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AIM
1. To find and know more about the importance and uses of 'linear programming'.
2. To formulate a linear programming problem and solve in simplex method and dual
problem.
DATA COLLECTION
Linear programming is a versatile mathematical technique in operations research
and a plan of action to solve a given problem involving linearly related variables in order
to achieve the laid down objective in the form of minimizing or maximizing the objective
function under a given set of constraints
CHARACTERISTICS
USES
There are many uses of L.P. It is not possible to list them all here. However L.P is very
useful to find out the following:
ADVANTAGES
PRINCIPLES
Additivity: Total resources are equal to the sum of the resources used in individual
activities.
Divisibility: Solution need not be a whole number viz decision variable can be in
fractional form.
Certainty: Coefficients of objective function and constraints are known constants and
do not change viz parameters remain unaltered.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
a) Basic solution: There are instances where number of unknowns (p) are more than
the number of linear equations (q) available. In such cases we assign zero values
to all surplus unknowns. There will be (p-q) such unknowns. With these values we
solve 'q' equations and get values of 'q' unknowns. Such solutions are called Basic
Solutions.
b) Basic variables: The variables whose value is obtained from the basic solution is
called basic variables
c) Non-basic variables: The variables whose value are assumed as zero in basic
solutions are called non-basic variables.
d) Solution: A solution to a L.P.P is the set of values of the variables which satisfies
the set of constraints for the problem.
e) Feasible solution: A feasible solution to a L.P.P the set of values of variables
which satisfies the set of constraints as well as the non-negative constraints of the
problem.
f) Basic feasible solution: A feasible solution to a L.P.P in which the vectors
associated with the non-zero variables are linearly independent is called basic
feasible solution
Note: Linearly independent: variables x1, x2, x3......... are said to be linearly
independent if k1x1+k2x2+.........+knxn=0, implying k1=0, k2=0,........
g) Optimum (optimal) solution: A feasible solution of a L.P.P is said to be the
optimum solution if it also optimizes the objective function of the problem.
h) Slack variables: Linear equations are solved through equality form of equations.
Normally, constraints are given in the "less than or equal" (≤) form. In such cases,
we add appropriate variables to make it an "equality" (=) equation. These variables
added to the constraints to make it an equality equation in L.P.P is called stack
variables and is often denoted by the letter 'S'.
Eg: 2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 500
∴ 2x1 + 3x2 + S1 = 500, where S1 is the slack variable
i) Surplus variables: Sometime, constraints are given in the "more than or equal"
(≥) form. In such cases we subtract an approximate variable to make it into
"equality" (=) form. Hence variables subtracted from the constraints to make it an
equality equation in L.P.P is called surplus variables and often denoted by the letter
's'.
Eg: 3x1 + 4x2 ≥ 100
3x1 + 4x2 - S2 = 0, where S2 is the surplus variable.
j) Artificial variable : Artificial variables are fictitious variables. These are
introduced to help computation and solution of equations in L.P.P. There are used
when constraints are given in (≥) "greater than equal" form. As discussed, surplus
variables are subtracted in such cases to convert inequality to equality form . In
certain cases, even after introducing surplus variables, the simplex tableau may not
contain an 'Identity matrix' or unit vector. Thus, in a L.P.P artificial variables are
introduced in order to get a unit vector in the simplex tableau to get feasible
solution. Normally, artificial variables are represented by the letter 'A'.
k) Big-M-method: Problems where artificial variables are introduced can be solved
by two methods viz.
➢ Big-M-method and
➢ Two phase method.
Big-M-method is modified simplex method for solving L.P.P when high penalty
cost (or profit) has been assigned to the artificial variable in the objective
function. This method is applicable for minimizing and maximizing problems.
l) Two Phase method : L.P.P where artificial variables are added can be solved by
two phase method. This is a modified simplex method. Here the solution takes
place in two phases as follows:
➢ Phase I - Basic Feasible solution: Here, simplex method is applied to a
specially constricted L.P.P called Auxiliary L.P.P and obtain basic feasible
solution.
➢ Phase II - Optimum Basic solution: From basic feasible solution, obtain
optimum feasible solution.
m) Simplex Tableau : This is a table prepared to show and enter the values obtained
for basic variables at each stage of Iteration. This is the derived values at each
stage of calculation.
