* Learn how 10 identity an issue + Learn how to recognize the parts of an argument, including ‘he premise, he cunclusion, and premise and conctsion indicators + Distinguish among en argument, an explanation, and a cone ‘ional statement = Brak dove yon ts proves wl encasin + Diagram arguments * Construct our own arguments + plore the basics of evaluetng arguments Finally, we wil read about the issue of same-sex marriage and analyze arguments that approach that controversial question from different perspectives. WHAT IS AN ISSUE? Arguments help us to analyze issues and to determine ‘whether a particular position on an issue is reasonable ‘Am issue isan ill-defined complex of problems involving & controversy oF uncertainty. ‘One problem that many college students have in writing an essay or preparing a presentation on an issue is failing to define the issue clearly. An unfocused discussion about smoking, for example, may jump fram health risks of see ondhand smoking to the problem of addiction to corporate responsiblity to subsidies for tobacco farmers. As ‘a result, the discussion is shallow, and deeper insights into any one of these smoking related issues are overlooked, Because of this, it iy important hat we frst decide ‘what issue we want to focus on Identifying an tsst Identifying an issue requires clear thinking as well as good communication skills. We've probably all had the experience of finding ourselves arguing fat cross-purposes with someone we care about, One person is upset Decause he or she feels the other isn’t showing enough affection, while the other person perceives the issue as aan attack on his or her ability ‘asa provider, Because itis not clear what the real issue is, the argument goes nowhere and both people end up feeling frustrated and misunderstood, ‘Sometimes we don’t have the opportunity to clarify an issue by talking to another person, This is often the ease ‘with written material, such as magazine or newspaper arti- cles. In these cases, you may be able to determine the writ- c's focus by examining the ttle or the introductory para- ‘graph. For example, Sohail H. Hashmi begins his article “Interpreting the Islamic Ethics of War and Peace” thus: Muslim writers of many intellectual persuasions have Jong argued that Westerers hold an inaccurate, even Ucliberately dintonted, cxmexption OF jihad It fx, however, the idea of jihad (and the ethics of war and peace generally) has been the subject ofan intense and ‘mullifacoted debate among Muclim themncelves.! From this, you can presume that the issue Hashmi is addressing is something like “What is the best and most ‘accurate interpretation of the Islamie concept of jtad and ‘of war and peace in general?" (Eon te How we word our questions about an issue will influence hhow we go about seeking a resolution to it. During his debates with Senator (oF as he called him, “Judge” Douglas, Lincoln changed the national controversy about slavery by refram- ing the issue so that it was not simply a controversy over state sovereignty but a burning question that affected the very existence of the nation. In the final debate, Lincoln summed up the issue with these words: Issue Anilldefined complex of problems involving controversy or Seon ‘have said and [repeat it here, that if there be & man amongst us who does not think tha te institution of slavery is wrong in any ons of the aopsets of which 1 have spoken, he is misplaced and ought not to be with, us. Has anything threatened the existence ofthe Union save and excopt this very inetitution of slavery? That is the real issue. That i the issue that wil continue inthis country when these poor tongues of Judge Dovglas and ‘myself shall be silent? In an article written 50 years after school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Brown «. Board of Education, journalist Ellis Cose writes about the current lack of good schools for African Ameri- ‘ean children: “When it comes to children of eolor, we ask the wrong question, We ask, ‘Why are you such a prob- Jem?" when we should ask, ‘What have we not given you that we routinely. give to upper-middle-class white stn dents?" What do they have that you don’t?"