LEARNING MATERIAL FOR THE

CERTIFICATE IN MINE

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

WORKBOOK 3

1
 FOREWORD

The workbook you are about to commence has been compiled to enable you to prepare yourself
for the Certificate in Mine Environmental Control and to give you a basic knowledge of the skills
that you will require as a competent Environment Control / Occupational Hygiene practitioner.

The workbook is based on sound concepts and it is set out in a certain format. This format is very
simple - you are first told precisely what you have to know or be able to do - this is called an
objective. You are also given the necessary information to enable you to learn what is required,
partly in the form of notes in the workbook itself and partly by means of references to other
sources of information. Next come, where relevant, one or more worked numerical examples,
followed by a set of problems continuing calculations. Answers to the problems are given, and you
may take it that if you obtain the same answer you have understood the problem. If not, you must
make sure you find out where you have gone wrong, seeking help if necessary. Then, when you
are ready, you are asked to do a test - this is called a self-test.

When you are sure that you can answer all the questions in the self-test correctly, you will write a
test given to you by your training officer or supervisor. This test, called a criterion test, must be
done without using references of any kind, and will determine whether or not you are ready to
attempt the next module of the workbook.

Note that part of the reason for setting out the material in this workbook in the form of modules is
to enable you to proceed at your own workplace.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This material was prepared by Mr. H Smit and kindly made available for distribution through the
SA Mine Ventilation Society in the interest of furthering education in mine ventilation.

COPYRIGHT

The contents of this document may not be rented, leased, loaned, sold, transferred, assigned,
broadcast in any media form, publicly exhibited or used outside the organisation of the purchaser,
or reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior, written authorisation by the Mine
Ventilation Society of South Africa. The use of this material for training for which compensation is
received is prohibited unless authorised, in writing, by the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa.

DISCLAIMER

Although the information and recommendations contained in this workbook have been compiled
from sources believed to be reliable, the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa makes no
guarantee as to, and assumes no responsibility for, the correctness, sufficiency, or completeness
of such information or recommendations.

2
 COMMON SECTION

DUST:
DUST SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

OBJECTIVES:

Without using references, you must be able to:

1. Describe simply, the passage of the inhaled dust through the human respiratory system
and long-term effects of the dust.

2. State the requirements of an ideal dust sampling and dust-assessing instrument.

3. Compare the various dust sampling instruments used on the mines.

4. State the purpose, principle of operation and points to be checked on the gravimetric dust
sampler, personal samplers and the membrane filter method of sampling asbestos fibre.

5. Compare personnel sampling, positional sampling, occupational sampling, operational

sampling and trouble sampling as techniques to assist in achieving dust control.

6. Discuss the effects on mine environmental control of the work being performed recently or
being performed on dust sampling methods and techniques.

RESOURCES

The notes which follows,

1. Chapter 12, ‘The Properties and Effects of Dust’, by H.H.E. Schröder, ‘Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 323 to 335.

2. Chapter 14, Sampling Pathogenic Airborne Particulates’, by M.J Martinson, ‘Environmental

Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 363 to 373.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

1. ‘Measurements in Mine Environmental Control’, Chapters 1 and 2.

2. ‘Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society’, Volume 20, No. 2, February 1967.

3. ‘Reference Method for the Determination of Airborne Asbestos Fibre concentrations’,

Asbestos International Association.

4. ‘The Ventilation of South African Gold Mines’, Chapter 5, pages 70 to 72.

5. ‘Comments on the Parameters which can be measured when Assessing Airborne Dust
Concentrations in Mines’, by J.H. Quilliam, ‘Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society’,
October 1978, pages 184 to 187.

3
 DUST

1. EFFECTS OF DUST

PNEUMOCONIOSIS is a disease of the lungs CAUSED by breathing dust. It is one of the

oldest known industrial diseases. It is asserted, that a type of pneumoconiosis was found
in an Egyptian mummy of 1400 BC Silicosis, the disease caused by breathing silica dust,
was well known in the Middle Ages and was clearly described by Agricola in his famous
work on mining.

The rocks in South African mines consist mainly of quartz, which is a form of silica, and
various other silicates. Pure Silica causes the disease known as ‘Silicosis’. Silicates can
also cause other types of diseases, for example, asbestos causes ‘Asbestosis’, and
beryllium causes ‘Berylliosis’. It is advisable to assume that all rock dust in the mines is
dangerous to health.

Dust is created by many mining operations, namely, blasting, drilling, scraping, etc.,
fortunately not all the dust in the air enters the lungs. The human nose contains hairs,
which act as filters for the larger particles. The surfaces of the throat are wet and trap
some particles. The trachea (wind pipe) contains numerous small hairs known as ‘cilla’,
which trap many particles and transport them to the throat form which they are cleared by
spitting or by blowing the nose. These defences in the human respiratory system are not
very effective against fine dust particles, which may enter the finest part of the lung, called
the ‘alveoli’, to cause silicotic nodules to form.

Dr. Schröder discusses the human respiratory system, the deposition of inhaled particles
and the health effects of inhaled particles in more detail on pages 323 to 335 in his chapter
on ‘The Properties and Effects of Dust’, in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African
Mines’. You should read this section together with the notes given here.

2. DUST SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS

1. The ideal dust sampling instrument, if it is to be useful and reliable, should

accurately measure the dangerous dust concentration in the air,

i. be portable, dependable and robust;

ii. be easy to use;
iii. take samples which are easy to evaluate;
iv. collect samples so that they can be treated to remove any unwanted
particles, e.g. carbon;
v. not require an external source of power supply, e.g. compressed air or
electric mains.

2. The ideal instrument for dust assessment should,

i. assess the whole sample, the microscope technique assesses only a small
fraction of the sample;
ii. eliminate human errors in counting and sizing the particles;
iii. reproduce the same results if it assesses a sample on more than one
occasion;
iv. express the dust concentration in units which relate the dust concentration
directly to the health hazard;
v. produce rapid and accurate results requiring little or no calculation;
vi. operate so that the user is not affected by boredom or fatigue.

4
You should also read the section dealing with sampling and assessment
technology in the chapter ‘Sampling Pathogenic Airborne Particulates’, in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, pages 363 and 364 by
M.J. Martinson.

The instruments commonly used for routine dust assessment in South African
Mines are:

i. The low powered microscope for konimeter slides.

ii. The photoelectric assessor for modified thermal precipitator slides.
iii. The microbalance for gravimetric dust samples.
iv. The low power microscope fitted with a Walton-Beckett graticule for
asbestos assessment.
v. ‘Automatic Assessment’ such as with the ‘SIMSLIN’.

The first two of these instruments are described in detail in ‘Measurements in Mine
Environmental Control’.

The use of the microbalance is described by the various manufacturers of

gravimetric samplers.

The microscope assembly and use with the counting of asbestos fibres is described
in detail in the document ‘Reference Method for the Determination of Airborne
Asbestos Fibre concentrations at Workplaces by light microscopy (Membrane Filter
Method), issued by the Asbestos International Association. Copies of this document
are available on all asbestos mines.

Instruments currently in use on mines

i. The konimeter

This instrument is still the instrument commonly used for routine dust
sampling in South African gold mines.
It is robust, small and easy to use, and gives an indication of the change in dust
conditions in working places. It is cheaper than the thermal precipitator.
Among the defects of the konimeter are:
SHORT SAMPLING TIME:
 It takes a sample in approximately 0.25 seconds and this cannot
indicate a true level of the dustiness in a working place over a whole
shift. This can be partially overcome by taking many samples.
WANDERING BIAS:
 It is not a consistent instrument and if two konimeters are placed side-
by-side and sampled simultaneously the results vary considerably.
PARAMETER MEASURED:
 At present is not automatic, is laborious and often open to human error
and bias. The Canadians have developed an instrument, which permits
automatic assessment of konimeter slides, and this may prove very
useful.
SHATTERING EFFECT:

5
  Aggregates tend to shatter on impact with the glass slide. This has been
overcome to a certain extent by fitting a pre-impinger at the jet intake.
LACK OF AGREEMENT WITH THE THERMAL PRECIPITATOR:
 The thermal precipitator is accepted as the instrument, which is most
reliable and accurate for dust sampling. The konimeter does not show a
close agreement with the T.P. when the two instruments are used
together for dust sampling.
 Martinson discusses the konimeter on pages 364 to 366 in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’ and this instrument
is also discussed in ‘Measurements in Mine Environmental Control’,
pages 1 to 13, which you should read if you are not familiar with it.

ii. Gravimetric Dust Sampling

This is the internationally recommended method of sampling and the

instrument comprises basically a battery-driven rotary pump which draws
air through a membrane filter to give dust samples from which the mass
concentration and quartz content of the dust are determined.

When gravimetric dust sampling instruments are used the dust

concentration is expressed in milligrams per cubic metre (mg/m3).

Gravimetric dust samplers are discussed in more detail by Martinson in

‘Sampling Pathogenic Airborne Particulates’ in ‘Environmental Engineering in
South African Mines’, pages 368 to 370. It is important that you read this as it
provides you with more information on these instruments.

iii. Modified Thermal Precipitator (MTP)

The MTP is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 in ‘Measurements in Mine

Environmental Control’, pages 14 to 23, and also in Chapter 14 in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 366 to 368. It
will therefore not be discussed any further here as the references cover it
adequately.

iv. Instantaneous Samplers (e.g. SIMSLIN)

This type of instrument is discussed on pages 370 to 373 in ‘Environmental

Engineering in South African Mines’. You must read this and ensure that you
know the advantages and disadvantages of this type of instrument.

NOTE: When you have studied all the above instruments, you should
summarise all the advantages and disadvantages of these
instruments so that you may compare them with each other.

You should also be able to state the purpose, principle of operation

and points to be checked on these instruments.

A very useful article which will assist you with the above appeared in the
October, 1978 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society, pages 184 to 187, under
the title ‘Comments on the Parameters which can be measured when
Assessing Airborne Dust Concentrations in Mines’, by J.H. Quilliam.
You should obtain a copy of this article from your Group Training Officer, and
compare Table 1 with your own notes.

Tyndallometer:

6
 This is a portable instrument that makes use of light scattering properties of
dust. A beam of monochromatic light with a wavelength of 0,94 m passes
across a sensing chamber that is open to the atmosphere being investigated.
The presence of dust in the path of the beam causes the beam to scatter. The
intensity of the scattered light within a 70 scattering angle is measured with
photocells and displayed as a digital readout. This type of instrument has an
integrated data memory and an internal real-time clock. It has the capability of
providing averaging over random intervals of between five seconds and up to
eight hours (in battery mode). Current values are measured every second.
Results can be downloaded using suitable software and deposition patterns
charted.

Deposition patterns can be obtained. The instrument is designed to give a

volume proportional signal related to the concentration of the fine dust in the
beam, according to its deposition probability in the human lung.

Unfortunately, it is not only dust that is sensed but also all aerosols. This
means that oil mists, water vapour and diesel soot are also “seen” as dust in
the path of the beam but no distinction from dust particles is possible. The
instrument has potential in trouble-shooting exercises and is useful for testing
the effectiveness of control measures. However, in the hands of an
inexperienced operator very unreliable results are possible (and inevitable).

v. The Membrane filter Method of Sampling Asbestos Fibre

The following are extracts from a document entitled ‘Reference Method for the
Determination of Airborne Asbestos Fibre Concentrations at Workplaces by
Light Microscopy’, issued by the Asbestos International Association (AIA).

Purpose:- ‘Occupational exposure measurements are carried out to

meet one or both of two major objectives:

1. To assess exposure relative to an occupational hygiene

standard and to enable better control measures to be
implemented.

2. To provide estimates of exposure for morbidity and

mortality epidemiological investigations’.

Principle of A sample is collected by drawing a measured quantity of air

Operation: - through a membrane filter by means of a battery powered
sampling pump. The filter is later transformed from an
opaque membrane into a specimen. The fibres are then
sized and counted using a phase contrast microscope. The
result is expressed as fibres per millilitre of air, calculated
from the number of fibres on the filter and the measured
volume of air sampled’.

7
 Points to be checked:

i. The pump flow rate should be adjusted to 1 litre / minute.

ii. The pump should not pulsate but give an even flow of air.
iii. The filter holder should be clean
iv. All instruments and the work area should be thoroughly cleaned.
v. The microscope should be cleaned and checked regularly.
vi. Samples should be exchanged with other mines or institutes where
asbestos fibre assessment is done to ensure correct counting
standards.

Note: Students working on asbestos mines should ensure that they have
a copy of the abovementioned document, as it will be a valuable aid
to their work.

3. DUST SAMPLING STRATEGIES

The following is an extract from ‘The Ventilation of South African Gold Mines’, published by
the Mine Ventilation Society in 1974, chapter 5, pages 70 to 72.

‘If adequate dust control is to be achieved in a mine, four requirements for dust sampling must
be met. It is necessary:

a. to determine the true overall dust level in a mine, and to determine whether this is
varying or remaining static, that is, to indicate trends in dust levels (positional or
personnel sampling);

b. to determine fluctuations in the dust levels, or the maximum dust levels during a period
of one shift’

c. to determine the amounts of dust produced by various operations such as scraping,

drilling, shovelling, tipping, which will indicate whether any new dust control methods
should be investigated; (operational sampling);

d. to pinpoint individual causes of dust production so that remedial action may be taken
as soon as possible. (Trouble shooting).

The following two methods have been used to determine overall dust levels or dust indices in
mines.

3.1 Positional sampling using the thermal precipitator:

By careful selection of sampling points an adequately broad picture can be obtained

from relatively few sampling points.

It is essential to include sampling points which will show clearly the build-up of dust
concentrations in the air from the point at which the air leaves the downcast shafts up
to the beginning of the return airway systems. Usually 40-50 sampling points along
this route are enough to make such an investigation in an average-sized gold mine.

Typical sampling points include the following:

a. main stations on downcast shafts;

b. positions beyond main tips;

8
 c. deliveries of intake airways

d. the bottoms, centres and tops of the main stoping sections;

e. the faces of randomly selected development ends;

f. return air from randomly-selected development ends;

g. the intake of main return airways;

h. randomly-selected isolated workings.

The number of sampling points of each type should take into account the relative
number of workers in each type of working place; that is, many more sampling points
should be selected in stopes than in, say haulage’s.

Each sample is taken over a period of one to two hours and the slides assessed using
the diffraction size frequency analyser to determine respirable surface area or under
the microscope to determine the number concentration.

Samples should be taken at each point during at least three different shifts, preferably
some days apart, so that any variations in working conditions are likely to be
accounted for. The average of the values for each sampling point is plotted on a
sequential sampling part8. From this plot it can be determined whether average dust
conditions at each point are above or below the ‘acceptance’ level or whether they are
borderline.

In order to provide guidance to a mine manager, it is desirable that some definite ‘limit
of acceptability’ be set. There is no legal limit, or even an agreed value, for this
criterion in South African gold mines. If the parameter of respirable surface area is
used, a value of 300 m2/ml is suggested as a limit in order to indicate whether
conditions in working places are acceptable.

3.2 Konimeter sampling near personnel:

A second method whereby the overall dust picture in a mine can be obtained is by
taking a sample at every person, or at every second or third person in all working
places on a pre-determined rout. The sampler takes the dust samples regardless of
what task the person is doing. To obtain valid results the sampling should be
distributed evenly over the whole of the shift.

This method involves taking a large number of samples each of relatively short
duration, and the disadvantages of this are:

a. the lack of accuracy of the konimeter, particularly for high dust levels, as well
as the underestimation of fine dust; and

b. the need to count the konimeter samples under the microscope, which is
laborious, time-consuming and subject to human error.