Optimal solution
An optimal solution of a linear programming problem is the set of real values of
the decision variables which satisfy the constraints including the non-negativity
conditions, if any and at the same time optimize the objective function.
A vector (x1, x2... xn) which satisfies the constraints A x ≤ or ≥ b only is called a
solution. And a solution which satisfies all the constraints including the non-negativity
condition is called a feasible solution. The set of all feasible solutions is called feasible
space.
Integer Programming
A L.P.P in which solution requires integers is called an integer programming
problem. A mathematical programming in which the objective fn is quadratic but all the
constraints are linear un the decision variable is called a quadratic programming.
Graphical L P solution
1. Determination of the solution space that defines all feasible solutions of the model.
2. Determination of the optimum solution from among all the feasible points in the
solution space.
The proper definition of the decision variables is an essential first step in the
development of the model. Once done, the task of constructing the objective function and
the constraints is more straight forward.
The problem of determining an n-tuple (x1, x2,... xn) which make z a minimum
or a maximum is called 'General linear programming problem'.
a) Statement form
" Maximize Z= c1x1 + c2x2 +....+ cnxn
Subject to the constraints ai1x1 + ai2x2 +.....+ ainxn = bi (i= 1, 2,...., m)
x1x2....xn ≥ 0 "
Characteristics of Standard form
1. Objective function is of maximization type.
2. All constraints are expressed in the function of equality form except the
restrictions.
3. All variables are non- negative.
Note: constraints given in the form of "less than or equal" (≤) can be converted to
the equality form by adding "slack" variables. Similarly, those given in "more
than or equal" (≥) form can be converted to the equality form by subtracting
"surplus" variables.
During World War II, a group under the direction of Marshall K. Wood worked
on allocating problems for the United States Air Force. Generalization of Leontief type
models were developed to allocate resources in such a way as to maximize or minimize
some linear objective function. George B. Dantzig was a member of the Air Force group
; he formulated the general linear programming problem and devised the simplex method
of solution in 1947. His work was not generally available until 1951, when the Cowles-
commission Monograph was published.
1. At the optimum,
objective value = objective value
in the primal in the dual
Primal Dual
Maximize Z = cjxj Minimize Z= bi yi
subject to subject to
aij xj = bi , i= 1, 2, ...., m aijyi ≥ cj , j= 1, 2,...., n
xj ≥ 0 , j= 1, 2, ....., n yi ≥ 0 , i= 1, 2, ...., m
We can think of the primal model in this manner. the coefficient cj represents
the profit per unit output of activity j. The available amount of resources i, bi, is
allocated at the rate of aij units of resource i per unit output of activity j.
Problem of the linear- programming type had been formulated and solved
before the pioneering work of Dantzig. In 1941, Hitchcock formulated and solved
transportation problems which was independently solved by the Koopmans in 1947.
In 1942, Kantorovich (Russian) also formulated the transportation problem, but did
not solve it. The economist Stigler worked out a minimum-cost diet in 1945.
Although this problem can be formulated as a linear programming problem, Stigler
did not use this technique. It was not until Dantzig's work, however, that the general
linear programming problem was formulated as such, and a method devised for
solving it.
APPLICATION OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING
The primary reason for using linear programming methodology is to ensure that
limited resources are utilized to the fullest extent without any waste and that utilization
is made in such a way that the outcomes are expected to be the best possible.
Maximize Z= CX
Subject to constraints AX = b; X ≥ 0
Thus we see that simplex solution obtained in the Tableau which is declared as
optimum basic feasible solution (O.B.F.S) contains inverse matrix A.
case of unbounded solutions: when L.P.P does not give finite values of variable X, viz
x1, x2, ...∞, such solutions are called UNBOUNDED. Here variable X can take very high
values without violating the conditions of the constraints.
In such cases the final Tableau shows all Ratios viz R values are negative so that no
minimum ratio condition can be applied.
Maximize Z= 2x1 + x2
This is the case where L.P.P gives solutions which are optimum but not UNIQUE. This
means, more than one optimum solution is possible.