> To use another example, suppose you come back to your dorm room after clase and find that your wallet io missing. ‘You think that you left it on your dresser, but it isn’t there. ‘What is the issue? When asked, many students answer that that the issue is “Who stole my wallet? However, this Chopter | Racognining, Annysing, 8 Constructing Arguments + 167More than 50 years ter the Brown \eBoard of Eeucation deco tho elared segregation unarsttona, mony feel tfcon mera al det have he sme oppor fr quay education ox wites. Thi young woman ‘sone ofthe‘Lie ack Nine ofthe frst Black to axon Cee High in ite Rack, kaso deste has, ‘ore totic and he necetay psec fl Nat Gi fr ron question is a loaded question based on an. as-yet-unfounded assumption—that someone stole your wallet, Maybe you mis- placed your wallet or you lost it on your way to class or it got knocked behind the dresser. For now, all you know is thatthe wal- Jet i missing, Therefore, rather than making assumptions you can’t support, it would be better to state the issue as “What happened to my wallet?” rather than “Who stole my wallet?” Remember, ne of dhe ualts of a good cri cal thinker—and of great detec- tives—is open-mindedness. STOP AND ASSESS YOURSELF 1 Idemnfy two or three Issues that might arise out of the following broad toples or choose your own issue. Word the issue(s) n the form of question(s). ‘a, Freedom of speech on college campuses . Genetic engineering of food ©. Cohabitation among college students “'d. Downloading music from the Internet ©. Global warming f. Decriminalizing marijuana %g, Prayer in public schools hh. The preponderance of male science and engineering facuity at elite colleges i legal immigration 2. Identify the issues in the folowing passages. Word al issues in the form of short questions. "a, “The price of college education in Minnesota is going up again this fall. The University of Minnesota and the state's two- and fourzyear colleges are raising tuition by double digits Higher education officials say white most suents ere corning up with the exera cash for College the trend toward higher tution is not sustainable in the long run.”* ». There isa law pending in the Uganda legislature that would allow homosexuality to be punished with imprisonment and even execution. €. More than 700,000 Americans die each year from heart disease. Fifty percent of people given cholesterol- lowering drugs don't use them as prescribed, and the more they have to pay, the more they stop taking them, It seems obvious that probably tens of thousands of Americans are dying today because they can't afford drugs. CISE 6-1 rr 4 iftos eee utsitie the BOX ABRAHAM LINCOLN, US. President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was the sixtoanth pretident of the United States. Self-educated, Lincoln had a knack for asking the right questions about important issues, such as slavery and war, and then examining all sides of the arguments before coming to a conclusion. Linwuh’s election as president in 1060 led wo the secession in 106! of southern slave-owning states and to a 4-year civil war that cost 600,000 ‘American lives, North and South. Although Lincoln had long agreed that slavery should be permitted in states where it was already legal, in the course of the Civil War he concluded that if slavery is immoral, then it should not be legal atall in the United States. Lincoln also realized that taking a position on issues was not simply an intellectual ‘exercise but should have real-life consequences. A man of action as well as strong principles, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, freeing slaves in the rebellious states |. Was Lincoln's decision to stand by his conclusion that slavery should be illegal a wise one, given that it escalated the hostilities in the Civil War? Are thre times when it Is best from the point of view of critical thinking, to back down on an argument rather than risk cconflic? Explain using specific examples. Has there ever been a time when you stood your ground on an issue despite the risk of losing your friends or even a job? Discuss how your critical-thinking skills helped you to stand firm? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 4, “By next june, over a millon [college students] will graduate, many lost forever to the world of inertia and learned habits. While the dabate rages about how the vegetarian movement can tailor iss massage to reach resiseant adulte, ‘open-minded college students who care about animals are being neglected at an astounding rate. Our [animal rights] movement has not yet made a massive, organized effort to reach our best audience. We could be making tremendous progress aniony this group of peuple using ania elated lite ature that has been shuwn ea wrath President Obama's educational reform agenda calls for longer school days and extending the school year in ‘order to meet the challenges of the 2st century. {. Its now possible to track a person’ location by using their cell phone, *g, “Tibet is backward. It’s a big land, rich in natural resources, but we lack the technology or expertise [to exploit them]. So if we remain within China, we might get a greater benefit, provided it respects our culture and environment and give us some kind of guarant: }. Working in small groups, select one of the following issues. Take a few minutes to write down different concerns that arise from the issue. To what extent does your lit reflect your preconceptions on the istue? Compare your list with those of others in your group. Discuss how collaborative sharing can give you a wider perspective on the issue. a. Should we be eating meat? b. Should college students who are working full time be allowed to take a full-time course load? . Is ita desirable goal for western nations to spread democracy throughout the world? 