cutting edge. * This type of wear generally take place while machining ductile materials like steel and steel alloys, in which continous chip is produced. The resultant feature of this type of wear is the formation of a crater or a depression at the tool chip interface. Fig. 3.3, Principal types of wear occuring in the cutting tool. * This type of wear, or the formation of creater on the tool face, is due to the pressure of the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool. * The metal from the tool face is supposed to be transferred to the sliding chip by means of the diffusion process. (b) Flank Wear : Another region where an appreicable amount of wear occurs in the flank below of cutting edge. It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the workpiece and excessive heat generated as a result of the same. * The abrasive action is aided by the hard microconstituents of the cut material and broken parts of built-up edge, if it there. * That is why this type of wear is more pronounced while machining brittle material, because the cut chips of such materials provided a lot of abrasive material readily. © ©} Flank Wear (VB) mm —+ © I Wear Land Time () mine Fig. 3.4. Flank Wear. _Fig.3.5. Graph showing davelopment of flank water with time. © The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land. This type of wear mainly occurs on the tool nose and front and side relief faces. The effect of flank wear is expressed in terms of width or height of wear land which is dependent on time. * The first component (A) which exists for a small duration represents the period during which initial wear takes place at rapid rate. It is called primary stage. * The second component (B) which exists for a long duration represents the wear during which wear progresses uniformly. It is called secondary stage. © The last segment (C) represents the region in which wear occurs at a very rapid rate and result in tool failure of tool. It is called tertiary stage.im Chapler 3 : Cutting Fluids and Too! Life a 3.4 MECHANISM OF TOOL WEAR Q.5. Discuss different mechanism of tool wear. Ans. Some of the important tool wear mechanisms of a hard metal tool which is in contact with a softer but deforming metal (workpiece) sliding part the former at a fairly high speed are described below: 1. Electrochemical Effect: Ithas been argued that since sufficiently high temperatures exist on the chip tool interface, a thermoelectric of is set up in the closed circuit due to the formation of a hot junction at the chip tool interface between the dissimilar tool and work materials. © This current may assist the wear process at the rake face in some way, for example, by aiding the diffusion of carbonions from the carbide tool to the flowing chip. 2. Diffusion Wear: When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal and the temperature at their interface is high, conditions may become right for the alloying atoms from the harder metal to diffuse into the softer matrix, thereby increasing the latter’s hardness and abrasive-ness. © On the other hand atoms from the softer metal may also diffuse into the harder medium, thus, weakening the surface layer of the latter to such an extent that particles onit are dislodged/torn (or sheared off) and are carried away by the flowing chip material. © Diffusion phenomenon is strongly dependent upon temperature. For example, diffusion rate is approximately doubled for an increment of the order of 20°C in the case of machining steel with HSS tools. 3. Oxidation Wear: The structure of a material at a high temperature is weakened. Oxidation wear takes place at high temperature. This high temperature at the cutting tool changes the micro structure of tool material and weakens the actual cutting edge. * The difference between the thermal- energy release rate and thermal energy dissipation rate determines the temperature rise in the wear zone. Increase in cutting speed also increase the temperature rise and so increase tre chance of tool wear. * Thermal energy dissipation is a function of thermal conductivity, of tool material and work material. The workpiece size and specific hea: determine heat capacity. * Surface area plays an important role in heat transfer to the surrounding area. Wear formed by chip motion and high normal stress along the rake surface is called crater wear, 4, Abrasion Wear: Abrasion wear occurs when hard particles on the surface of the chip slide on the tool faces and remove tool material. These hard particles could be fragments of the built up edge or abrasive inclusions within the workpiece material. 5. Fatigue Wear: When two surface slides are in contact with each other under Pressure, asperities on one surface interlock with those of the other. © Due to the frictional stress, compressive stress is produced on one side of each interlocking asperity and tensile stress on the other side. After the asperities of a given pair have moved over or through each other, the above stresses are relieved.a Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) w * New pairs of asperities are, however, soon formed and the stress cycle is repeated, Thus the material of the hard metal near the surface undergoes cyclic stress. This Phenomenon causes surface cracks which ultimately combine with one another and lead to the crumbling of the hard metal. * Further, the hard metal may also be subjected to variable thermal stress owing to temperature changes brought about by cutting fluid, chip breakage and variable dimensions of cut, again contributing to fatigue wear. 6. Chemical