Types of Degeneracy
a) First Iteration: Degeneracy can occur right in the first (initial tableau). This
normally happens when the number of constraints are less than number of variables
in the objective function. Problem can be overcome by trial and error method.
b) Subsequent Iteration: Degeneracy can also occur in subsequent iteration. This is
due to the fact that minimum Ratio values are the same for two rows. This will make
choice difficult in selecting the 'Replacing Row'.
Case of cycling:
We have seen that when degeneracy exists, replacement of vector in the BASIS does not
improve objective function. Another difficulty encountered in degeneracy is that the
simplex Tableau gets repeated without getting optimum solution. Such occurrences in
L.P.P are called CYCLING. Fortunately, such L.P.Ps are very rare. Also, in such cases,
certain techniques are developed to prevent cycling and reach optimum solution.
Case of duality :
Every L.P.P is associated with another L.P.P which is called the DUAL of the original
L.P.P. The original L.P.P is called the PRIMAL. If the DUAL is stated as a given
problem, PRIMAL becomes its DUAL and vice-versa. The solution of one contains the
solution of the other. In other words, when optimum solution of PRIMAL is known, the
solution of DUAL is also obtained from the very same optimum tableau.
There are many uses of this concept. However, one of the very important use is solve
difficult L.P.P. Many times, a given L.P.P is complicated having large number of
constraints. In such cases, one method is to design its dual which invariably will have
less number of constraints. Dual is now subjected to solution by simplex method.
Solution of a L.P.P
In general we use the following two methods for the solution if a linear programming
problem.
If the L.P.P is two variable problem, it can be solved graphically. The steps required for
solving a L.P.P by graphic method are :
Any primal iteration zj - cj, the objective equation coefficient of xj, equals the
difference between the left and right sides of the associated dual constraint. When, in the
case of maximization, the primal iteration is not optimal, zj - cj < 0 for t least one variable.
Only at the optimum do we have zj -cj ≥ 0 for all j.
zj - cj = aijyi - cj
Thus, when zj - cj < 0, aijyi < cj , which means that the dual is infeasible when the
primal is non-optimal.
On the other hand, when zj - cj ≥ 0, aijyi ≥ cj , which means that the dual becomes
feasible when the primal reaches optimality.
ALLOCATION PROBLEM
A manufacturing firm has recently discontinued production of a certain product due
to unfavourable market conditions resulting in considerable excess production capacity.
The firm is planning to utilize this spare capacity by increasing the production of the
remaining one or more of the existing three products. The currently available capacities
are :
The numbers of machine hours required for each of the products are:
The net profits realized from each of the three products are: Rs: 20, Rs. 9 and Rs. 10 from
A, B and C respectively. The production manager desires to allocate the available
capacities amongst the three products for a maximum profit.
Let x1, x2 and x3 be the quantity of products A, B and C produced within the available
capacities to maximize the profit.
From the above problem given details, we can formulate the problem as a linear
programming problem as,
Maximize, z = 20 x1 + 9 x2 + 10 x3
Subject to 12 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 ≤ 300
6 x1 + 4 x2 + x3 ≤ 225
3 x1 + x2 + 2 x3 ≤ 100
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0
By using simplex method
Where x1, x2 and x3 are structural variable and x4, x5, and x6 are stock variables
In order to simplify handling the educations in the problem, they can be placed
in a tabular form, known as a tableau. The initial tableau is given below
cj 20 9 10 0 0 0
zj 0 0 0 0 0 0
∆j = cj - zj 20 9 10 0 0 0
Starting with the left hand column in the above tableau, the C1 column contains
the contributions per unit for the basic variables x4, x5 and x6. The zero indicates that
the contribution per unit is zero. The reasoning is that no profits are made on unused raw
materials or labour. The second column, the basis, contains the variables in the solution
which are used to determine the total contribution. In the initial solution, no products are
being manufactured. This is represented in the cjth row for the column under P0. Since no
units are manufactured, the first solution is,
x1 = 0 x4 = 300
x2 = 0 x5 = 225
x3 = 0 x6 = 100
The body matrix consists of the coefficients for the real product (structural) variables
in the first simplex tableau represents the coefficients of the slack variables that have
been included to the original inequalities to make them equations.
The row cj contains coefficients of respective variables in the objective function. The
last two rows of the first simplex tableau are used to determine whether or not the solution
can be improved. The zero values in the xj row are the amounts by which contribution
would be reduced if one unit of the variables x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 and x6 was added to the
product mix.