3.3 Occupational Sampling

To measure the dust levels to which workers in various job categories are exposed,
and to be able to ascertain fluctuations or maximum dust levels within a shift period.
The dust risk associated with specific occupations can be measured satisfactorily by ‘
personnel sampling’ during the course of a shift.

9
 This is possibly the least useful method for dust control purposes because the dust
level at any given man may not be due primarily to work he is doing. The dust at his
working place may come from work being performed some distance away in the air
stream reaching him. It is, however, very useful for research purposes and has been
used in epidemiological studies to determine the relationship between the amount of
dust breathed and the development of silicosis, which has led to the derivation of
curves showing the probability of a man contracting silicosis after he has worked a
specified number of shifts at specific dust levels.

3.4 Operational Dust Sampling:

This method is designed to measure the amount of dust produced by the various
operations in a mine e.g. by scraping, drilling, tipping, etc.

It comprises taking simultaneous samples of the intake and return air from the specific
operation and determining, by difference, the amount of dust produced.

3.5 Troubleshooting:

Samples are taken with the konimeters at various points in the working places. If dust
levels are high, remedial action is taken.

This method does not give a valid overall picture of dust levels in the mine. It does not
provide information on the specific operations causing the dust, and does not give a
measure of how much dust men breathe throughout the shift.

It does however, play a very important part in dust control as it indicates where dust
levels are unsatisfactory. It is often possible to identify the causes and suggest what
action is needed for improvement.

Before selecting any one of the above methods, the objects of the sampling should be
defined clearly and only then should the strategy be selected.

4. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Research into the effects of dust and development of dust sampling techniques are of an
ongoing nature.

The Chamber of Mines Research Organization publishes research reports on these matters
from time to time. These reports are usually circulated to all mines, which are members of the
Chamber.

You should endeavour to obtain copies of these reports, or at least find out the titles and
numbers of them so that you can request your Group Training Officers, Mine Managers or
Heads of Department, to provide you with copies.

Another source of information on the research and development taking place is the Journal of
the Mine Ventilation Society. You should read your Journal and ensure that you are aware of
all developments taking place (not only in dust, but all other aspects of Environmental Control
as well).

10
 SELF-TEST

Answer the following questions without referring to any notes:

1. Draw a sketch and give a description of how inhaled dust finds its way into the human
respiratory system.

2. Describe briefly the long-term effects of inhaled dust, with particular reference to:

a. Pneumoconiosis
b. Silicosis
c. Asbestosis
d. Anthracosis

3. State the requirements of an ideal dust-sampling instrument.

4. State the requirements of an ideal dust-assessing instrument.

5. Compare the following dust sampling instruments with regard to accuracy, reliability, ease of
operation, cost and ease of assessment of samples:

a. Konimeter
b. Gravimetric dust sampler
c. Modified thermal precipitator
d. Instantaneous sampler (SIMSLIN)

6. State the purpose, principle and points to be checked on the gravimetric dust sampler,
personal samplers and the membrane filter method of sampling asbestos fibre.

7. Compare personnel sampling, positional sampling, occupational sampling and trouble-

shooting sampling as techniques to assist in achieving dust control.

COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS

IF THEY ARE CORRECT, PROCEED TO THE NEXT MODULE

11
 DUST, FILTRATION AND DILUTION

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

A. Common Section

1. List and discuss the general principles of dust control underground and on surface.

2. Discuss the principles of cyclones, wet scrubbers, fabric filters and electrostatic
precipitators and their use in removing dust from the air.

3. Sketch the layout of a recommended main tip filter layout indicating where applicable,
air quantities, fan size and power, size arid number of bags, air draw points and
indicate when and how the unit will be cleaned.

4. List at least six essential points to be considered in the design of an efficient exhaust
hood system.

5. Perform calculations involving the dilution of dust concentrations when given the
necessary information.

B. Collieries Section

1. Describe and discuss dust control methods at mining machinery (e.g. rippers, coal
cutters, conveyors) and surface operations (e.g. reduction works, crushers, mills and
coal washing plant).

RESOURCES

1. Chapter 15, Sources and Methods of Dust Control’, by M Sandys and J Quilliam,
Environmental Engineering in South African Mines pages 379 to 392.

2. Chapter 29, Air Pollution by M.J Howes, ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’,
pages 780 to 785.

3. Controlling Dust and Gas in the Face Area: Operating Experience with Low Seam Continuous
Mines’ by C.J Beukes, Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society, August 1983, pages 74 to 77.

4. ‘Controlling Dust and Gas in the Face Area: Operating Experience Under Ultra Low
Conditions’, by S.P. Daft, Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society, January 1984, and pages 9
to 12.

5. ‘Die Uitwerking van Verskillende Ventilasiestelsels op die Gas-en-Stofkonsentrasie in ‘n

Delwersfront’, by W.J.J Coetzer, Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society, May 1984, pages 49
to 55.

6. Additional reference to suggested answers.

12
 DUST CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The general principles of dust control are:

1. Removal of personnel, e.g. re-entry times.

2. Prevention of formation at source, e.g. water sprays.
3. Dilution by ventilation
4. Filtration
5. Respirators

Chapter 15, ‘Sources and methods of Dust Control’, by M.P.J. Sandys, and J.H Quilliam, in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 379 to 382 deals with these techniques in
detail.

You should summarise all the salient points from the above reference.

Once you have done this, you should read pages 382 to 392 of this resource, as it deals with both
underground and surface dust suppression and control techniques.

1. DUST FILTRATION PLANT

When the dust hazard cannot be overcome by removing workers from the dusty area or
suppression of the dust at source, or dilution by ventilation, and the dust has become
airborne, it can be removed from the air by filtering the air. An ideal dust filter should have the
following properties:

i) It should filter out all dust both fine and coarse, i.e. it should be efficient.

ii) It should not be affected adversely by humidity or moisture and should not require
much attention, i.e. it should be reliable.

iii) It should have a low resistance to airflow; i.e. the filter should be relatively small and
yet able to filter large volumes.

iv) It should be easy to install.

v) It should be easily maintained and cleaned.

vi) It should have a low capital cost (including the cost of excavations required for housing
the filter).

vii) It should have a low running cost.

No ideal filter exists, but some good filters have been developed in the mining industry.

Dust filters have been applied in a number of situations, in which dust is produced, including
the following:

i) Tipping
ii) Blasting
iii) machinery
iv) general air return
v) surface plants

13
Various types of dust filters are available, including:

i) fabric filters
ii) coarse dust filters
iii) electrostatic precipitators
iv) cyclones
v) wet scrubbers

Flannel filters and electrostatic precipitators were discussed in the Elementary Workbook. You
are advised to study this material again. Cyclones and wet scrubbers will be discussed in the
following pages.

Cyclones and wet scrubbers are used mainly in surface plants where the rock produced is the
same as the produced underground since it is derived from the same rock. The crushing and
sorting are generally done under fairly dry conditions so that the quantity and the size of the
dust particles produced are vastly different from that of the dust produced underground.
Hundreds, even thousands of kilograms of dust have to be caught and separated from the air.
This dust is much coarser than that, which becomes airborne underground, but there is still a
small proportion of the dangerous 0 - 5 micrometer size mixed with the coarser dust.

This explains why, although the principles of filtration are fundamentally the same on surface
as for underground, the problems to be faced are vastly different.

One great advantage on surface is that the filtered air is not re-circulated but is emitted at a
point as high as possible into the atmosphere where it is immediately diluted further and
carried away. The filtering efficiency need therefore not be as high as that required
underground. The quantities of dust to be separated and collected are such that sampling
methods to determine the efficiency of such dust plants must be different, e.g. mass sampling
takes the place of dust counts or surface area.

Filtration plants of the strainer type such as cloth filters cannot be used, as the pressure build-
up is too rapid, requiring immediate removal of the dust caught in the filter.

Although the efficiency of the filter need not be as high as for underground, the quantity of the
dust emitted, even at the top of a high stack, should not be excessive in our modern industrial
fields where large quantities of smoke and dust released into the atmosphere give
considerable cause for concern.

The problems, which arise with surface dust filters, include:

i) removal of the dust to the filtration plant;

ii) separation of the dust form the medium surrounding it;
iii) evacuation of the dust which has been separated.

14
2. Electrostatic Precipitators

This equipment works on the principle that the pollutant (dust or fume) particles are drawn
through a high electrical potential field where they are electrically charged, and then
precipitated onto a surface with an opposite charge. These are normally in the form of plates
or sheets.

The collector plates are periodically cleaned, usually by a ‘rapping’ mechanism, which causes
the plate to vibrate, and the dust to fall in a collecting hopper.

The sketches below show a typical airflow pattern and layout of a precipitator, and some
collector plate / ionising electrode layouts.

3. Cyclones

These are mechanical extractors, which depend upon a vortex motion to obtain an increase in
air velocity. The resulting centrifugal force acting on each dust particle causes it to move out
of the main airstream and to be collected by gravity or other means. Their action depends
mainly on the air velocity, the cyclone diameter, the mass of the dust and its coarseness; they
therefore have a selective action and are excellent filters for removing coarse dust. They may
be used to collect dust in surface works, wood chips in the carpenter’s shop and as pre-filters,
but are not effective in removing fine dust particles from the air.

A typical cyclone is shown below:

15
4. Wet Scrubbers

This form of filter is particularly useful for filtering air from crushers. The dust-laden air is
drawn or forced into a duct and mixed with a fine spray of water particles. The mixture of dust
and water particles is then passed through a device, which mixes the contents of the air
thoroughly. The final stages consist of a centrifugal force as in a cyclone, or by a fan, or by
passing the particles through impingement devices or fine screens. Mixing the dust particles
with water droplets causes the size of the particles to be increased and removal is much
easier than it is for fine particles. The efficiency of this type of filter decreases as the particle
size decreases.

Some typical wet scrubbers are shown below:

The disposal of the surface dust will depend very much on local conditions. In many cases the
sludge or dust retained by the filter will be returned to the ore treatment plant; otherwise it
would be disposed of so that it cannot become airborne again. Discharge from chimneystacks
will depend on local conditions and legislation concerning air pollution.

M.J. Howes, in Chapter 29 on ‘Air Pollution’, Environmental Engineering in South African

Mines’, as discusses cyclones, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters in
more detail on pages 780 to 785.

It is essential that you read this section and summarize the principles of operation of each of
these appliances.

DESIGN OF TIP FILTERS

Rock falling into an orepass strikes the rocks already in it and liberates a certain amount of
dust, particularly if the rock is dry. If the air upcasts through the orepass this dust will be
carried out of the tip and into the general airstream. This is undesirable because tips are often
placed in intake airways and the dusty air would be breathed by workers at the tip.

Even if the tip is not normally upcasting, the tipped rock will displace its volume of air from the
tip and this air will contain dust.

To prevent tips upcasting and hence causing the generation of high dust concentrations and a
loss of air, careful consideration must be given to the siting of all tips and loading boxes.

16
 Dust created by tipping operations can be controlled by ensuring that the air at a tip is always
downcasting, even during tipping operations. The tip is made to downcast by means of a
ventilation pipe installed just below the mouth of the tip to draw off a sufficient quantity of air
to ensure a continual downwards air movement. The air drawn off the tip by this ventilation
pipe can either be sent directly to the return airways or old workings, or passed through a filter
unit which removes the dust.

Important points when equipping a tip with a filter:

i) The velocity of air over the tip should not exceed 1 m/s.

ii) Air should downcast into the tip at a velocity of at least 0,5 m/s at all points, i.e. the
pipe drawing air down the tip should be slotted and positioned in such a way as to
ensure that this will occur.

iii) Filtered air should not be short-circuited back into the tip, i.e. the filtered air should be
released downstream from the tip.

iv) The tip should be only large enough to meet tipping requirements. If it is larger than
necessary, a portion should be blanked off.

You should obtain copies of tip filter layouts for your own mine and compare the design with
the above points.

You should also pay special attention to the actual fan size, power and pressure, as well as
the size and number of bags, and the methods used to clean out the units and the bags.

5. EXHAUST HOOD SYSTEMS

When designing exhaust hood systems, it should be borne in mind that the main object is to
ensure that dust released by the crushing and sorting operations does not contaminate the air
breathed by the operators, exhaust points must be installed so that the airborne dust is
carried to the filter plant. Since the size and cost of the filter plant will be proportional to the
amount of air to be handled, an endeavour should be made to reduce the amount of air
exhausted. In order to do this and still control the emission of dust, all sources of dust should
be enclosed as much as possible.

Essential points to consider when designing an exhaust hood system are:

i) The hood must be placed as close to the source of dust as possible, if possible it
should enclose the source.

ii) The hood should be so located and shaped that the dust particles are directed
automatically into its mouth. The effect of gravity must be considered.

17
 SELF-TEST

Answer the following questions without referring to resources:

COMMON SECTION

1. Discuss in detail the principles of dust control underground and on surface under the following
headings:

i) Control at source
ii) Control by dilution
iii) Respirators
iv) Filtration

2. Sketch the layout of a tip filter unit, including the following information: air quantities, fan size
and power, size and number of bags and air draw-off points. Discuss briefly the arrangements
you would make for cleaning the bags.

3. Write short notes on the principle of operation of a cyclone, a wet scrubber and an electrostatic
precipitator and give an example of where they would be used. Your answer should include
simple sketches of each of these appliances.

4. Name six points which should be taken into account when designing an exhaust hood system.

5. A stope is ventilated with 7,2 m3/s of air which contains 520 p/ml of dust. Fresh air, containing
90 p/ml is available to be mixed with this air. Determine the quantity of fresh air required to
dilute the dust count to 250 p/ml.

6. 17,2 m3/s of air containing 220 p/ml of dust is mixed with 4,5 m3/s of air containing 630 p/ml of
dust. Determine the dust concentration of the mixture.

7. 15 m3/s of air flows up a stope face. 9,4 m3/s of air is then drawn off a passed through cooling
coils and leaves the coils containing 120 p/ml of dust. On rejoining the rest of the air in the face,
the dust count of the mixture is 210 p/ml. Calculate the dust concentration of the original 15
m3/s of air.

COLLIERY SECTION

1. 9 m3/s of air flows in a through-road past a heading. 4,0 m3/s is then drawn off by a force fan
ventilating the heading in which cutting takes place. This air is exhausted from the heading
and passed through a wet-scrubber and leaves the wet-scrubber containing 1,2 g/m3 of coal
dust. On rejoining the air stream in the through-road, the dust count of the mixture is 1,4 g/m3.
Calculate the dust concentration of the original 9 m3/s.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

IF THEY ARE ALL CORRECT, PROCEED TO THE NEXT

18
 COSTS AND ECONOMICS: DEFINITIONS AND TENDERS

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

COMMON SECTION

Define simple interest, compound interest, present value and sinking fund.

List the information, which the Environmental Control Officer should submit to enable the preparation
of a specification and the drawing up of a tender for a main fan or underground refrigeration plant.

Describe the method of budget control practised on your mine.

State the approximate costs of a ventilation door, a large main fan, a large motor, the annual
operating costs of a large motor, the equipment for the environmental control staff on this mine,
developing an airway, sliping an excavation, lengths of 570 mm and 760 mm ventilation duct and the
monthly ventilation costs of a large colliery or mine.

METALLIFEROUS SECTION

State the approximate costs of a large and small cooling plant, a dust filter unit and insulating chilled
water pipes.

COLLIERIES SECTION

State the approximate costs of different types of air, stone dusting and stone dust barriers.

RESOURCES

1. The notes which follow

2. Senior members of your department

3. Chapter 33, Mine Ventilation Economics’ - Environmental Engineering in South African Mines,
pages 848 to 855, 858 and 870 to 871.