1. What should we be doing in our own ives about global warming? f Le ‘What criteria should colleges use in admitting students? Should the Uniced States bring back the military draft? looking back at your list of life goals in Chapter 4, identify any issues involved in achieving your life goals.RECOGNIZING AN ARGUMENT ‘When we start with a position statement, rather than with aan open-ended question that invites us to explore and ana- lyzea particular issue, we are using rhetoric. Many people ‘mistake rhetarie for logical arguments Ths itis to first understand the difference between the two, DECC Ce tay Ss Rhetoric, also known as the art of persuasion, it uoed to promote a particular position or worldview, In English classes, the term refers more narrowly to the art of persuasive writ- Ing. Khetorie has its place and can help us learn more about a. particular posi- tion on an issue and how to clarify that position ‘The art of persuasion can be useful once you have thoroughly researched all sides of an issue, have come to reasoned conclusion, and are now trying to con- vince others of this conclusion, as Lincoln did in his debates with Douglas. Rhetoric becomes a problem when it is substi- ‘ted for unbiased research and logical argumentation. ‘When using shetore this way, people resent uly Une claims that support their own position, Because it does not require that a student first thoroughly research a tople and remain open-minded, rhetoric may dete- orate into heated and overly emotional fights in ‘hich each person resorts to resistance and fallacies rather than reason in order to “win.” Whereas the purpose of rhetoric is to persuade people of what you consider to be the truth the pur- [pose of argumentation is to discover the truth. The goal in thetoric is to “win”—to convince others of the cor- rectness of our position—rather than to analyze a position critically. The purpose of an argument, in contrast, is to ‘resent good reasons for a particular position or course of action and to offer a forum for evaluating the soundness of these reasons. Good arguments also invite feedback and analysis of an issue in light of the feedback. You are mor likely to move toward truth (if necessary, through revising your angu- ments and views) when all sides of an issue are presented and heard. thetoric The defense ofa particular postion way wineut adequate ‘consideration of opposing evidence In order 0 win people over to one pasion argument Reasoning dats made up cof to oF more proposins, one of ‘oh agp ted yt lt deductive argument An argument ‘hat cims is conclusion necessarily ‘otows rom te premises. Induesive argument An argument that ony cms that its concision probably Fallows ram the premise, “ Pelee Cred coe Drei te An argument is made np af two or more propositions, one of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the premise(s), In a valid deductive argument, such as the Card Problem example in Chapter 2, the conclusion nec~ essarily follows from the premises. In an inductive argu ment, the premises provide support but not necessarily prof for the vouctusion, We'll be studying Urese 1wU types of arguments in more depth in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively. een) ‘An argument is made up of statements known as proposi- tions. A proposition is a statement that expresses @ com- plete thought. It can be either true or false, If you're not sure whether a statement is proposition, try putting the phrase Jt is true that or I is false that at the begin- ning of the statement. ‘The following are examples of propositions ‘The earth revolves around the sun God exit. Cris doesnt show me enough affection, (Cheating on exams is wrong. “Toronto i the capital of Canad, ‘The frst of these prapasitions is true. Today it is 4 seenerally accepied fact that the Earth revolves around the ‘un, The truth o falsehood of the second and third propo- sitions is less clear. We need more information as well as clarification of the word God in the second proposition and clarification of the term affection in the third proposition. The fourth proposition is less controversial: Most people, even those who chest on exams, agree that itis true that “cheating on exams is ‘wrong,” Finally, the last proposition is false: Toronto is nor the capital of Canada (Otawe is). ay ‘A sentence may contain more HE) than one proposition. as this example illustrates: ‘Marcos is taking four courses this semester and working in his parents’ store 20 hours 2 week. ‘This sentence contains two propositions: 1. Marcos is taking four courses this 2. Mareos is working in his parents store 20 hours a week.ETORICA DOFF Antiabortion and pro-abortion rights students confronting each other at a San Francisco rally on January 23,2008, the thirty-second anniversary of the US, Supreme Coure Roe v. Wade decision, which legalized abortion.