Another way of defining the variables of the zj row is the contribution lost per unit
of the variables.
Simplex Tableau II
𝑃
Ci Basis P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P0 Qi =𝑥𝑜𝑖
𝑜𝑖
1 1
20 x4 1 ¼ /3 /12 0 0 25 100
5 -1
0 x5 0 /2 -1 /2 1 0 75 30
-1
0 x6 0 ¼ 1 /4 0 1 25 100
cj 20 9 10 0 0 0
20 20
zj 20 5 /3 /12 0 0
10 -20
∆j = cj - zj 0 4 /3 /12 0 0
Qi
Ci Basis P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P0 𝑃
=𝑥𝑜𝑖
𝑜𝑖
x4 13 7 -1 70 525
20 1 0 /30 /30 /10 0 /4 13
-2 -1 2 −75
9 x5 0 1 /5 /5 /5 0 30
0 11 -1 -1 70 175
0 x6 0 /10 /5 /10 1 /4
11
cj 20 9 10 0 0 0
76 43 8
zj 20 9 /15 /15 /5 0
74 -43 -8
∆j = cj - zj 0 0 /15 /15 /5 0
Simplex Tableau IV
𝑃
Ci Basis P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P0 Qi =𝑥𝑜𝑖
𝑜𝑖
x4 103 -2 350
20 1 0 0 330
/33 0 33
x5 -3 4 400
9 0 1 0 /11 /11 0 11
-2 -1 175
0 x6 0 0 1 /11 /11 1 11
cj 20 9 10 0 0 0
65 38 148
zj 20 9 10 33 33 33
∆j = cj - zj 0 0 0 65 38 148
− − −
33 33 33
In tableau IV as all ∆j ≤ 0, the solution has reached an optimum level. The
computational procedure comes to an end. Hence, the optimal solution is,
350 400 175
x1 = x2 = x3 =
33 11 11
7000 5350
= +
33 11
77000+176550 253550
= =
363 363
= 698.4848
Z = 698.4848
Subject to, 12 y1 + 6 y2 + 3 y3 ≥ 20
3 y1 + 4 y2 + y3 ≥ 9
4 y1 + y2 + 2 y3 ≥ 10
y1, y2, y3 ≥ 0
Introducing surplus variables and artificial variable, the above problem can be restated
as follows:
Subject to, 12 y1 + 6 y2 + 3 y3 – y4 + y7 ≥ 20
3 y1 + 4 y2 + y3 – y5 + y8 ≥ 9
4 y1 + y2 + 2 y3 – y6 + y9 ≥ 10
y1, y2, y3 …. Y9 ≥ 0
Ci Basis P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P0 Qi
5/
𝜔 y7 12 6 3 -1 0 0 1 0 0 20 3
𝜔 y8 3 4 1 0 -1 0 0 1 0 9 3
5/
𝜔 y9 4 1 2 0 0 -1 0 0 1 10 2
5/
𝜔 y8 0 2 ¼ ¼ -1 0 -¼ 1 0 4 16
1/
𝜔 y9 0 -1 1 3 0 -1 -1/ 3 0 1 10/
3
10/
3→
Since all si ≤ 0, the optimal solution has been obtained in the above tableau. The optimal
−1 38 148
solution is y1= 33 , y2 = 33 and y3 = 33
−1 38 148
Minimize z* = 300 × 33 + 225 × 33 + 100 × 33
= 698.4848
Z* = 698.4848
CONCLUSION
From this project we came to a conclusion that 'Linear programming' is like a vast
ocean where many methods, advantages, uses, requirements etc. can be seen. Linear
programming can be done in any sectors where there is less waste and more profit. By
this, the production of anything is possible through the new methods of L.P. As we had
collected many datas about L.P, we came to know more about this, their uses, advantages
and requirements. Also, there are many different ways to find out the most suitable L.P.
Also, we formulate an example for linear programming problem and done using the
two methods simplex method and dual problem. And came to a conclusion that L.P is
not just a technique but a planning the process of determining a particular plan of action
from amongst several alternatives. Even there are limitations, L.P is a good technique,
especially in the business sectors.