Wear: This type of wear takes place due to chemical action of fluid used. Tool and workpiece material are in contact with chemically active fluid. Tool is corroded due to chemical reaction and wear takes place. Cratering is a thermo-chemical type tool wear. 7. Plastic deformation: It occurs due to high unit pressure. It causes wear land formation. Distortion is greater during chip formation. It results in high temperature which accelerates wear. 3.5 TOOL LIFE Q.6. Define tool life. What are the different factors affecting tool life ? Ans. Tool life can be defined as the time interval for which tool works satisfactorily between two successive grinding (Sharpening). Thus, it can be basically conceived as functional life of the tool. * The tool is subjected to wear continously while it is opearting. Obviously after some time when the tool wear is increased considerably the tool loses its ability to cut coefficent and must be reground. If not regrounded it will totally fail. The tool life can be effectively used as the basis to evaluate the performance of tool material. Factors effecting tool life : Tool life is primarily affected by a high temperature in layers subject to wear. The variables affecting cutting temperature will also affect tool life. These variables are workpiece material, tool material, cutting variables, tool geometry and cutting fluids. Factors Affecting Cutting Temperature: Factors affecting cutting temperature are: Work material, Tool material, Cutting variables cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, Tool geometry and the cutting fluid used. 1. Cutting Variables, Even though the cutting force decreases with an increase in cutting speed, but it is substantially smaller than the increase in speed. Therefore, more heat is generated with an increase in cutting speed, since Heat generated = Cutting force x Cutting speed © Thus, the cutting temperature (maximum temperature on the tool surface) increases with the cutting speed. © The cutting forces increase with the increase in the rate of feed, resulting in increase heat generation. But the amount of heat generated and hence the rise in cutting temperature, will be slower than the increase in feed.© Chapter 3 : Cutting Flulds and Tool Lite 43 m= Chapter 3 : Cutting Flulde and Tool fe 00 * So, the effect of feed on cutting temperature is lesser than that of the cutting speed. The effect of depth of cut on the cutting temperature is even less than that of the feed. 2. Work Material. The cutting temperature is strongly affected by the mechanical properties of the work material, more resistance it will offer in chip formation. So, more work will have to be done for metal cutting. © This will result in more heat generation and consequently higher cutting temperature. The higher the thermal conductivity of the work mateiral, the lower is the developed temperature. Similarly, tool materials with higher thermal conductivity will result in lower cutting temperatures than the tool materials with lower thermal conductivity. 3. Cutting Fluids: The cutting fluids help in reducing the cutting temperature by : reducing friction, facilitating chip formation, absorbing and carrying away a part of the generated heat. * The cooling effect of the cutting fluids gets increased with their higher specific heat and thermal conductivity. 4. Tool Geometry. The cutting temperature is affected mainly by the rake angle, plan approach angle and the nose radius. « The rake angle has g complex influence on the cutting temperature. As discussed earlier, as the rake angle is reduced (thereby increasing the cutting angle), the work done gets increased, leading to increased heat generation. « But as the cutting angle increases, the mateiral behind the cutting point increases. This results in better heat conduction into the tool shank, thereby, lowering the temperature at its contact surfaces. « Anegative rake angle causes greater deformation than a positive one and leads to more heat generation during metal cutting. Q,. Discuss taylor's tool life equations. Ans. Taylor thought that there is an optimum cutting speed for best productivity. This he reasoned from the fact that at low cutting speeds, the tools have higher life but productivity is low, and at higher speeds the reverse is true. * This inspired him to check up the relationship of tool life and cutting speed. Based on his experimental work, he proposed this formula for tool life. VI"=C where T is the tool life in minutes, Vis the cutting speed, m/min, and C and n are constants. * Though this is a fairly good formula, but does not take all the effecting parameters into account. As a result, the applicability of the above formula is restricted to very narrow Tegions of cutting-process parameters. © This formula was extended by a number of researchers to reduce this deficiency as given below.Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-1) y TR =C ssa [THY Pe where —_H = Specific heat x Thermal conductivity 8 = Tool temperature, A= Area of cut 4, = Specific cutting energy/unit cutting force C and x are constants. . p= cna Rae where k= Thermal conductivity of work + = Specific heat of work VIG" gz = . © This is the most commonly employed tool-life equation by a number of researchers The contants for the above equation for some common work materials are given in Table. 