4. Students are advised to study the method of budget control practised on their mines.

NOTE: Before you start with the modules on economics, you should have completed all the
modules in all the workbooks, except for the Planning modules, which follow.

The reason for this is that the final objective of the modules on economics entails the
comparison between two or more schemes involving any of the subjects you have
previously covered.

Obviously, if you don’t understand the principles of Airflow, Dust Suppression etc., you will
not be able to apply those principles in the economic evaluations that are required.

19
1. DEFINITIONS

The following definitions are also explained in the chapter ‘Mine Ventilation Economics in
the book ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’ pages 849 to 885. You
should study each definition below together with the discussion in the textbook. This will
assist you in getting a clearer picture of the subject.

i) Interest

Interest is money paid for the use of money, which is borrowed and is usually
expressed as a certain percent per year (or rate of interest per year). The original
sum of money borrowed or lent is the principal (P).

ii) Simple Interest

Simple interest is interest paid on a sum of money borrowed, but is always

calculated on the base of the original amount borrowed, i.e. interest is payable on
the original principal throughout the period of the loan.

e.g. If you borrow R1000 at 30% p.a. simple interest, the interest is:

R 30 x 1000
 R 300 p.a.
100

This means that if you pay the loan off over three years (36 months) the interest
amounts to R900, and you will be paying interest on the original principal even
when making your final payment. This is the major disadvantage of borrowing
money on hire purchase. The total amount of money repaid for the above loan is R
1 900 or R52, 78 per month. If the loan had been on a reducing balance basis,
(such as housing loans are), interest is only payable on the balance owing and the
amount repaid would be R1 206,36 or R 33,51 per month.

iii) Compound Interest

Compound interest results when interest is paid on the total amount of money
owing, including the principal and any accumulated interest.

e.g. if you invest R1 000 with the bank at 20% interest (compound annually),

 20 
After 1 year amount = 1000 +  1000 x  = R1200
 100 

 20 
After 2 year amount = 1200 +  1200 x  = R1440
 100 

 20 
After 3 year amount = 1440 +  1440 x  = R1728
 100 
and so on.

As can be seen in the above calculation, the bank pays you interest on your
principal of R1 000 for the first year (R200), and then pays interest on the R1000 +
R200 for the second year, i.e. you are paid interest on capital and accumulated
interest.

20
 This amount can also be determined by the formula:

n
 i 
A = P 1 x 
 100 

Where A = Total amount at end of time period

P = Principal invested

j = Interest rate (%)

n = Number of years in time period

Investing R1000 in the bank at 20% p.a. for 3 years yields:

3
 20 
A = 1000  1 x 
 100 

= R1 728

iv) Annuity

Very simply, an annuity is a regular yearly payment for a certain period of time.
There are many kinds of annuity, but the scope of these notes is restricted to
simple annuities, which are a series of annual payments of equal amounts, starting
one year hence.

v) Present Value

Present value is today’s equivalent of a future lump sum payment. For example, if
you were due to receive a sum of R5 000 in 10 years time and the interest rate is
20%, but you wanted the sum now, you would obviously receive less than R5 000.
The sum to be received now can be calculated by manipulation of the equation
given in (iii):

n
 i 
A = P 1  
 100 

A
P = n
 i 
1  
 100 

5000
So P = 10
 20 
1  
 100 

= R 808

In other words, if R808 is invested at 20% interest at 20% for 10 years it will
accumulate to R5 000. However, the present value of the R5 000 is R808.

21
vi) Present Value Of An Annuity (PV)

The present value of an annuity is today’s equivalent of future periodic payments

made at yearly intervals and starting one year hence.

This is an extremely important concept and is used in almost all ventilation economic
evaluations.

There are various tables from which the present value of an annuity (PV) can be
obtained. These tables usually give the PV of an annuity of R1 per annum.

A PV can also be determined from the formula:

1
1 n
 i 
1  
PV = a  100 
i
100

Where PV = Present value of the annuity an amount of annuity

a = Amount of annuity

i = Interest rate p.a.

Obviously if the annuity is R1 then ‘a’ falls away from the equation.
E.g., Determine the PV of R1 per year for 4 years at 20% interest.

1
1 4
 20 
1  
PV =  100 
20
100

1
1
=
1.28 4
0.2

 1  0.4823 
=  
 0.2 

= R 2.59

R2,59 is thus the present value of R1 per year for 4 years at 20% interest. This means
that if you invested R2,59 in the bank at 20 % it would be sufficient to make annual
withdrawals of R1 for the next 4 years.

22
This is shown in the calculation below:

R2,59 Invested at 20%

0,51 Interest for 1st year
3,11 Total
-1,00 1. First Withdrawal
2,11 Balance
0,42 Interest for 2nd year
2,53 Total
-1,00 2. Second Withdrawal
2,53 Balance
0,31 Interest for 3rd year
1,84 Total
-1,00 3. Third Withdrawal
0,84 Balance
0,16 Interest for 4th year
1,00 Total
-1,00 4. Fourth Withdrawal
0,00 Balance

This calculation shows clearly how the investment of R3,31 now is sufficient to cover
withdrawals of R1 per year for the next four years.

This is extremely useful when budgeting for future costs, e.g. if one requires a small
10 kW fan to run for four years and the power costs are R1 500 per year, one can then
invest an amount of:

R(259 x 3 500) = R 3 885 and therefore,

At an interest rate of 20% and it will be sufficient to withdraw R1 500 per year for the
next 4 years. (R2,59 is only enough to withdraw R1 per year, so to draw R1 500 per
year one must invest 1 500 x R2,59. The figure of R1 500 is the amount of the annuity,
‘a’ which is given in the formula for PV).

The figure of R3 885 is termed the ‘present value of power costs’ or ‘PV of power
costs’. To invest the R3 885 now to cover the complete power costs for 4 years, is
equivalent to simply pay the four payments of R1 500 as they arise.

The concept of PV is applied to all future costs when evaluating various schemes.
Future costs include such items as power, repairs, maintenance operating costs,
spares etc. When making the evaluation, each of these items must first be converted
to a yearly cost (annuity) before it can be multiplied by a PV.

e.g. The above fan will need repairs every 10 months and the repair bill will be
R250.

12
Then annual repair costs = R (250 x )
10

= 300 per annum

PV of repair costs for 4 years

at 20% interest = (annual cost x PV)

= R(300 x 2,59)

= R 777

23
 The investment of R777 now invested at 20% pa will be sufficient to cover their repair
costs for the next four years.

Manipulation of the formula for PV can also give the required repayments on a loan.
The formula is manipulated to:

sum borrowed
a =
PV of R1/year

e.g. If you borrowed R25 000 from the Building Society for a house at 20% interest
for 20 years, the monthly repayments can be determined as follows:

R25 000
 Annual repayment, a =
4,870
= R5 133

5 133
 Monthly repayment =
12
= R 427
vii) Sinking Fund

A sinking fund is the accumulated amount of yearly deposits of equal amounts at a

certain rate of interest.

This accumulated amount (S) can be determined from:

n
 i 
1   1
S = 
100 
xa
i
100
Where S = Accumulated amount
i = Interest rate (%)
n = Number of years
a = Annuity which is invested

e.g. if one invests R1 per year for 5 years at 20 % interest the accumulated amount
at the end of that period will be:

5
 20 
1   1
S =  100 
x1
20
100

=
1.2 5  1 x 1
20
100

2.48  1
= x1
0.2

24
 = R7.44

This means that if R1 is invested at the end of every year (starting one year hence). At
10% for 5 years, the accumulated amount at the end of that period will be R7.44.

It is not necessary to use the above formula to determine S as there are tables
available such as the one on page 474 of ‘The Ventilation of South African Mines’
which enables S to be read off. These tables usually give the accumulated amount
if R1 per year is invested. Obviously if the amount is R40 per year the accumulated
amount is 40 times greater than that in the table.

Page 203 of Mine Ventilation Notes for Beginners’ - 3rd edition, by W.L. le Roux,
shows how sinking funds can be used to solve economic problems. These notes,
however, will concentrate on the PV approach.

viii) Amortization

Amortization means the ‘wiping out of a debt’ or ‘paying off a debt’.

e.g. In (vi) it was shown that to pay off a loan of R25 000 at 20% over 20 years
required a monthly payment of R427/month.

It thus requires a payment of R427/month to ‘amortize’ the debt of R25 0000. Also
a time period of 20 years is required to ‘amortize’ the debt of R25 000.

Without using references, answer the following questions.

1a. Define the following terms:

i) Simple interest
ii) Compound interest
iii) Present value
iv) Present value of an annuity
v) Sinking fund
vi) Amortization.

b. Give the formula used to calculate the present value of an annuity of R1.

c. Calculate the present value of R1 per annum for 5 years at 20% interest.

d. The present value of R1/annum for 5 years at 20% can also be looked up in
tables such as the one on page 874 of Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines’, which gives a value of 2,991.

i. Use this table to complete the following:

PV of R1/yr. For 9 yrs @ 20%

PV of R1/yr. For 15 yrs @ 18%
PV of R1/yr. For 8 yrs @ 20%
PV of R1/yr. For 20 yrs @ 19%
PV of R1/yr. For 12 yrs @ 20%
PV of R1/yr. For 5 yrs @ 17%
PV of R1/yr. For 16 yrs @ 20%

25
 ii. Show by means of calculations how the amount of R2,59 invested at
20% interest is enough to make regular withdrawals of R1 every
year for the next 4 years.
e. Using the same figures as in (d) i.e. PV of R1 per annum for four years at
20% = 2,59, how much money should be invested to make regular
withdrawals of:

i) R150 per year?

ii) R3 680 per year?
iii) R58 650 per year?

2. FAN TENDERS

Environmental Control Officers often assist in drawing up the specification of a fan tender.
Listed below are some of the important points, which should be included.

i) Supply and delivery free of charge to the mine.

ii) Duties for fan
- Initial duty, second duty and third duty
- Expected operating life of fan at each duty
- Guarantee of efficiency to be stressed - evidence similar efficiency should be
presented.
iii) Testing
- Fans should be tested in accordance with British Standards (B.S. 848), or other
agreed codes.
iv) Performance Curves
- Pressure - volume, power and efficiency curves must be shown.
- Scale of graphs should be indicated.
- Performance of the fan must be shown for a range of inlet guide vane settings.
- Limits of safe operating must be clearly indicated on the curves.
- Basis for fan curves must be stated (i.e. whether the curves are based on
model testing or full sized fans of similar rating).
- Operating regions within which the fan performance is guaranteed shall be shown.
v) Volume
- At a stated density (e.g. 1,2 kg/m3)
vi) Fan Pressure
- Whether total or static pressure is required to be stated.
vii) Fan Efficiency
- Fan efficiency to be defined, compressibility must be taken into account.
viii) Motors
- Tenderers to state their recommendations re-power and speed for each duty
ix) General
- Constructions of fans and evasèes to be specified
- Positioning of doors and airlocks to be detailed.
- Connection to shaft or duct to be detailed
- Performance to be tested before connection.
x) Impellers

26
 - Construction and annealing to be specified
- Test pieces may be required and inspectors named
xi) Shafts
- Construction and testing to be detailed
xii) Couplings and bearings
- Type and specification to be stated
xiii) Safety Devices
- Non-attendant operation
- Safety devices to be specified
xiv) Maintenance
- Details must be supplied re-ease of maintenance and inter-changeability of
parts.
xv) Sound Levels
- Noise levels must be stated.
xvi) Drawings
- Successful tenderer will be expected to supply various drawings.
xvii) Workmanship and material
- Quality to be stated.
xviii) Closing date
- To be specified.

3. COOLING PLANT TENDERS

Environmental Control Officers are often required to assist in the drawing up of tenders for
large cooling plants.

Listed below are some of the items, which should be included in a tender for a large
cooling plant. Environmental Control personnel will be particularly interested in the items
detailed under ‘Duty and heat facilities’ and instrumentation.

i) Plant capacity - ……………… kilowatts

ii) Type of plant - State the type of compressor, which is acceptable not
acceptable.

iii) Refrigerant - State the type of refrigerant, e.g. Freon 11.

iv) Duty and heat rejection facilities.

List the relevant data

Primary Secondary
Duty
A B C D E F
Evaporator
Water flow rate
Water temp. in oC
Water temp. our oC

Condenser

27
 Water flow rate
Water temp. in oC

v) Economics - State how the overall economy of the plant will

be evaluated, e.g. for 50% of its life the plant will
operate at the primary duty and 10% at each
secondary duty;

- The present value of one kilowatt of power for 10

years at 20% is R1 173.

vi) Operation at - State requirements for satisfactory operation at a

reduced load reduced load and whether manual or automatic
capacity control is required.

vii) Evaporators - The following should be stated:

 type and make of tube,
 fouling factor,
 maximum pressure head.

viii) Condenser - The following should be stated:

 type and make of tube,
 fouling factor,
 maximum pressure head,
 method of cleaning.

ix) Compressor - Characteristic curves must be submitted by

characteristics tenderer; maximum compressor speed must be
stated.

x) Maximum size and - Must be stated in tender and enquiry.

weight of parts

xi) Motors - State what type of motor is suitable for the

compressor, chilled and condenser water pumps.

xii) Purge unit, - Details to be given.

lubricating oil,
pump motor and
oil heater voltages

xiii) Refrigeration Plant - Must be included in tender.

xiv) Safety Devices - List the safety devices required, e.g.

Condenser - high refrigerant pressures cut-out
Evaporator - low water flow rate cut-out, bearing
temperature cut-out.

xv) Non-attendant - The plant must be guaranteed to run without an

operation ……………………………

28
 xvi) Instrumentation - Suitable instruments must be included for
measuring water flow rates, water temperatures,
refrigerant pressures and refrigerant temperatures.

xvii) Humidity proofing - All instruments must be humidity proofed up to a

stated wet and dry-bulb temperature.

xviii) Leak detector - State type of leak detector to be included.

xix) Insulation - State requirement for condenser and evaporator

insulation.

xx) Erection - State who is responsible.

xxi) Guarantees - Tenderers must submit full details and evidence in

support of any efficiencies claimed must be provided.

4. A GENERAL NOTE ON THE EXAMINATION OF TENDER DOCUMENTS

As essential pre-requisite to the honest and objective appraisal of tenders for fans,
refrigeration or other ventilation machinery is that there should be careful prior specification
of what is wanted. The tenderers have the right to know what the buyer requires and vague
specifications invariably lead to unnecessary alternatives being offered and quotations,
which are not on the same basis and frequently not comparable.

The Environmental Engineer’s part in drawing up a specification may frequently go no

further than a basic duty specification, for example, volume, pressure and density in the
case of a fan; or volume density, temperature range and refrigeration duty in the case of
axial flow or backward-bladed centrifugal fans, all-steel or concrete-based fans, bearing in
mind that his ventilation plans may call for shifting of the fan to a new location in a few
years times. He may require two or three fans to share the duty in parallel and he should
indicate the variation in duty that may be foreseen.

These and other matters should be discussed with other engineers in the organisation
(mining, mechanical, electrical, and civil) who will no doubt wish to include other
requirements and more detailed specifications. Frequently it is advisable to break down the
overall specification into definite brackets and to call for lump-sum quotations for all items
within each bracket, for example:

i) Fan only
ii) Connections between shaft and fan, fan evasèe, motor house, airlock, including
complete erection.
iii) Motor and electrical switchgear.
iv) Instrumentation
v) Extras
vi) Supervision and commissioning

When the tender documents have been received, the items are usually tabulated, together
with their prices and other data such as efficiencies and power consumption. This work is
sometimes done by the organisation’s estimating department but the environmental control
department may be required to examine the tender details.