* |. The use of rhetoric, without first researching and analyzing all perspectives on an issue, can lead to deepening polarization ofan isue rather than a resolution. What do you think the two people inthis photo might be saying to each other? Do you think they are engaging in rhetoric or argumentation? Working in small groups, role-play what you rmight soy to them if you were on the scene inthe cabacity of resident critical thinker 2. Have you ever been at a rally where people were deeply divided? Ifo, discuss how you responded to taunts or fllaies from those on the “other side” ofthe issue. *For more. Roe: ode, se0 Crit: Thinknglsues: Perspectives on Abortion a the end of Chapter 9, He 8 another 0 [sopotan Astrea ovation: Sapeiven ine tm bt fey aloe! as wok bil oe oad poistwaternina It contains three propositions: 1. Karen is smart 2 ‘Karen isnot very motivated to do well in school 3, Karen is not very motivated to try to find a job that ses her tales Not all sentences are propositions. A sentence may be directive ("Let’s go out and celebrate the end of final “The Earth reves around the sn" on example of probation Chapter 6 | Recognizing, Analyzing, & Constexpressive ("Wow!"), oF even a request for infor- mation (“What is the capital of Canada?"). In none of these sentences is any claim being made that something is true ‘or false. Propositions, im contrast, make claims that are either true or false. For more on the different functions of language refer back to Chapter 3. a CET ‘The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is supported or dened ur he basis of other propositions ot reasons, The conclusion is what the argument is trying to prove. Conclusions may also be called claims or positions, ‘The coneluston can appear anywhere 1n an angument. ‘A premise is a proposition that supports or gives rea sons for accepting the conclusion, Reasoning goes from the premises to the conclusion, Premise(s) > Conclusion Good premises are bused on fact and expe- rience, not opinion and assumptions. The more credible the premises are, the better the argument is likely to be. We con- sidered some of the ways in which to evaluate ovi- dence in Chapter 4. The conclusion should be sup- ported by of follow from the premises, as in the fol- lowing argument: ‘conclusion The propsition nan argument ests sippored onthe bal of oxherproposicons. premise A propasicen in an Ergumert cat supports the conchson. descriptive premise A premise hat Is based on empirical fas. empirical fact fact based on roentfie oberon and he cvidence of our five ere, prescriptive premise A premise in an argumene conning 3 value Premise: Canada has ‘only one eapital Premise: Otawa is the capital of Canada, Conclusion: Therefore, Aoronto 1s ot ie capa of Canada, analogleal premise A premise cenaiigan aalogy or eamparisen beoween sma events or thing definitional premise A promise concinng the defrion of ke ter. ‘There are several types of premises. Descriptive premises are based on empleealfacts—scienific observation and/or the evidence of our five senses, “Ottawa is the capital ‘of Canada’ and “Lica lovee Antonio" are decoriptive ei premises. Prescriptive premises, in con- wast, Wantain value staterents, such as “We should strive for diversity on college campuses" or “Itis wrong to cheat on exams.” An analogical premise. takes the form of an analogy in which ‘a comparison is made between two similar events or things. In Chapter 2, we saw that the ancient Greek philosopher Plato drew an analogy between a charloteer ‘and reason. Just asthe charioteer isin charge of the horses, said Plato, so too should our reason be in charge of our emotions and passions. Finally, a definitional premise contains a definition of a key term. This is particularly important when the key term is ambiguous and has different definitions, such as right and diversity, or if the key term needs a precising defini- tion. For example, afirmative action is defined in a dic~ tionary as “a policy to inerease opportunities for women and minorities, [especially] in employment However, this may not he precise enongh for your argument, since it is unclear about the type of policy. To clarify this, you may want to make the definition more precise in your prem- ise. “Affirmative aotion is a policy of giving preference in hiring and college admissions to qualified minorities and ‘women over a qualified white male, to