1. © The tool life depends, besides the cutting-process parameters, on the work material as we as tool material. The constant, therefore, are given for each combination of work and tool material. TABLE 1: CONSTANTS FOR EXTENDED TOOL-LIFE EQUATION Too! material Exponent for 1SO Grade Tool life,n_| Feed,n, | Depth of cut, 1 PO1, P10 0.06 P20, P30 POL, P10 021 P20, P30 04ECONOMICS OF METAL MACHINING CHAPTER Cost Consideration in Manufacturing Elements of Machining Cost * Optimum Cutting Speed | | | | | *Machinability | *Measurement of Cutting Forces L. 41 COST CONSIDERATION IN MANUFACTURING Q.1. What is the basic requirement of considering cost in manufacturing ? Ans, The basic endeavour in any production process is to produce an acceptable component at the minimum possible cost. In order to achieve this objective in metal cutting or metal mahining, to minimise the production cost, Maximising the production rate to reduce the production cost, etc. * But, no single effort has been found fully successful because of a number of complexities involved in the process. For example, if cutting speed is reduced in order to enhance the tool life the metal removal rate is also reduced and therefore, the production cost is increasd. * A similar effect is observed if effort is made to increase tool life by reducing the feed rate and depth of cut. Against this, if effort is made to increase the metal removal rate by substantially increasing the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, the tool life shortens and therefore, tooling cost increase and so the total production cost also increase. © A balance, is therefore required to be struck and a reasonable (Optimum) cutting speed determined corresponding to which an economical tool life will be ensured and an economical production will result. 4.2 ELEMENTS.OF MACHINING COST Q.2. Discuss different elements of machining cost with its calculation? ‘Ans. In order to determine the optimum cutting speed, a batch of manufactured components is considered and its total cost. @)‘Masier Mind Solved Question Papsre (Production Technology-1) @ Different elements involve in total production cost of a product are as follows ; (a) Cutting cost or machining cost (b) Tool changing cost (c) Tool grinding cost (d) Idle cost (e) Non productive cost. Cost per piece = Idle cost per piece + Cutting cost per piece + Tool changing cost per piece + tool regrinding cost per piece Cutting Speed (m/min) = Fig. 4.1 Effect of variations in cutting speed on various cost factors. K, = (Direct labour cost + Overhead charges) in &/min K, = Cost of tool per grind in % L=Length of machining in mm D = Machined diameter of workpiece in mm V = Cutting speed, in m/min (f= Feed rate, in mm/reve T, = Idle time per piece, in minutes T, = Tool changing time in minutes Now, let Now, _ Idle cost per piece = (Direct labour cost + overhead) x Idle time =K*T, Cutting cost/piece = (Direct labour cost + Overhead) x machining time per piece Length of machining Feed rate x p.m ms ai [uv 2PM oy N= Petoe But, Machining time/piece = 1 xD© Chapter 4 : Economics of Metal Machining 47 2 ououoi By substituting the value of N in the above equation, we get : it a . L nDL Machining time/piece = px 21000 * F.Vv.1000 nD Cutting cost/piece = K, x (Machining time/piece) nDL - Ko Again, Tool Chaning Cost/piece = (Direct cost + Overheads) * Tool failures per workpiece x Tool changing time for each failure Now, we know that the standard Taylor's tool life equation states that : vr=C cu ye The total number of tool failures (T,) per workpiece is given by : or, T= By subtituting the values from equations and in the above relation, we get 1 _ xDUf.¥.1000__xDLV*" == “omy Toon fv.c™ 1 xDL(V)" 100 fv (C) and tool regrinding cost per piece (T,) is given by : T,, = Cost of tool per grind = Total number of tool failures per workpiece 1 DLV) *T00/V ( j00/v(c)" fc Now, the total cost per piece (K) is given by the sum of all the four cost component ie., K-=Idle cost/piece + Cutting cost/piece + Tool changing cost/piece + Tool regriding cost/piece ai Fe +. Tool changing cost/piece = Ky, ta aL x, nDL(V)* Tk, OL DLV 100fV “"" 100 fv (c)" * 100 fv(c)” = (KT) +X, Rupees48 Master Mind Solved Question Papers (Production Technology-I) ea SSS Q.3. Derive relationship among cutting speed, production rate and cast. Ans. The relationship between cutting speed and production rate (number of pieces produced per unit of time) is shown in Fig. 4.2. * When the cutting speed is low the production rate is also low because of lesser amount of metal removal per unit of time. * But as the cutting speed increase the production rate also increases and continues to increase upto point (P,) where the rate of production is maximum. The corresponding cutting speed Weg) represents the optimum value of cutting speed at which the rate of production will be highest. Matchining. Time Total time per piece > Fig, 4.2 Various time curves and maximum + production curve. © Any further increase in the cutting speed will lead to a quicker wearing of tool, more frequent changing of tool, more down time and therefore, a reduced rate of production. © Our main interest in producing the components at maximum rate and at minimum cost. For this we replot the minimum cast and minimum production curves. * W hile observing this diagram (Pig 43) we find that cutting speed (V,) at which total production cost is minimum is not the same as that at which production rate is maximum. Cost per piece > Fig. 4.3. High efficiency range of cutting speeds. + Looking to the time curves shown in Fig. 4.2, we can easily draw the following conclusion : . 1, Non-productive time : It remains constant and is not affected by variations in cutting speed. ; ; 2. Mackey time : It reduces with increase in cutting speed,