With a properly organized system of specifying and tendering, price comparisons are
easily made and it is usually a case of splitting: up into two cost categories, namely, first
cost and power cosy. By the application of the present value or annual cost method

29
 described in previous sections, it then becomes a simple matter to make a direct cost
comparison between the various tenders.
In the chapter on ‘Mine Ventilation Economics’ in ‘Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines’, the examination of tender documents is discussed on pages 870 and 871.
You should also read this section.

5. COSTS

The approximate capital and running costs of various ventilation appliances are listed below.
(September 1980). Students are advised to determine these costs for their own mine.

Large Cooling Plant Capital cost Surface plant: R2610/kWR

UG Plant: R3620/kWR

Running cost R1900 per kW of cooling per annum. (This is for

overall plant operations)

Small Cooling Plant Capital cost R1600 per kW of cooling

(Spot-cooler) (This includes all costs except excavations)

Insulation of chilled R100 to R260 per metre 25mm thick for a 1560 mm diameter
pipe (depends on type of insulation)

Dust filter plant Approximately R15 000 m3/s of air filtered - includes all costs.

Ventilation Doors An airlock complete with frames and doors costs R2000. A
single 2m x 2m door costs R1100.

Large main fan R1410 per kW (this includes all costs)

Large motor R240 to R340 per kW

Electrical Power R1206 per kW per annum (on the West Wits Goldfields )

Fans 570 mm electric fan - 11 kW - R1 900

19 kW - R21 600

760 mm electric fan - 22 kW - R24 880

45 kW - R30 420

Ventilation Pipes 570 mm diameter - R260 per metre

760 mm diameter - R343 per metre

Ventilation Anemometer (Lambrecht’s) - R3500

equipment for an Rods (1,2m) - R40
observer Whirling hygrometer - R1100
Wet kata and flask - R150
Manometer - R400
Stopwatch - R150
Tape (Linen) - R100
Konimeter - R3000

A Fuess aneroid barometer costs R5 100

Airways Development. To develop 1 metre of 3m x 3m haulage costs R1100/m

Sliping To slipe 1 m3 of rock costs R370

30
 Costs of ventilating R90 per ton of rock broken but this can vary considerably.
a large deep mine

6. BUDGET CONTROL

Budget control is essential for the efficient operation of the Environmental Control
Department, as various methods of budget control are practised on different mines. You
must study the method practised on your own mine.

An example of one such method is described below:

During the second half of every year, every section Environmental Control Officer has to
submit a detailed estimate of all anticipated environmental control costs pertaining to his
section for the forthcoming years. These, for example, include:

i) Purchasing / repair of auxiliary fans

ii) Purchasing materials such as bratticing, etc., for air control
iii) Purchasing ducting and piping (where applicable)
iv) Costs of tools, adhesives, etc.
v) Costs of environmental control equipment such as anemometers, manometers,
etc., as well as regular calibration of such equipment.

The above list is by no means complete and the number of items included on it will once
again vary from mine to mine.

Once the above costs have been determined, the estimate is forwarded to the
environmental superintendent who will scrutinise and approve each section’s budget.

The superintendent in turn compiles his budget which will include the section estimates
described above.

The departmental budget is then in turn submitted to the financial and / or mines manager
for approval.

The financial and / or mine manager might not approve the proposed budget and may
either adjust the budget as he sees fit, or request the superintendent to revise it.

Once the budget has been approved it will be subdivided into monthly allocations for the
forthcoming year.

The superintendent in turn compiles his budget which will include the section estimates
described above.

The departmental budget is then in turn submitted to the financial and / or mines manager
for approval.

The financial and / or mine manager might not approve the proposed budget and may
either adjust the budget as he sees fit, or request the superintendent to revise it.

Once the budget has been approved it will be subdivided into monthly allocations for the
forthcoming year.

During the following year, each section Environmental Officer has to ensure that he stays
as close to his allocated budget as possible. To assist him, the mine’s. Financial
department will provide him with a statement on a monthly basis.

31
Any unforeseen major expenditure must be motivated and applied for (usually on a special
form provided) by the section environmental officer or environmental superintendent.

These costs in turn are usually catered for in a ‘contingency’ budget facility available to the
manager.

32
 SELF-TEST

Answer the following questions without using references:

1. Give the approximate costs of the following:

 Ventilation door
 Large cooling plant
 Large main fan
 Large motor
 Ventilation equipment for an observer
 570 mm piping
 760 mm piping
 Ventilation Costs Of A Large, Deep Gold Mine
 Developing An Airway
 Sliping An Excavation
 Running Costs Of A Large Cooling Plant
 Insulated chilled water piping.

2. What information would you include when drawing up a tender for:

a. A main fan?
b. A cooling plant?

3. Briefly describe the method of budget control practised on your mine.

33
 COST AND ECONOMICS

Without using references you must be able to:

Determine the most economic of two or more ventilation schemes with particular regard to fans
duct sizes and improving environmental conditions and compare the merits of these schemes.

RESOURCES

1. The notes which follow

2. Senior members of your department

3. Chapter 33, ‘Mine Ventilation Economic’ - ‘Environmental Engineering in South African

Mines’, Pages 860 to 871.

4. Section 6, ‘Economics’ - Suggested Answers 1970 - 1977, pages 140 to 159.

5. Section 6, ‘Economics’ - Suggested Answers 1978 - 1981, pages 113 to 129.

34
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION

TOTAL OWNING COST (T.O.C)

All the definitions of the various terms given in Module E-1 are related to each other in one form or
another.

Total owning cost is the total amount of money it costs to ‘own’ a scheme at today’s value.

This sum includes any capital costs involved in the scheme plus the present value of any future
costs involved in the scheme.

i.e. Total owning costs = PV of capital costs +

PV of running costs

The term ‘PV of capital costs’ is the same as just ‘capital costs’ as it is today equivalent of today’s
money, spent now.

The term ‘PV of running costs’ includes all the future cost items given in (vi). These items must all
be converted to a yearly cost and then multiplied by the PV to obtain a ‘PV of running costs’.

Before the economic merits of any two schemes can be compared, the T.O.C for each scheme
must be obtained.

e.g. If a mine is considering buying a booster fan to run for 10 years and has a choice in either
buying a fan from Company A or Company B. it is no use selecting the fan with the
cheaper capital cost, as it may be the more expensive fan to run over the period of ten
years. To compare the economic merits of the two fans it is necessary to determine the
total owning cost of each fan and then to compare these two total owning costs.

Obviously the one with the cheaper total owning cost would be the one to select, but in certain
cases where the total owning costs of two schemes are much the same other factors such as
delivery time, guarantee period, maker’s reputation, etc., play an important role in the final
selection.

Before any schemes can be compared, the total owning costs for each of the schemes must be
obtained.

It should be remembered that the final selection of any scheme does not depend entirely upon its
economic merits, i.e. the cheaper scheme is not necessarily the better scheme. The point is that
practical consideration often plays a large part in the final selection of any scheme.

e.g. A shaft on a mine may have a most economic diameter of 7,0 m from ventilation point of
view, but the chosen diameter may be 8,0 m simply because of the importance of
adequate hoisting capacity.

There are countless different examples of the application of economics and the following three
worked examples illustrate how the concept is applied in the economic evaluation of various
schemes.

35
 WORKED EXAMPLE NO.1

A comprehensive survey of fan repair costs has revealed the following information concerning 570
mm diameter electric fans:
Fan A Fan B
Average cost per repair R240 R290
Average time between repairs 10 months 15 months
Cost of new fan R1085 R1 310

Both fans have rated duties of 6,5 m3/s of air at a pressure of 2 400 Pa. At this duty ‘fan A’ has an
overall efficiency of 70% and ‘fan B’ an overall efficiency of 78%.

Each fan is expected to run for 8 years and the interest rate is 20%.

Power costs are 3,5c per unit.

Which fan would be more economical?

Answer:

From present value tables, the present value of R1 per year for 8 years at 20% = R3 837.

Fan A Capital cost = R1 085

pxQ
Air power, W a =
1 000
(2400 x 6,5)
=
1 000
= 15,6 kW
At 70% efficiency,
 100 
input power = 15,6 kW
 70 
= 22,29 kW
Cost of power = 3,5c per kWh

Assuming that the fan runs continuously for 24 hours per day and 365 days per year, 365 days per
year.
 3,5 
Cost of power p.a. = R x 24 x 365  per kW p.a
 100 
= 306,60 per kW p.a.
 Cost of input power p.a. = R22,29 x 306,60
= R6 834 pa
PV of power costs = R(6 834 x 3,837)
= R 26 222
Repair costs = 240/10 months
 12 
Repair costs p.a. = R  240 x 
 10 
= R288 p.a.

36
 PV of repair costs = R(288 x 3 837)
= R1 105
Now, PV of capital costs = R1 085
PV of running costs = R(26 222 + 1 105)
= R27 327
Total owning costs = PV running + PV capital
= R28 412
Fan B Capital Cost = R1 310
Air power, W a = 15,6 kW (same duty as fan A)
At 78% efficiency,
 100 
input power = 15,6 kW
 78 
= 20,0 kW
Cost of power p.a. = R(20 x 306,60)
= R6 132,00 pa
PV of power costs = R(6 132,00 x 3 837)
= R23 528
Repair costs = R290/15 months
 12 
Repair costs p.a. = R  290 x 
 15 
= R232 p.a.
PV of repair costs = R(232 x 3,837)
= R890
Now, PV of capital costs = R1 310
PV of running costs = R(23 528 + 890)
= R24 419
Total owning costs = PV running + PV capital
= R(24 419 + 1 310)
= R25 728

The T.O.C. of each fan can now be compared and it can be seen that it is more economical to buy
fan B.

NOTE:

1. PV of capital cost is the same as capital cost, as the cost of the fan must be paid now, not
in the future.

2. Power costs and repair costs are future costs, hence these costs are first obtained per
year and then multiplied by the PV to see how much money in theory should be set aside
now to cover these future costs.

37
3. Because the duty of the two fans is the same (6,5 m3/s @ 2 400) the air power of 15,6 kW
was riot recalculated for fan B, i.e. it was used as a constant. When using any constant in a
series of economic evaluations it is extremely important to make sure that the value used
initially for the constant is correct, otherwise each successive evaluation will be incorrect.

4. The calculation of PV of power costs was done step by step in this example. It can also be
done as one calculation. E.g. Fan A:

 100 
PV of power costs = R  Wa x x power cost p.a, x PV 
 eff 

 2400 x 6,5 100 

= R  x x 306,60 x 3,837 
 100 70 
= R 26 217

(The slight difference is because each step was rounded off in the worked example)

5. Answers to this kind of economic evaluation should only be given to the nearest R1, R10,
R100, or even R1 000, depending on the total sum involved. (The nearest R1000 would
have been sufficient in the worked example where sums of R18 000 - R19 000 were
involved. This is about 0,5 per cent of the total sum). The reason for this is that one is more
concerned about the difference in cost between the schemes than the actual cost. Also,
once a scheme has been selected the mine accountant will take care of the individual
Rands and cents.

6. Again it must be emphasised that the Total Owning Cost of each scheme must be obtained
before any selection of scheme can be made.

WORKED EXAMPLE NO.2

A downcast shaft is 1 324 m deep. The air quantity at mean shaft density is 315 m3/s and the
pressure loss in the shaft is 1 745 Pa. The shaft has a K-factor of 0,021 Ns2/m4.

The main fans have an overall efficiency of 73% and power costs are R300 per kW per year.

It is desired to increase the air quantity to 410 m3/s by increasing the speed of the main fans. At
the same time consideration is being given to streamlining the shaft buntons. Two kinds of
streamlined buntons are available:

Type ‘A’ which reduces the K-factor of the shaft to 0,014 Ns2/m4 and will cost R520 per
metre depth of shaft.

Type ‘B’ which reduces the K-factor of the shaft to 0,011 Ns2/m4 and will cost R711 per
metre depth of shaft.

The life of the mine is 18 years and the interest rate is 20%.

Which of the following schemes would you recommend?

Scheme ‘A’ Install type ‘A’ streamlined buntons;

Scheme ‘B’ Install type B streamlined buntons;

Scheme ‘C’ Leave the shaft as it is.

38
N.B. The main fans can be adjusted to suit any of the above three schemes.
Answer:

From tables, the present value of R1 p.a. for 18 years at 20% = R4,812.
Scheme ‘A’ (Installing type ‘A’ streamlined buntons) = R1 324 x 520)
= R688 500
Pressure required for present quantity of 315 m3/s

Pressure required for new quantity of 410 m3/s,

2
Q 
P2 = P1 x  2 
 Q1 
2
 410 
= 1 745 x  
 315 
= 2 956 Pa

This would be the pressure required if the K-factor had remained constant, but the K-factor has
decreased from 0,021 Ns2/m4 to 0,014 Ns2/m4 because of the streamlining. Hence the pressure
requirement decreases proportionally.

0,014
Pressure required = 2 956 x
0,021
= 1 971 Pa
 p x Q 100 
Then PV of power costs = R x x power cost p.a. x PV 
 1000 eff 

 1971 x 410 100 

= R x x 300. x 4,812 
 1000 73 
= R1 598 065
Total owning costs = PV capital + PV running
= R(688 500 + 1 598 065)
= R2 286 565

Scheme ‘B’ (Installing Type ‘B’ streamlined buntons)

Capital cost of streamlining the buntons = R(1 324 x 711)

= R941 400

Assuming that the overall efficiency of the main fans remains constant, the PV of power costs will
vary directly with the K-factor.
Therefore, at a K-factor of 0,011 Ns2/m4, PV of power costs.

 0,011 
= R 1 598 065 x 
 0,014 
= R 1 255 623
T.O.C = PV capital + PV running
= R(941 400 + 1 255 623)

39
 = R2 197 023
Scheme ‘C’ (Leaving the shaft as it is)

Again assuming that the overall efficiency of the main fans remains constant, the PV of power
costs will vary directly with the K-factor.

At a K-factor of 0,014 Ns2/m4 PV power = R1 598 065

Therefore, at a K-factor of 0,021 Ns2/m4 PV of power costs

0,021
= R1 598 965 x
0,014
= R2 397 097
T.O.C. = PV capital + PV running
= R(0 + 2 397 097)
= R2 397 097
Conclusion

SCHEME T.O.C
A Use type ‘A’ streamlining R2 286 565
B Use type ‘B’ streamlining R2 197 023
C Leave shaft as it is R2 397 097
Hence Scheme ‘B’ would be the more economical scheme
NOTE
1. The objective behind this example is to increase the quantity of air down the shaft from 315
m3/s to 410 m3/s. one of the most common mistakes made in this type of exercise is to
forget to change the pressure requirement for the increased quantity, i.e. to pass 315 m 3/s
of air down the shaft requires a pressure of 1 745 Pa, but to pass 410 m3/s of air requires a
pressure of 1 956 Pa. This mistake is not due to lack of knowledge of economics, but a
lack of knowledge of the elementary laws of airflow.

2. The PV of power costs was only calculated in full in scheme ‘A’. for scheme, ‘B’ and ‘C’ the
PV of power costs was determined by proportion of the respective K-factors as all other
factors remained constant. Again, this makes use of a ‘constant’ and the constant should
be double-checked to ensure that it is correct, or else all three evaluations are incorrect.

3. Note that the various costs have been rounded off to the nearest R100 in the calculations.
The answers to each scheme could have been rounded off to the nearest R1 000 without
affecting the final selection.

Worked Example No. 3

A mine wishes to purchase 620 m of ventilation ducting to install in an abandoned development

end. The column will handle 11 m3/s of air for a period of 6 years and the interest is 20 %.