inerease opportuni ies Fox youn a siniies” Poca COO U COUPES C LMC ‘We sometimes confuse explanations and conditional state~ ‘ments with arguments, An explanation isa statement about ‘why or how Something 1s the case. With an explanation, ‘we know that something has occurred —as in the following examples: ‘The eat yowled beeause I stepped on her al Thm upset because you promised you would meet me at the student union right ater class and you never wed up. In both examples, we are not trying to prove or convince omenne thrnigh supporting evidence that the eat yewwledd oor that we're upset; instead, we are trying to explain why the cat yowled and why we are upset. ‘We can also use explanations to deseribe the purpose of something, as in "MP3 players are useful for storing large {quantities of music.” In addition, we can use explanations as a means Of tying w make sense OF Something, 4s in “When Jane smiled at me, I think she was telling me that she liked me, ‘As with arguments, nt all explanations are equally con- vineing. Explanations such as “I don't have my essay ‘with me today because the dog ate it” usually raise ‘at least a few skeptical eyebrows, Also, what might have seemed a reasonable explanation centuries or ‘even a few decades ago may no longer be reason- able in light of new evidence, The explanation that there have been very few famous female artists becausePremise: It Frangoise comes from Montreal, then she Good premises are based on fact and supdersals French experience, not opinion and assumptions. Premise: Frangoise comes from Monte. The more credible the premises are, Conclusion: Francoise understands French the better the argument is likely to be. Premise: f 18-yearolds are emotionally. mature ‘enough to goto war, then] they shouldbe allowed 10 ‘ink alcobol women fulfill their creativity through having babies is no Premise: Eightzen-yearolds are not emetionally longer considered a sound explanation. ‘mature enough to 2010 Wa. Conditional statements may also be mistaken f Conclusion: Eighteen-year-olds should nt be allowed arguments, A conditional statement is an “if... then . to drink alcoho. om To summarize: arguments are made up of two types 1EFrangose comes from Montreal, then she understands ‘of propositions—the conclusion and the premise(s). A Trench conclusion Is supported by the premise(s), The different 1F 18-year-old are emotionally mature enough to go types of premises include to war, then they shouldbe allowed to drink alcool descriptive and prescriptive [explanation A satemene about why premises, analogies, and | Grhow something the ease, definitions, Unlike expl- | eondieionat e co statement Aa’ nations and conditional | {jan sucomene % statements, an argument ties 10 prove that some- thing is true. ‘A conditional statement by itself is not an argument, because no claim or conclusion follows from it. In the preceding examples, we are not drawing a conclusion that Frangoise understanels French or that 18-year-olds should be allowed to drink. However, conditional statements may appear as premises in an argument. STOP AND ASSESS YOURSELF 1. Working in small groups, select a controversial issue. After clearly detining the issue, debate it by first using rhetoric. After three minutes, stop and write a paragraph about what happened during the role-play. Now discuss the issue using argumentation instead. After three minutes, stop and write a paragraph about what “happened during this role-play. Which approach worked better in terms of learning more about different perspectives on the issue? Explain. 2, Itis easier to resolve a problem from a familiar context than one that is unfamiliar. Write down a problem that you encountered recently ina familiar context (for example, 2 social setting with friends oF a class in your major). Now write down a similar problem that you encountered recently in an unfamiliar context (for example, a job interview or meeting new people). Which problem was easiest to resolve and why? How did familiarity with the context make It easier for you to resolve a problem? Write about what steps you could take to make yourselfa better problem-solver and critical thinker in different contexts. 3. Which of the following statements is a proposition? Explain why or why not. “a. Golly! b. Hove you. € Chile was struck by an 8.0 earthquake in 2010. *d,_ Most college students gain several pounds in their freshman year ‘e. Close the window. {The average college student pays mast nf hic ar har awn collage thitinn %g, Please keep an eye on my place while 'm away on spring break. h. Itis irresponsible to drink and drive. i, Iran possezses nuclear weapons, ‘Only humans are capable of language. ‘An atheist is a person who believes there is no God, Excuse me. ‘Smoking in public buildings is illegal in many states. EXERCISE 6-2