D2
The installed cost of the ducting is cents per metre where D is the pipe diameter in mm.
1,290

Electric power costs are R260 per kW p.a.

40
Assume that the mine already has a fan capable of the required duty and assume a value of 65%
for the overall efficiency of the fan.

The ducting can be re-sold for 10% of its capital installed cost at the end of its life.

i. Assuming that all the duct sizes under consideration have a K-factor of 0,003 5 Ns2/m4,
determine the most economic size of duct to use in the end.

ii. Plot a graph showing how capital, running and total owning costs vary with duct diameter.

Answer:

i. From tables, the present value of R1 per annum for 6 years at 20% = R3,326.

PV of Capital Costs
D2
Capital installed cost = cm
1,290
Duct Length = 620 m
 D2  c
 Capital installed cost =  620 x  xm
 1,290  m

 D2 1 
= R  620 x x 

 1,290 100 
= R(4,806 x D2) (D in m) x 1000
= R(4 806 D2) (D in m)

But the ducting can be re-sold at the end of its life (after 6 years) for 10 % of its capital
installed cost. Today value of this 10% of capital is obviously less and can be determined
from the formula for the present value of a future lump sum given in section (v) of
‘Definitions’. The formula is:
A
P =
 i 
1  n
 100 
The amount (A) to be received in 6 years time for re-selling the ducting is:
 10 
= R x 4 806 D2
 100 
A
P =
 i 
1  n
 100 
480,6 D2
=
(1,1)6
= R271,3 D2

Deducting this value from the capital installed cost, (similar to cash discount) gives:

Capital installed cost = R(4 806 D2 - 273,3D2)

= R(4 534,7)D2

41
PV of running costs

The only running costs for the piping are the power costs.

PV of power cost

 100 
= R  air power x x cost of power p.a. x PV 
 fan eff. 

 p x Q 100 
= R x x 260 x 3,33 
 1000 65 

KCLQ2
Substituting for p in the equation gives:
A3

PV of power cost

 KCLQ2 Q 100 
= R  3
x x x 260 x 3,33 

 A 1000 65 
 0,003 5 x C x 620 x 11 x 11 11 100 
= R 3
x x x 260 x 3,33 
 A 1000 65 

 C
= R  3 847 x 3 
 A 

C
Therefore, is the only term, which will change as the diameter is varied.
A3

C D
Now, =
A3  D2 
3

 
 4 
 
D
=
3D 6
64
64 D
=
2 D5
(6,48)
PV of power cost = R3 847 x
D5
R(24 929)
=
D5
Total Owning Cost

T.O.C. = PV of capital + PV or running

 24 929 
= R  4 634,7 D2  5
(Both ' D' in m)
 D 
This formula for T.O.C can now be applied to any diameter of duct to determine its owning
cost.

42
 Assuming a duct diameter of 900 mm to begin with, and using increments of 100 mm, the
following results can be obtained:

PV running
D PV capital  24 929  T.O.C
(m) R(4 534,7 D2) R 5
 (R)
 D 
0,9 R 3 670 R42 217 R45 887
1,0 R 4 530 R24 929 R29 459
1,1 R 5 490 R15 479 R20 969
1,2 R 6 530 R10 018 R16 548
1,3 R 7 660 R 6 714 R14 374
1,4 R 8 890 R 4 635 R13 525
* 1,5 R10 200 R 3 283 R13 483
1,6 R11 610 R 2 377 R13 987
1,7 R13 110 R 1 756 R14 866
1,8 R14 690 R 1 319 R16 009

* From the above table, it can be seen that the 1,5 m diameter would be the most
economical diameter.
ii) The cost can now be plotted against diameter as shown in the graph below:

The answer can also be read off the graph as 1,5 m.

43
NOTE:
1. To avoid repetition of the same lengthy calculations for each diameter of duct, extensive
use was made of constants in this answer, i.e. a formula for T.O.C. was derived which
depended only on the duct diameter.
2. Any ‘conveyor’ of air, be it a duct, airway or shaft, has certain most economic size. The
reason for this is well illustrated in the graph. As the diameter (size) increases the capital
cost also logically increases, but as the diameter increases the running costs decreased
because less pressure (and hence less power) is required to pass the air through these
larger sizes. Somewhere in between there is a ‘minimum’ point (the lowest point on the
T.O.C. curve) from which the most economical size can be determined.
3. The actual most economical diameter of 1,5 m could be determined more accurately by
assuming smaller increments in size. However, as can be seen by the T.O.C. figures in
the table (and the graph) it would not really matter whether the mine chose a duct
diameter anywhere between 1,4 and 1,6 m as there is little difference in cost. This ‘band’
between 1,4 m and 1,6 m on the T.O.C. curve (where the curve ‘flattens out’) is
sometimes called the ‘tolerance’. (See examples on page 861 of ‘Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines’).
Once this ‘tolerance’ has been established, the duct diameter chosen would be one that
best suits the practical situation, i.e. for a duct the 1,3 m diameter might be chosen for
lack of space. On the other hand, the 1,5 m diameter might be chosen because it is
manufactured as a standard size.
4. The concept of resale value is a little difficult to follow in the worked example because of
all the other factors involved in the example. The following example will attempt to clarify
it:
Example:
Assume a length of ducting has a life of 8 years, the interest rate is 20%, the capital
installed cost is R10 000, and that the ducting has a resale value of 15% of capital
installed cost at the end of its life. Determine the actual capital installed cost.
Answer
Capital cost to purchase ducting = R10 000
 15 
Resale value in 8 years time = R x 10 000 
 100 
= R1 500
i.e. The R1 500 will be paid back to the mine in 8 years time. For the mine to be paid
back now means the amount paid back will be less than R1 500. The amount is
actually the present value of R1 500 in 8 year’s time.
 i 
i.e. A = p 1  
 100 
A
 p = n
 i 
1  
 100 
1 500
so p =
(1,2)8
Hence the sum of R1 500 is 8 years time is worth R348 now.
 Actual capital installed cost = R(10 000 - 348)
= R 9 652

44
5. In assuming the various diameters to consider, practical experience plays a key part
e.g. it would have been ridiculous to assume a 570 mm diameter for this example as
the pressure required to carry 11 m3/s of air through 620 m of 570 mm diameter duct
would be astronomical. (28 300 Pa in fact).
NOTE:
Example 15, pages 861 to 866, ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’
deals with a similar type problem. You should also study this example to ensure that
you are able to solve this type of problem.
Section 9, pages 866 to 870, deals with the comparison of ventilation versus cooling.
You should also study this section in detail to ensure that you understand the
principles involved.

45
 SELF-TEST

Without using references, answer the following questions:

1. A main fan at a mine handles 225 m3/s at a pressure of 5,67 kPa. The fan is to be
replaced by a new fan, which will handle 250 m3/s of air. Tenders are received from four
different companies and the following details were extracted from these tenders.

Company A Company B Company C Company D

Cost of fan R25 000 R32 000 R48 000 R40 000
Fan efficiency 73% 83% 84% 87%
Cost of motor R21 500 R27 300 R29 000 R24 800
Motor efficiency 96% 90% 92% 91%

The fan is to run for 15 years and the interest rate is 20%. Power costs are R260 per kW
per annum. Which fan should the mine purchase?
2. The mine fan handles 195 m at a pressure of 3 100 Pa. The overall efficiency of the
installation is 75%. It is desired to increase the quantity of air to 250 m3/s and this can be
done in two ways:
i) By strengthening the fan without changing its characteristics at a cost of R15 000
and then speeding it up. This would require a new motor with the same efficiency
as the present one and the new motor would cost R23 200.
ii) By installing a new fan driven through a gearbox. The new fan efficiency is 86%,
the gearbox efficiency is 98% and the motor efficiency is 95%. The cost of the new
fan and ancillaries is R93 800.
Electric power costs R260 per kW per annum. The life of the mine is 12 years and the
interest rate is 20%. Determine the more economical scheme.
3. Two 3 810mm diameter centrifugal fans, installed in parallel at the top of an up-cast shaft,
exhaust 390 m3/s of air from the mine at a pressure of 4 800 Pa. It is necessary to increase the
quantity of air to 465 m3/s to cope with increased production. This can be done in two ways:
i) By purchasing an extra identical fan to run in parallel with the existing fans. This will
increase the quantity of air to 465 m and the overall efficiency of each fan will be
82%. The new fan and motor will cost R88 700.
ii) By developing three 1100 m long return airways in parallel with the existing return
airway system. This will increase the quantity of air at the main fans to 465 m3/s,
decrease the fans pressure to 3 800 Pa and decrease the overall efficiency of each
fan to 60%. Each airway will have a cross area of 11,6 m2 and the development
cost is R21/m3 of rock broken.
4. Electric power costs are R260 per kW per annum. The interest rate is 20%. Which scheme
would be more economical if the life of the mines were:
A : 5 years?
B : 12 years?
C : 18 years?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS.
IF THEY ARE ALL CORRECT YOU SHOULD ASK FOR THE CR1 TEST FOR THIS MODULE.
COMPLETE THIS AND THEN PROCEED WITH THE NEXT MODULE YOU HAVE SELECTED.

46
 COMMON SECTION
VENTILATION PLANNING

OBJECTIVES

Without referring to resources you must, in writing, be able to:

1. Describe a systematic method of planning the environmental control requirements of a

colliery or metalliferous mine.

2. List what you consider to be satisfactory environmental conditions for a deep mine or
colliery and give your reasons for selecting these standards.

3. List and discuss a minimum of eight factors which would have to be considered when
making long-term ventilation plans for a new colliery or gold mine and the important
decisions which would be made after considering these factors.

4. Compare the merits of using various parameters, e.g. cubic metres per second per kiloton
per month, when planning ventilation requirements for a mine.

5. Discuss the factors which must be considered when it is necessary to provide additional air
through a mine or colliery by either using more fan power or excavating additional airways.

6. Discuss the effects of mechanisation on mine ventilation planning of collieries (bord and
pillar mining and longwall systems) or metalliferous mines.

7. Determine the approximate manpower requirements for an environmental control

department of a deep gold mine or large colliery when given the tonnage per month, the
method of mining, the seam thickness, or stoping width, the virgin rock temperature,
whether mining will be on a single or double shift basis, the total refrigeration capacity and
the possibility of explosive gas being encountered in large quantities.

8. List the duties of the members of the above-mentioned department.

RESOURCES

1. The notes which follow.

2. Senior members of your department.

3. Chapter 38, ‘Planning Ventilation and Refrigeration Requirements’, ‘Environmental

Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 953 to 974.

4. Chapter 22, ‘Sources of Heat in Mines’, Environmental Engineering in South African

Mines’, pages 569 to 612.

5. Chapter 8 ‘Ventilation Network Analysis’, ‘Environmental Engineering in South African

Mines’ pages 211 to 239.

6. Chapter 15, ‘Sources and methods of Dust Control’, ‘Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines’, pages 379 to 393.

7. ‘Presidential Address - Mine Ventilation and Refrigeration Planning’, by M.J. Howes,

Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society, December 1979, pages 225 to 235.

8. The Annual Ventilation Report for the period October 1982, to September 1983, published
by the Chamber of mines of South Africa.

47
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

1. Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa:

Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ventilation of Mechanised Mines

Opening Address: An Overview of Mechanisation

Author: E. Schmid (March, 1979)

Environmental Control for Raise and Blind Hole Boring Equipment

Author: P Graham (March, 1979)

Telecommunication in Mechanised Mining

Author: A.R. Atkins (April, 1979)

Environmental Problems associated with Mechanisation at Prieska Copper Mines

(Pty) Ltd.

Author: W. Holding (June, 1979)

Contribution: A.E. Hall (June, 1979)

Mechanised Mining Project Site at Doornfontein Gold Mining Company Limited

Author: PJ Botha (June 1979)

The Ventilation of Tunnel and Blind-hole Boring Machines in South African Gold Mines.

Author: A.E. Hall (September, 1979)

Noise Control in Mechanised Mining

Author: M.J. Howes (October, 1979)

Reports on Discussion Sessions

‘Presidential Address - A review of ventilation practice on South African Collieries’,

by N. Thorp, November 1981 pages 194 to 245.

2. ‘Managing and Manning Ventilation Departments of South African Gold Mines’, by

J Burrows and B.G. Roberts, ‘Proceedings of the Second International Mine Ventilation
Congress’, held at Reno, Nevada, U.S.A.

48
 VENTILATION PLANNING

You have now reached the last module of the final workbook. If you have used all the workbook
correctly and have studied all the required references, you will have a thorough knowledge of
every subject. This information is necessary for you to do this module correctly because the
principles involved in planning a mine or a section of a mine require a good fundamental basis.
Unfortunately there are no shortcuts and you will only be fooling yourself by proceeding with this
module if you are not well prepared!

At this stage you should also be capable of using books and technical articles as resource
material. Most of the resource material in this module will be of that nature. You should not avoid
reading and researching all the resources you will be referred to.

1. A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH

When you are involved in any planning project, there is no sense in jumping from one
aspect of the project to another as the thoughts of new parameters and factors occur to
you.

What is needed is a planned and sequenced approach. One such approach is given in
chapter 38, Planning Ventilation and Refrigeration Requirements, by J Burrows, R. Hemp,
W. Holding and RM Stroh, in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’ pages
954 and 955.

This approach is shown in that chapter, in the form of a diagram on page 955. You should
study this now and then the following discussion:

1.1 Determine method and rate of production

Although the method of mining and the rate of production are usually pre-
determined, the Environmental Engineer can provide useful input, especially where
the shape of the stopes arid the positioning of airways are concerned.

Obviously, rock mechanics aspects and geological formations also have an

influence, and for this reason a multidisciplinary approach in planning is best.

A word of caution at this stage is that although shaft sizes, production rates, etc.,
are pre-determined you should always bear possible future expansion in mind. A
typical ‘safety factor’ which is sometimes planned for, is that the mine or section,
will eventually produce ore at a rate at least 15% to 20% more than originally
planned for.

1.2 Define acceptable environmental standards

Before planning can proceed any further, standards have to be established to

provide a basis. Factors that should be determined at this stage are:

i) Dust

Depending on the type of ore being mined, certain standards exist for the
various types of dust being produced.

Your selected standard must be compared to present legal limits, and also
to accepted threshold limit values (TLV’s). You should study Table 2, pages
330 and 331, in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, for
guidance in this matter.

49
Gold Mines
In gold mines, a typical maximum allowable dust content figure is 200 p/ml.
The average figure is often set at 150 p/ml.
The reasons for selecting these standards are usually as follows:
a) Mines pay a levy, which is used to fund compensation payments to
workers with a compensatable disease. This levy is based on an
‘industry dust index’ which is determined periodically by surveys
carried out by the Chamber of Mines’ Industrial Hygiene Branch. A
continued low dust figure results in large savings to the mine, which
easily offset the expenses of additional dust suppression techniques.
b) The present accepted TLV for South African gold mines is 246 p/ml
(based on a 33% quartz content). A figure of 200 p/ml therefore is
well within the safety limits.
Base Metal Mines
For base metal mines, the Government Mining Engineer has devised an
equation, which is used to determine the overall maximum allowable dust
count. This formula takes into account the various toxicity levels of the
various types of dust encountered in the particular mine. Once again a dust
levy, the size of which depends on the mines’ index compared to the
industry index, has to be paid.
As the formula used in determining the toxicity of the dust is updated from
time to time by the G.M.E., you should ascertain what the industry average
is when planning a base metal mine. This will serve as a basis for deciding
on your own selected standard. (You should note, however, that because of
factors such as gas and the possible explosibility of sulphide dust, where
applicable, the air quantities coursed through base metal mines usually far
exceed the requirements for dust suppression).
Coal Mines
The present acceptable TLV for coal dust is 2 mg/ml (average). When
planning a colliery you should bear this figure in mind.
Obviously, because modern collieries are highly mechanised, the dust
production rates on coal faces may be very high. Because of this, dilution of
the dust by the airflow alone is usually not adequate, and water spray
systems and dust extraction / filter units have been designed to cope with
this problem.
In planning a colliery though, you would in fact not stipulate an overall figure
only, but in fact would have to cater for the various types of operation.
Figures presently used by planners are:

mg/m3 PER
Intake airways 0,5 - 1,02 5 - 10
Return airways 1,0 - 2,0 10 - 20
Cutting: a. Bord and pillar 4,0 - 6,0 40 - 60
b. Longwalling 6,0 - 10,0 60 - 100
Drilling 1,5 - 2,5 15 - 25
Loading 1,5 - 2,5 15 - 25
Opencast Mining 1,5 - 2,0 15 - 20

50
 The figures quoted above are only guidelines and factors such as the
respirable / coarse dust relation and other contaminants such as dusts from
shale and sandstone bands should also be considered.
Your selected figures would therefore very much depend on your
anticipated conditions in the colliery.
Asbestos mines
The present acceptable TLV for asbestos dust is 5 fibres / ml for fibres over
5 m length as determined by the membrane filter method. However, the
legal limit in South Africa for asbestos related occupations has been set at 2
fibres / ml and the possibility exists that this limit may eventually be reduced
to 1 fibre / ml by the G.M.E.
As the limit of 2 fibres / ml is considered to be reasonably easily attainable
with present suppression techniques this is the maximum that should be
planned for and a standards of 1 fibre / ml should be aimed for.
ii) Gas
Maximum allowable levels for the various types of gases have been set by
the Government Mining Engineer, and should service as a basis of
approach.
For example, the proposed maximum level for methane is 1 % by volume,
and on a gassy mine, or in gassy areas, planned air volumes are such that
even with a maximum methane ‘make’, the level would not exceed 0,5%.
Dilution of exhaust gases is planned for in a similar way, and you should
read pages 963 to 966 and 969 to 971 of ‘Environmental Engineering in
South African Mines’, now to ensure that you are familiar with this subject.
The suggested standards for gas dilution are that the maximum allowable
limit for any gas, fume or vapour should not exceed 0,5 times the legally
allowable concentration.
The reason for this is that where inadequacies exist in the ventilation
system, you would have a safety factor of 2 as protection.
However, you should also consult the TLV table given on page 345 in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’ and it is suggested that
you select your standards according to whichever figure is the lower of the
Regulations and TLV’s.
iii) Heat, temperature and humidity
These aspects are covered in Module H-3 in Workbook 2, and in their sources
referred to in the above module. Read these again if you are unclear as to
which physiological and psychological parameters you should plan for.
Some recommended values and reasons are given below:
Reject temperature : 27,5oC wet-bulb
Specific cooling power :
a. Light work : 115 W/m2
b. Moderate work : 180 W/m2
c. Hard work : 240 W/m2
d. Wet Kata : not less than 10

51
 The reasons for selecting these values are:
a. Safety
It has been shown that the chances of an average person suffering from
heat stroke at temperatures below 27,5oC wet-bulb are less than one in
a million.
b. Productivity
It has been shown that heat is a factor involved in the capacity of
persons to work, and the figures quoted above ensure a reasonable
potential for work. You should read pages 560 to 563, ‘Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines’, for more information on this
aspects.
c. Cost benefits
Because of the fact that acclimatisation (which is an expensive
procedure) is not necessary at temperatures below 27,5oC wet-bulb,
and the productivity levels involved can be maintained, there are
definite cost advantages to planning to the above parameters.
iv) Noise
At present a draft code of practice for ‘The Implementation and Control of a
Hearing Conservation Programme in the South African Mining industry’ is
being finalised by the Chamber of Mines. This code should soon become
generally available to the mining industry and shall be of some assistance
when planning for noise abatement and control measures. You should
obtain a copy of this as it will assist you in your studies.
In the meantime you should refer to the modules on noise, and Chapter 37,
‘Noise Control’ in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, in
this regard.
The noise limit planned for should be equivalent to 85 dB(A) exposure
during an 8 hour shift or 40 working hour week.
Obviously these levels present difficulties where machinery such as
rockdrills and auxiliary fans are concerned, and where the above level
cannot be attained, hearing protection should be provided.
The reasons for recommending a 85dB(A) Leq limit are:
- To avoid permanent hearing loss and possible claims for compensation
at a later stage.
- To improve communication, safety and health.
v) Illumination
Module 1 in Workbook 3 refers to acceptable illumination levels and you
should read this again if necessary.
Come figures are given below:
- Station and working places : 100 lux
- Junctions and hazardous areas : 50 lux
- Travelling ways, waiting places : 20 lux
The benefits of adequate illumination levels are improved safety,
productivity and worker moral.

52
1.3 Calculation of heat loads, gas emissions and dust production
i) Heat
The determination of the heat load in a deep mine is perhaps the msot
difficult of all parameters to obtain. R Hemp in this chapter on ‘Sources of
Heat in Mines’ in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, pages
569 to 612 covers this aspect in detail.
Most mining companies also have computer programmes available, or have
recourse to such programs, e.g. ‘Fridge 5’ by the Chamber of Mines. You
should try and obtain an example of one of these and discuss it with a
senior member of your department who has had previous experience with it
to help you understand the principles involved.
Note:
Right now you may feel despondent and think that obtaining this type of
resource is an impossible task, however, you should not give up now as you
have recourse to many ways and means of obtaining this information. If you
cannot get hold of this information on your own mine, approach your head
office personnel or your Group Training Officer. You are sure to succeed if
you try hard enough!
You also have access to charts and graphs, e.g. the graph on page 959 in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’. These graphs are
usually derived from empirical (measured) data and are quite valuable aids
in planning a mine.
ii) Gas emissions
Data concerning gas emissions and the types of gas to be expected in a
proposed mine, or section of a mine, can often be obtained from prospect
borehole samples. Alternatively other mines in the area will be able to
provide this type of information.
In the case of coal mines actual coal samples can be extracted from
boreholes and the coal degassed. The volume of gas liberated compared to
the mass of the coal sample will give an indication of the expected gas
emission rate during mining operations.
In the case of uranium bearing ores, sampling values obtained can be used
to calculate expected random gas emission rates.
iii) Dust production
The method of mining and the mineral being mined will, to a large extent,
determine the amount of dust that may be expected.
Experience plays a large role in this case, and you will have to draw from
existing data to obtain the information you require.
Chapter 15, ‘Sources and Methods of Dust Control’ in Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines’ deals with this subject to some extent,
and you should again read the relevant section.
1.4 Calculate air and refrigeration requirements
Once again you will have to refer to existing computer programmes, graphs and
charts to obtain this data.
Factors, which play a very important role here, are:
i) Depth of workings (to determine residual cooling power of the air)

53
 ii) Air travel distances
iii) Shaft and airway sizes (hence, velocities)
iv) Average surface air temperatures
v) Total heat loads
vi) Expected water usage
vii) Pre-determined acceptable environmental standards
viii) Expected dust and gas production underground
ix) Production rates and methods
x) Minimum face velocities
When all these factors have been taken into account, the airflow requirements must
be balanced with the heat, gas and dust loads and if required, refrigeration
techniques or additional air volumes considered.
A practical example will be referred to at a later stage.
1.5 Optimise alternatives
At this stage you will have a good idea of what you have planned for the new mine /
extension
Now the questions should start, for example:
 What if you should install ice plants versus conventional water chillers?
 What if the anticipated chilled water usage does not meet the actual usage, or if
the actual usage is significantly less than anticipated?
 What if more gas is encountered than anticipated, or maximum allowable
concentrations change?
 What are the implications of a larger or smaller overall air volume?
 Will you have to acclimatise workers, and if so, how many?
and most importantly:
 What are the economic implications of more or less refrigeration / air volume
circulated?

54
2. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN LONG-TERM PLANNING
2.1 Estimating air quantities
The following is a metricated extract from the paper entitled ‘The Battle of the
BTU’s by A.W.T. Barenbrug published in the Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society
of South Africa, February 1967.
In the planning of mine ventilation systems it is customary to express the air
requirements in m3/s per ton of rock broken per month.
This custom probably dates back to the time when dust was the only important
factor to be considered. It was thought that the dust production could be related to
the tonnage broken. A quantity of about 0,001 4 m3/s at a density of 1,2 kg/m3 was
regarded sufficient to dilute, to within safe limits, the dust produced by every ton of
rock broken.
Later, when heat also became an important factor, a modification to the 103/s/ton
became necessary and the m3/s/ton became also related to the virgin rock
temperature. Another relationship is often used, viz., that of m3/s/person
underground at any one time. But, ass the average production per person is about
30 tons per month, this relationship is therefore, about 30 times as large as the
m3/s/ton. The only improvement in the m3/s/person index is that the time is
incorporated, thus differentiating between single, double or multi-shifting.
However, these relationships between m3/s/ton broken or m3/s/person and virgin
rock temperature are unsound when applied to any geographical area. On the
Central Rand at a depth of 2 650m, where the virgin rock temperature is about
43,3oC, the air wet-bulb temperature in summer at the downcast station is about
27,8oC. In the Orange Free State the same virgin rock temperature is obtained at a
depth of approximately 1 650m, there the Station downcast wet-bulb temperature in
midsummer is only about 23,9oC. Obviously, therefore, for the same virgin rock
temperature the air in the Orange Free State can absorb much more heat than the
same amount circulated in a Central Rand Mine.
Although no method, whatever relationship is, adopted can ever give an accurate
estimation of the air requirements because of the great variety of mining conditions,
it is felt that another method will be more appropriate to our deep mining conditions.
Heat has become such an important item in our deep mines that many people
doubt whether we can win the economic battle against the forces of heat.
The effects of heat generation in mines can be counteracted mainly in two ways -
either by air circulation or by refrigeration. Which of the two methods is the most
economical depends upon many factors, and probably no hard and fast rule can be
laid down. A major factor in deciding which method to adopt is probably the life of
the mine. It may be economical for short-life mines to resort sooner to refrigeration
rather that to sink costly shafts. On the other hand, for long-life mines it may
sometimes be more economical to resort to the circulation of larger quantities of air
and to defer refrigeration to a later stage. Whether one chooses air circulation
refrigeration the object of either is to remove heat from the mine.
The correct approach to deep mine ventilation is, therefore, to estimate the amount
of heat energy that is liberated from the surrounding rock and to remove this energy
either by air circulation or refrigeration.
If we plot the heat production per ton broken per month for various methods of
mining against the virgin rock temperatures and at the same time the amount of
heat that can be removed by the air, for various volumes per ton broken, then we
can see whether some of this heat must be removed by refrigeration or not.

55
2.2 General ventilation planning for a new mine
The following are metricated extracts from the paper entitled ‘The Ventilation
Planning for Western Deep Levels Limited’ by J de V Lamprecht’s published in the
Journal of the Mine Ventilation of South Africa, July 1960.
Note:
It should be remembered that this paper was published 25 years ago and some of
the conclusions reached may not be correct by today’s standards, however this
paper does outline most of the factors to be considered in the ventilation planning
of a new mine.
i) Natural Rock Temperatures
It was realised at an early stage that knowledge of the natural or virgin rock
temperature at various depths would be vitally important and in 1949 a start
was made to obtain the necessary data. This data is shown in the sketch
below:

It should be noted that this mine, in common with central or near-central

Rand Mines, is favoured by what is probably the lowest rock temperature
gradient anywhere in the world, in mining fields, due to the high conductivity
overlying quartzite’s and / or water-bearing dolomites (the latter being a
case of blessings not always being unmixed!).

56
ii) Total air requirements
Ventilating air can be obtained from two sources, namely, from the surface
atmosphere direct or from cooling plants which reconditions used air for
subsequent re-use. In calculating total air requirements it is fortunately not
critically important to know in advance the proportions to which the air will
be derived from these two sources, and this simplification has considerably
facilitated the subsequent calculation of the economics of fresh surface air
versus reconditioned air.
The total requirements were calculated with the aid of the graph shown in
the Figure below. It would be an unenviable task for anyone either to justify
or seriously criticise the correctness of this graph, because there are so
many unknowns, which accompany its make-up. Suffice to state that it is an
honest attempt to combine the empirical opinions of several investigators in
the field of deep-level mine ventilation in this country.

By sectionalising the mine into several rock-temperature zones and

assuming certain tonnage targets for these zones, the total air requirements
were calculated and this came to 150 m3/s for the Contact Reef horizon and
500 m3/s for the Carbon Leader, i.e. a total of 650 m3/s at each shaft,
measured at underground density. It should be noted that the rock tonnage
refers to rock broken from all sources, because in ventilation matters, there
is really very little room for distinction between reef and waste.

57
iii) Estimating refrigeration requirements
Having decided on a total underground air requirement of 650 m3/s, per
shaft system (i.e. 850 m3/s at surface density), the next step was to decide
whether all this air should come from surface, or whether some of it should
be made up by underground refrigeration plants. A surface cooling plant for
cooling all the air on surface had been dismissed at an early stage as being
quite unsuitable.
Keeping the air quota of 150 m3/s constant for the Contact Reef horizon,
because this relatively shallow area should not require any air cooling,
various combinations of original fresh air and reconditioned air were
considered such that they would in every case total up to the 500 m3/s
needed for the Carbon Leader horizon. For this purpose every 1 000 kW of
refrigeration was reckoned as capable of producing 30 m3/s of good quality
air, because this is what experience with about twenty 1 000 kW plants in
other mines had shown would be easily capable of achievement.
Calculations then followed which aimed at finding the lowest overall cost,
using different combinations of original surface air and reconditioned air,
and taking into account the capital cost of plant, interest and operating
costs, including power. The various basic assumptions, which were made in
these calculations, are shown below:

58
iv) Basic Assumptions
The following assumptions were used in various calculations:
Tonnage broken on Contact Reef : 40 000 tons/month/shaft
Tonnage broken on Carbon Leader : 80 000 tons/month/shaft
Total underground air requirements : As per the Figure on page 56
(This is the original fresh air plus reconditioned air)
Virgin rock temperatures : As per the Figure on page 55
Refrigeration produces reconditioned air at the rate of 30 m3/s at 24oC wet
temperature per 1 000 kW.
No air cooling needed on Contact Reef down to 1 830 m depth.
Capital cost of main fans : R86 per kW input power
Capital cost of booster fans : R54 per kW input power
Capital cost of refrigeration plant : R114 per kW
Power cost (continuous operation) : R32 per kW per year
Co-efficient of performance of refrigeration plant : 3,5
Efficiency of main fans : 80%
Efficiency of booster fans : 70%
Interest rate : 6%
Capital amortisation over 16 years.
v) Main fans
The main exhaust fans at the top of each shaft will consist of two backward-
bladed centrifugal units operating in parallel, each unit designed for 275
m3/s at 6 kPa, at density 0,91 kg/m3. The fans will be direct coupled to 2 130
kW motors running at 12,5 r/s and will be equipped with inlet vane control.
Provision is being made for deposition and drainage of water and for self-
closing doors.
vi) Streamlining of buntons in downcast shafts
Much work has been done in recent years, both locally and overseas, on
the streamlining of shaft equipment, especially the buntons and its effects
on resistance to airflow.
It was decided at an early stage, therefore, that shaft buntons at the
Western Deep Levels mine should be streamlined in one way or another,
and it was consequently a logical step to investigate ways and means of
incorporating a streamlined shape into the original manufacturing process.
This has been done, and a hallow, welded section with parallel sides and
rounded top and bottom has been develop.
The final co-efficient of friction for a shaft equipped with such buntons
remains to be determined, but not wishing to be over-optimistic, it has been
assumed, for purposes of calculating the main fan duty of the mine, that
these squashed pipe sections will show an improvement of 30% over
conventional sections.

59
vii) Up-cast Shaft
Although the up-cast shafts will be sunk in two lifts to an ultimate depth of
about 3 000m, they will, in fact, constitute one continuous ‘chimney’. Every
effort has been made to leave as little water as possible in these shafts,
because water in an up-cast shaft is known to affect its resistance
adversely. Nevertheless it is expected that bout 4 1/s will unavoidably
remain and, in addition, the cooling of condenser water for underground
cooling plants will add another few 1/s of moisture to the air.
The exact quantitative effect of all this water is not readily predictable, and if
it should prove to have a very significant effect on the ventilation, the door
will have been left open for the up-cast shafts to be plugged at about the 1
830 m level so that the air can be by-passed around the plug, thus causing
a substantial portion of the water to be separated out.
viii) Refrigeration
a. Site
It is proposed to side the central 8 000 kW water chilling plant about
2 500 m below surface at each shaft, i.e. at the level of the highest
crosscut to reef on the Carbon Leader horizon. At this point all air
returning from the Carbon Leader workings will have been gathered
together (i.e. at least 250 m3/s and will be available for condenser
water cooling.
b. Compressor Plant
The compressor plant will probably be split into three or four units,
each unit discharging its cold water into a common cold water sump
excavated in rock. Calculations have shown that it is quite feasible to
do this because, although the initial loss of ‘coolth’ to the rock is
fairly high, it should settle down to an extremely low value after a few
weeks.
c. Cooling Towers
The cooling towers for condenser water-cooling will be on the same
level as the compressor plant. Provisionally it is intended to plug the
up-cast shaft at this level and to by-pass the up-cast air through the
cooling tower(s). Tentative plans are for two 15 m high vertical
towers, one 7,3 m diameter and the other 5,5 m diameter. In these
towers, water and air will flow ‘counter current’ and use will be made
of recently acquired knowledge, namely, that cooling tower
performance is materially improved by operating at high air velocity
(about 6,0 to 7,5 m/s) rather that at conventional low velocity (2,0 -
2,5 m/s). The principle involved is one akin to that which is
sometimes referred to as ‘fluidisation’.
d. Chilled Water Reticulation and Cooling Coils
The chilled water will be taken down and up the sub-vertical
downcast shaft in 300 mm or 325 mm internal diameter pipes,
leaving at about 7,2oC and returning at about 18,3oC. There will be
tappings on every level down the sub-vertical shaft with branch pipes
of lesser diameter, but this does not necessarily mean that chilled
water will be fed in on every level at the same time. The down and
in-going pipes will almost certainly be insulated and investigations
are proceeding to find the most suitable insulating material.

60
 Closed circuit cooling coils are at present favoured in preference to
open sprays. Experience has shown that 5 m3/s units are a convenient
size for ease of transport and assembly. At any one cooling point
these cooling coils are stacked in batteries, the number per battery
depending on air requirements. The exact siting and installation details
for these cooling coil stations are not matters, which require long-term
planning. It is something, which is decided from month to month as
mining proceeds.
It might be mentioned that an important reason for siting the
compressor plant as far down as 2 500 m is that the remaining depth
is then (initially) only about 600 m and this means that cooling coils
can perhaps be connected directly to the shaft pipe, without having
to go to the trouble and expense of high pressure / low pressure
heat exchangers. At any rate it will mean that the problem of
excessive water heads in chilled water pipes will be minimised.
xi) Development Ventilation
This will be along conventional lines and, where necessary, spot coolers
will be used. Alternatively, depending on the proximity of the main chilled
water circuit to an end, a tapping off the chilled pipe could be used and
cold water passed through a cooling coil.
xii) Stope Ventilation
a. Ventersdorp Contact Reef
Mining (and ventilation) will, it is hoped, follow longwall methods,
but this depends on payability. In any case, ventilation should not
be difficult because the rock temperature at 1 830 m depth is only
about 34oC.
b. Carbon Leader
Ventilation will follow the lines of longwall methods at the ERPM
with substantial air quantities fed in at the bottom of each pair of
longwall faces and allowed to travel at high velocity over long face
lengths. Some sweetening-up of the air at intermediate levels will
no doubt be found advantageous and, where necessary,
reconditioning will be decided by experience but preliminary
calculations indicate that the air might be able to travel 300 to 500
m before requiring cooling. Such reconditioning will present no
great difficulty, because several mines are already past the
experimental and novelty stage in this direction.
xiii) Dry Mining
Whilst appreciating the ‘ventilation’ advantages accruing from very dry
intake airways and the controlled use of water, particularly in stoping, it
would be somewhat unrealistic at this early stage to assume that the
maintenance of really dry airways will be practicable. The general water
picture in the area is against such an assumption. Needless to say mining
policy will, so far as reasonably possible, follow the ideal of having dry
airways, but no special cognisance has been taken of this possibility in
estimating air and refrigeration requirements.
xiv) Cooling of large underground machinery
The temptation will no doubt exist at times to short-circuit some air to the
up-cast shaft after it has ventilated pumping, plant and hoisting machinery,
but it is firmly intended not to discard air which has been so used. It is

61
 considered sound practice in such cases rather to make provision for water
cooling. In the case of pump motors it will probably be convenient to use
water from the pump cooling in open to use water in closed circuit, with
spray cooling in a return airway.
Note:
In the section dealing with ‘streamlining of buntons in downcast shaft’ J d V
Lambrechts mentioned the fact that the buntons planned at Western Deep
Levels would be rounded at each end and that a significant saving in
pressure losses was anticipated.
The figures listed below are a comparison of pressure and power losses in
a 9,6 m diameter downcast shaft carrying approximately 700 kg/s of air:

Shape K-factor Pressure Loss Air Power kW

(Pa)
Conventional ‘I’-beam 0,0393 3027 1894
Rectangular 0,0302 2326 1455
Skittle shape 0,0199 1533 959
Rounded shape 0,016 1233 771
Diamond hexagonal 0,0147 1132 708
As can be seen from these figures, installing rounded buntons instead of I-
beams in this particular shaft can derive a saving of approximately 59%.
3. PLANNING PARAMETERS
There are various parameters used by the Environmental Engineer when planning a new
mine.
Some of these are discussed below:
a. Air tonnage ratio (J de V Lambrechts)
This method was mentioned earlier where excerpts from de V. Lambrecht’s paper
were quoted. The relevant figure is again shown below:

62
 The advantages of using this figure is that it is based on actual measured data, and
that it is simple and easy to use.
The disadvantages, however, are that the figure obtained is a ‘wide’ figure applying
to a group of mines (in other words the line is fitted to scattered data), and because
the curve is exponential, small changes in the VRT over 40oC results in large
changes in air volumes circulated which makes it difficult to accurately estimate the
air requirements.
As a matter of fact, once a certain pre-determined depth is passed the air volume
circulated could in fact be reduced.
b. Heat production per ton mined (AWT Barenbrug and R Stroh)
Copy of Barenbrug’s graph is shown below. Once again these graphs are based on
actual measured (empirical) data. As you can see if you study the figure, it is
possible to determine how the heat production varies with the VRT, and how much
heat the ventilating air can remove. The advantages are again that it is easy to
determine values quickly and that the graphs are based on measured data.
The disadvantages are that as with Lambrecht’s graph the lines are fitted to data
with some ‘scatter’ in it, and secondly it is difficult to decide where on this graph our
planned mine will fit (with reference to the mining method, etc.)

63
 A copy of Stroh’s graph is shown below:
The drawback of this graph is that it only applies to Anglo American mines in the
Western Transvaal and Orange Free State.
As a matter of fact, if you should plot this line onto the Barenbrug graph you will
see that it follows a line generally somewhere between the ‘wet-selected’ and ‘dry-
selected’ lines on this graph.
The planners choice of what to base his selection on is thus complicated.

c. The graph shown below has been reproduced from the Annual Ventilation
Report for the period October 1982 to September 1983.

64
 The solid line in this figure depicts the average for all the mines considered.
Some interesting information can be obtained from this graph. For example, the
average air volume downcast for mine with a VRT of 43oC is 3,6 m3/s/kiloton/month,
with the lowest value (mine 440) at 2,8 m3/s/kton/month and the highest (mine 615)
at 6,3 m3/s/kton/month - more than twice as much as the lower value.
4. FAN POWER / ADDITIONAL AIRWAYS
When the air volume circulating through a mine has to be increased, there usually are two
alternatives available, namely:
i) Increase fan power, or
ii) Excavating additional airways.
Before you can consider any of these alternatives, you need to obtain detailed information
on the airflow circuit, i.e. overall resistance and individual airway resistances, this data is
obtained by means of a pressure survey of the mine.
Chapter 8, Ventilation Network Analysis’ by M.J. Mcpherson, ‘Environmental Engineering
in South African Mines’, deals with the various analysis techniques as well as the methods
that exist to predict airflow patterns.
Pages 211 to 227 deal with the various techniques available to the Environmental
Engineer to determine what would happen when certain mine parameters are changed.
Sections 4 to 6 of this chapter (pages 228 to 239) deal with ventilation network analysis by
digital computer. The salient points of sections 4 to 6 are:
a. Computer programs (such as VENNET and VENSIM) exist whereby mine circuits
can be simulated on computers.
b. Data required as input for these programmes.
c. The procedure used by the computer to assimilate arid calculates the data.
d. The treatment of fans in the circuit,
e. The treatment of branches in the circuit.
f. Network modifications
g. Using the programmes
h. Using the programmes when doing ventilation planning.
i. Special purpose network analysis programmes.
Once the data has been obtained from which you can determine what additional fan
power or airways are required to meet the new requirements of the mine, you can make a
meaningful comparison.
This comparison would include the economic evaluation of the project. In other words, you
will have to determine what, for example, it would cost to develop new airways or slipe
existing airways, and what the ultimate effect on the fan performance would be. Any
additional power costs will also have to be obtained.
Secondly, you will have to determine what the additional fan power requirements would
be when installing a new fan or fans. Included in this figure will be the purchasing plus any
additional maintenance costs plus erection / excavation costs for the new fan/s.
Other practical considerations, which must be considered, are:
i) Life of the project / section
You have to determine how long the additional air will be required for, as this will
have an influence on which scheme you select.

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 ii) Availability of labour / material
Should you wish to have additional airways developed or existing airways sliped,
you will have to determine whether there is sufficient labour and material available
in the section or on the mine to do the necessary work.
iii) Rock Mechanics
In the case of new airways being selected you would also have to determine
whether problems might occur regarding the stability and life expectancy of the
airways due to poor ground conditions.
5. THE EFFECTS OF MECHANISATION
The ultimate result of technological progress is that mines will in future become more and
more mechanised.
The implications of mechanisation is increased production rates, resulting in increased
dust production, and where gas is involved, increased gas production (whether from the
mineral being mined, e.g. coal, or from the exhaust gases in the case of LHD’s).
This means that the Environmental Engineer will have to take the increased dust and,
where applicable, gas production rates into account when planning a mine.
He would have to know what the anticipated dust / gas production rates in relation to the
mineral production rates will be based on this, he will then have to ascertain the air
volumes required to effectively dilute and remove all the contaminants.
Another factor, which could be of importance with increased mechanisation, is the
additional beat that would be liberated into the environment by these machines. This
factor, obviously, also needs to be investigated and catered for when required.
Obviously, should attempts at designing rock cutters succeed, another factor would be a
reduction in average stoping width. This in turn will lead to smaller air requirements.
Further benefits would be:
i) In a mining cycle where explosives are eliminated, it would be possible to install
heat exchangers right on the face.
ii) The number of tramming and travelling ways would be reduced (as the amount of
ore to be handled and the number of workers required would be greatly reduced).
iii) The smaller air volumes referred to above would also result in smaller shafts, fans,
return air airway sizes, etc.
Another technological advance presently under investigation is the placement of tailings in
a cement / tailing grout mixture.
This process involves placing the sludge and cement mixture in a paddock, like structures
in mined out areas.
The benefits of this system are twofold, namely:
i) Improved air utilization, hence reduced are requirements.
ii) Reduced heat flow from worked out areas resulting in a smaller heat load on the
heat removal mechanism (whether air or refrigeration)
In collieries, the placement of ash filling is beneficial in the environmental control context
in that it assists in reducing the occurrence of spontaneous combustion and reduces
leakage between intakes and returns (where this is practically possible).
In summary it can be said that technological advances and mechanisation of mines have
certain very definite advantages, and also some disadvantages.

66
 You must be aware of these, and the recommended procedure for doing this is by reading
papers published in the M.V.S, I.M.M and M.M.A journals. Furthermore you should also
discuss the various mining techniques with your associates from other mines when the
opportunity arises.
The following papers published in the Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society are
applicable to this subject and you are advised to read these:
ARTICLE PAGE
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Ventilation of Mechanised
Mines
a. Opening Address: An overview of Mechanisation 41
Author: E Schmid (March 1979)
b. Environmental Control for Raise and Blind Hole Boring
Equipment 44
Author: P Graham (March 1979)
c. Telecommunication in Mechanised Mining 71
Author: AR Atkins (April 1979)
d. Environmental Problems associated with Mechanisation at
Prieska Copper Mines (Pty) Ltd. 106
Author: W Holding (June 1979) 112
Contribution: AE Hall (June 1979)
e. The Ventilation of Tunnel and Blindhole Boring Machines in
South African Gold Mines 179
Author: AE Hall (September 1979)
f. Noise Control in Mechanised Mining 193
Author: MJ Howes (October 1979)
g. Reports on Discussion sessions 51, 76, 112,
118, 189, 205
6. RECIRCULATION OF AIR
Present investigations indicate that recirculation of air on a large scale is a viable means
of effectively ventilating stopes.
This principle involves feeding a particular area with a limited amount of air while fans are
used to create controlled recirculation and hence, improved velocities in the area.
This is shown in the sketch below:

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 Several mines are investigating similar systems in poorly ventilated areas, while in some
instances, recirculation is being considered in the planning of new mines and sections.
Obviously, there are several factors to consider where recalculation is involved, such as:
i) Maximum anticipated dust and gas loads.
ii) Methods of filtering / removing contaminants
iii) Contingency planning in case of a main fan breakdown or the occurrence of a fire
in the area.
You should read the paper ‘Recirculation of Air in the Ventilation and Cooling of Deep
Gold Mines’ by R.C. Burton, et.al, Proceedings of the Third International Mine Ventilation
Congress held in Harrogate, Great Britain, 1984, which deals with this matter in detail.
Additional resource material available on the subject is the Chamber of Mines Research
Report, number 53/84 ‘Controlled Recirculation of Mine Ventilation Air’.
7. STAFFING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL DEPARTMENTS
When determining the staffing requirements of an environmental control department, you
will have to know which duties will fall under this department.
Besides the ‘normal’ duties such as recording and reporting on factors such as dust,
airflow and water circuits other duties may include e.g. compressed air control,
construction, fire prevention, training of production officials, etc.
You should do a detailed analysis of the duties and hierarchy of the environmental control
staff on your own mine. The easiest way of depicting this would be to draw a ‘family tree’
of the department, an example of which is given overleaf. (As a matter of fact, a diagram
similar to this should already exist on your mine).

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 ENV. ENGINEER

ENV. SUPERINTENDENT

SECRETARY

SEO SEO SEO

EO (COMP. AIR) EO (METHANE) ASST. SEO MICR/SECR CONSTRUCTION M/O

EO EO CONSTRUCTION M/O

ASST. EO ASST. EO CONSTRUCTION M/O

OBSERVER OBSERVER

LEARNER LEARNER LEARNER

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Obviously, this diagram is only an example, and will differ from mine to mine, depending
on the tasks delegated to the Environmental Control Department.
The ‘normal’ duties of the Environmental Control Department will not be discussed here
as they were covered in detail in Module VP-3, page 128, in the Elementary Workbook in
Mine Environmental Control. You should read this section again if you are unclear about
these.
The following are extracts from a paper entitled ‘Managing and Meaning Ventilation
Departments of South African Gold Mines’, by J Burrows and B.G. Roberts, presented at
the Second International Mine Ventilation Congress, held in Nevada, U.S.A. during 1979.
MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS
The number of persons employed in the Ventilation Department of a gold mine will
obviously depend upon the size and extent of the mine and the environmental problem.
The size of the department can therefore vary considerably but the minimum requirements
should be to have sufficient staff to visit every working place every three months as
required by legislation. However, it will be apparent more staff will be needed on a deep,
hot mine than a cool, shallow mine because of the increased complexity of the
environmental problem. Also, because of the greater risk of unsatisfactory conditions
occurring on hot mines, more frequent visits to the working places are often necessary.
When a mine does not have sufficient ventilation personnel this may result in poor
environmental conditions occurring and not being detected. These poor conditions could
lead to a loss of production in the short term and could, in the long term, result in the mine
paying extra compensation to its employees because of their impaired health. When a
mine is overstaffed excess costs are accrued without any worthwhile benefits.
Broadly speaking, the main factors, which should affect the number of ventilation
personnel required are those related to the mining methods, the environmental problem
and the number of underground workers. More specifically, it was believed that the factors
listed below would have and important effect:
1. The method and rate of mining;
2. The depth and virgin rock temperature at which mining takes place;
3. The severity of the environmental problem, i.e. the dust, gases and heats problems;
4. The environmental conditions existing in the working places;
5. The amount and cost of the air and coolth supplied;
6. The number of underground workers;
7. The number of production officials’
8. The degree of management and group support, and
9. The ability and drive of the head of the Ventilation Department.
In order to ascertain more precisely which of these factors have a significant influence, an
analysis was made of the present situation. A questionnaire was sent to all gold mines
and the answers to these questionnaires, together with the data contained in the ‘Annual
Ventilation Report of the Chamber of Mines of South Africa’ were used to determine the
factors which were either significant or not.
It became apparent early in the analysis that there was a significant difference between
the production and ventilation staff needed for mines where the weighted mean virgin rock
temperature (WMVRT) was greater than 100oF (38oC) and those where it was less than
100oF (38oC), even though there was no significant difference between the amount of
tonnage broken per month. In the remainder of this paper mines where the WMVRT is

70
greater than 100oF (38oC) will be referred to as ‘hot’ mines and those where the WMVRT
is less than 100oF (38oC) will be referred to as ‘cool’ mines.
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS
The table below shows those factors, which were found to have a significant relationship
with the number of ventilation staff presently employed on ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ mines. The
correlation co-efficient (R) and the equation of the straight line (in imperial and SI units
where applicable) are also shown.

Factor (r) y = mx + c
Hot mines
Average kilotons broken per month 0,83 y = 0,08x - 2,98
y = 0,000 7 + 3,8
Total face length 0,84
y = 0,002 3x + 3,8 (SI)
Number of underground workers 0,67 y = 0,002 4x - 0,4
Number of senior production officials 0,67 y = 0,91x - 4,7

Cool Mines
Average kilotons broken per month 0,86 y = 0,04x + 1,31
y = 0,000 5 + 0,6
Total face length 0,63
y = 0,001 5x + 0,6 (SI)
Number of underground workers 0,77 y = 0,001 9x - 1,89
Number of senior production officials 0,62 y = 0,38x - 3,7
y = 9,4 x 10-6x - 0,54
Volume of downcast air 0,73
y = 0,02x - 0,54 (SI)
y = 0,003x + 8,81
Installed refrigeration capacity 0,62
y = 0,000 9x + 8,81 (SI)
Monthly power costs 0,75 y = 0,05x + 5,8
The practical implications of these factors are discussed below:
The authors then discuss staffing under the following headings:
i) Average kilotons broken per month
ii) Total face length
iii) Number of persons working underground during the main shift
iv) Number of senior production officials
The results of the survey indicated a similarity between the number of environmental
control staff employed and the above factors.
Varying degrees of significance could be attached to the following factors (the
relationships (r-values) are shown, where applicable, for the various types of mine):
i) Volume of downcast air
No significance for ‘hot’ mines while on ‘cool mines’ staff increases by two for
every 100 m3/s after 500 m3/s.

71
ii) Installed refrigeration capacity
Significant on ‘cool’ mines, but little relationship on ‘hot’ mines (r = 0,19)
iii) Monthly power costs for ventilation and refrigeration
Only significant on ‘cool’ mines
iv) Rated power of diesel locomotives
Relationship high on ‘hot’ mines (0,74) but not on ‘cool’ mines.
MANAGEMENT FACTORS
The degree of management support together with the ability, enthusiasm, dedication and
forcefulness of the heads of the mine and group ventilation departments are factors, which
could affect the number of ventilation staff employed. These factors are clearly difficult to
quantify but there is no doubt in the minds of the authors that when a supportive
management attitude is backed-up by a competent, dedicated head of the ventilation
department, the number of ventilation staff is greater than it would be if these factors did
not exist. Furthermore, when this situation occurs, the ventilation department contributes
in a more meaningful manner to the achievement of healthy conditions.
The authors then discuss the following factors under the heading ‘Insignificant Factors’.
i) Environmental conditions in the working places.
ii) Weighted mean rock breaking depth and virgin rock temperature.
iii) Face advance
iv) Ventilation costs per ton mined
v) Amount of air per kiloton mined, air per 1 000 persons underground and air filters.
Where they state no significant factors emerged from the survey carried out.
They then discuss the ‘Distribution of staff within the Ventilation Department’ the following,
which are extracts:
Senior / Junior Ventilation Personnel
On both ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ mines there was a significant relationship between the number
senior and junior ventilation personnel, the correlation co-efficient being 0,76 and 0,66
respectively. On ‘hot’ mines the equation of the straight line for these two parameters was:
y = 3,06x - 4,6
Which means in practice that there is a ratio of senior to juniors of approximately 1:2.5.
When the head of the department is excluded in the calculation of this ratio it increases to
1:3. This figure is considered satisfactory.
On cool mines the equation of the straight line was
y = 0,37x + 0,3
Which implies a ratio of senior to junior personnel of 1:0,5. A situation, which indicates
that the structure is top-heavy. The ratio improves slightly to 1:0,7 when the head of the
department is excluded. It is, however still indicative of a top-heavy structure.
Advanced certificate holders / elementary certificate holders.
In the previous section the number of persons holding the Advances certificate was
compared to the sum of the elementary certificate holders and uncertificated personnel.
In this section comparison is made between the number of persons holding the two
different certificates.

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On ‘hot’ mines there was found to be a significant relationship between these two
categories, the value of ‘r’ being 0,73 and the equation of the straight line was
y = 0,87x + 1,2
Which means that the ratio of persons holding the advanced certificate to those holding
the elementary certificate is approximately 1:1. This ratio increases slightly when the head
of the department is excluded from the number of persons holding the advanced
certificate.
Again this situation could be considered top-heavy i.e. there are either too many
advanced certificate holders or too few elementary certificate holders.
On ‘cool’ mines the relationship between the two categories of persons was not
significant, but the present staffing position shows nevertheless that on many mines there
are more advanced certificate holders than elementary certificate holders.
On those mines which make use of semi-skilled persons to measure ventilation conditions
in the working places, the average ratio between senior and junior ventilation personnel
and between advanced and elementary certificate holders is 1:3.4 and 1:1 respectively.
The ratio of senior to junior personnel on these mines is satisfactory but that of advanced
certificate holder to elementary certificate holder indicates a top-heavy structure.
The above analysis suggests that there is possibly a shortcoming in the staffing
arrangements of ventilation departments on most South African gold mines. The most
likely consequence of this imbalance will be that senior personnel are performing work for
which they are over-qualified, a situation is not conductive to effective performance or to a
stable, satisfied labour force.

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EXAMPLE OF PLANNING EXERCISES
At this stage students studying for the metalliferous option should study the examples given on
pages 954 to 971, Chapter 38, ‘Planning Ventilation and Refrigeration Requirements’, in
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’.
Students studying for a colliery option should study section 5 pages 971 to 974 of the same
reference.
NOTE
It is of importance that you read all the relevant sections in the textbook referred to in the
examples, otherwise you will have superficial knowledge of the subject.
Students studying for the metalliferous option should now study the example discussed by MJ
Howes, entitled ‘Presidential Address - Mine Ventilation and Refrigeration Planning’, published in
the December, 1979 issue of the Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa, pages
225 to 235.
You will note that when you study this example, the equations used are somewhat daunting at
first glance. However, you should not allow this to influence your effort, as this will provide you
with useful and interesting information.
MJ McPherson in chapter 8, ‘Ventilation Network Analysis’ in Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines’, gives a diagram on page 236 which will be of assistance to you when doing a
planning exercise.
This diagram is in some respects a summation of what you have studied up to now. Study this
diagram now, and follow each route depicted on it, as this will reinforce the recommended
planning procedure you should follow.
Note to metalliferous option students
When you have studied the above, you should study the example given in Chapter 38,
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’, pages 954 to 962.
Note to colliery option students
Although the following is strictly speaking not a planning exercise, it is most certainly very helpful
and would supplement your studies.
‘Presidential Address - A review of Ventilation Practice on South African Collieries by November
1981, pages 194 to 215.
You are strongly advised to read this.

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 SELF-TEST
Answer the following questions without referring to your notes, unless otherwise stipulated.
1. Reference is made in the notes to a figure in Chapter 38, ‘Planning Ventilation and
Refrigeration Requirements’, in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’,
which depicts a systematic approach to planning. Draw this diagram showing the six basic
steps involved.
2. What should the role of the ‘Environmental Engineer be when the method and rate of
production of a new mine / colliery is determined?
3. List the environmental conditions you would consider acceptable in a new mine / colliery
under the following headings, and motivate each of your answers:
a. Heat
b. Dust (applicable to your type of mine)
c. Gas:
i) Methane
ii) CO
iii) NOx
d. Noise
e. Illumination
4. Write short notes as to how you would go about determining the following heat loads in a
deep mine or colliery:
a. Heat flow from rock (refer to pages 585 and 586, ‘Environmental Engineering in
South African Mines’ for assistance).
b. Auto-compression (refer to pages 595, 596 and 956 in ‘Environmental Engineering
in South African Mines’ for assistance).
c. Electrically driven machines:
- Fans
- Hoists
- Lights
- Locomotives
- Motors
- Pumps
- Winches
d. Diesel driven machinery
e. Compressed air equipment
f. Rockdrills
g. Explosives
h. Fissure Water
(For the above refer to pages 597 to 605, ‘Environmental Engineering in South African
Mines’)

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5. Write short notes on:
a. Empirical-
b. Theoretical, methods of estimating mine heat loads, with particular emphasis on
the advantages and disadvantages of each method (after Hemp, chapter 22
‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’). How can data concerning the
anticipated liberation of methane into mine workings be obtained?
6. How can data concerning the anticipated liberation of methane into mine workings be
obtained?
7. Name 10 factors, which should be considered when determining the air and refrigeration
requirements in a deep, hot mine?
8. Discuss the factors, which should be considered when investigating the use of additional
fans for the excavation of additional airways to provide more air in a mine or colliery.
9. Discuss the techniques you could employ to obtain answers to optimise the selection
between additional fans / airways.
10. What are the effects of increased mechanization in the underground environment.
11. List and discuss duties required of the environmental officer employed in terms of
regulations 2.16.1 or 2.16.2.
12. List the other duties performed by members of your Environmental Control Department.
13. Determine the approximate manpower requirements for an Environmental Control
Department of a deep, hot mine producing 250 000 tons of ore per month, when:
i) Metalliferous section
a. VRT: 45oC
b. Type of mining: longwalling
c. Stoping width: 1,5 m
d. Single shift mining with nightshift cleaning
e. 20 MW refrigeration capacity
f. methane in large volumes is anticipated
g. compressed air control to fall under the environmental control department

ii) Colliery section

a. VRT: 36oC
b. 9 sections, two of which will be longwalls, 250m long;
c. Seam width: 2,3 m
d. Mechanised Mining
e. Double Shift
f. Anticipated methane emission 10 m3/s/ton mind
Illustrate the hierarchy of your planned department by means of a sketch.

76
14. Describe a systematic method of planning the air and refrigeration requirements of a deep
hot mine producing 200 000 tons per month. Where possible, use typical number to
illustrate your answer.
Detailed calculations are not required.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
The following questions appeared in recent papers for the examination for the Certificate in Mine
Environmental Control and are included for your assistance.
1. Using ‘A systematic approach to mine planning’ as depicted in the diagram overleaf,
explain how you would plan a ventilation system and, if appropriate, a cooling system for a
mine. In each step of the exercise use typical numbers to illustrate your answer.
Do not carry out long and detailed calculations but state what sources of information you
would use to arrive at the figures.
In every case, state whether the mine is a deep level gold mine, diamond mine, base
metal mine, etc.

Determine method and rate of

production

Define acceptable
environment standards

Calculate heat increases, gas

emission and dust production

Calculate air and refrigeration

requirements

Optimise alternatives
(Ventilation and refrigeration)

Select system

A systematic approach to planning

2. Coal Option
a. Given the following information about a new, moderately gassy colliery, use a
systematic approach to calculate the air quantity requirements. Explain your
reasoning in each step.
Production rate : 200 000 tons per month
No. of Sections : 5
No. of production shifts per month : 48

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 Bord width : 6m
Bord height : 2,5 m
b. The traditional method of calculating pressure losses in shafts and airways makes
use of Atkinson’s formula. A different approach is advocated in the chapter on
‘Planning Ventilation’ and Refrigeration Requirements’ of ‘Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines’, in the case of shallow coal mines employing
the bord and pillar method of mining.
Describe this approach, using typical figures to illustrate your answer.
3. Metalliferous Option
a. On a working level of a deep level gold mine the planned reject wet-bulb
temperature is 28oC and station temperature is 27oC. Is the level above or below
the second critical horizon as defined in the chapter ‘Planning Ventilation and
Refrigeration Requirements’ in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African
Mines’?
Explain your answer.
b. In a mechanised mine, diesel driven Load Haul Dump vehicles are replaced by
electrically driven ones. Will this lead to an increase or a decrease in the
ventilation and cooling requirements.
Explain your answer.
c. Detail an effective method of reporting sub-standard conditions and the actions
that should be taken by the recipient of this information.
4. a. Study figure 1 and then answer the following questions:
i) Why is it necessary to have different lines for different distances from the
shaft?
ii) Why do lines slope as they do?
iii) What reject temperature are these lines based on? Explain your answer.
iv) Explain why it is necessary to apply a reject temperature correction.
b. Study figure 2 and then answer the following questions:
i) ON a planned working level, the planned reject wet-bulb temperature is
28oC. Is the working level above or below the 2nd CRITICAL HORIZON?
Explain your answer.
ii) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE?
- The position of the 2nd CRITICAL HORIZON depends on the Virgin
Rock Temperature. Give a brief explanation of your answer.
- The position of the 2nd CRITICAL HORIZON depends on surface wet-
bulb temperature. Give a brief explanation of your answer.

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