4 | Methods of Research 33

UNIT 4: UNDERSTANDING SAMPLING AND DATA

COLLECTION METHODS

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Choose the appropriate sampling method for a population of a given project
b. Select and design appropriate data collection methods for a given research project
c. Value the importance of selecting the appropriate sampling method
d. Write the methodology section of your research proposal.

4.1 Introduction
Welcome to Unit 4! The students will be taught about sampling, computing the
sample size and the variety of ways in collecting data. At the end of this lesson, you are
expected to achieve all the intended learning outcomes specially drafting the
methodology section of your research proposal.

4.2 Topics/Discussion

Activity
If you are to conduct a survey to assess the willingness of mothers to have their
children vaccinated for Covid-19 in Catbalogan City, will you consider to
interview all mothers in the area? Why?

4.2.1 Purpose of Sampling in Research

As you continue planning and writing your research or thesis proposal, you need
to think about how you are going to choose your participants. Choosing a smaller,
manageable number of participants is advantage on the part of researchers. This is called
sampling.
In quantitative research, it is believed that if this sample is chosen carefully using
the correct procedure, it is then possible to generalize the results to the whole of the
research population. On the other hand, the most basic practice in qualitative researches
is they usually seek to describe or explain a phenomenon within a smaller group of
people. Table 1.0 shows the Do’s and Don’ts in Sampling (Dawson, 2007).
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Table 1.0 Sampling Do’s & Don’ts

DO DON’T
Take time and effort to work out your sample
Rush into your work without thinking very
correctly if you’re conducting a large-scale
carefully about sampling issues. If you get it
survey. Read the relevant literature
wrong it could invalidate your whole
suggested in this book. Time taken at the
research.
beginning will save much wasted time later.
Discuss your proposed sampling procedure
Ignore advice from those who know what
and size with your tutor, boss or other
they’re talking about.
researchers.
Take on more than you can cope with. A
Be realistic about the size of sample possible badly worked out, large sample may not
on your budget and within your time scale. produce as much useful data as a well-
worked out, small sample.
Be open and up front about your sample.
What are your concerns? Could anything Make claims which cannot be justified nor
have been done differently? How might you generalized to the whole population.
improve upon your methods?
Stick rigorously to a sampling technique that
Use a combination of sampling procedures if is not working. Admit your mistakes, learn
it is appropriate for your work. by them and change to something more
appropriate.

4.2.2 Basic Types of Sampling

Before diving-in to the details of sampling procedures let us first understand the
key terms used in conducting sampling; population, element and sample. The term
population means all members that meet a set of specifications or a specified criterion.
For example, the population of Catbalogan City is defined as all people residing in
Catbalogan City. A single member of any given population is referred to as an element.
A sample represents some elements selected from a population (Data, 2018).
There are many different ways to choose a sample, and the method used depends
upon the area of research, research methodology and preference of the researcher.
Basically, there are two main types of sample: Random and Non-Random Sampling.

RANDOM SAMPLING

Random Sampling/probability/representative sampling is a method of sampling

where every item in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
This method is used to explain, predict or generalize to the whole research population.
There are types of random sampling; (1) Simple Random Sampling, (2) Cluster Sampling,
(3) Systemic Sampling and (4) Stratified Sampling. The following are types of random
sampling as explained and discussed by Dawson (2007).
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Simple Random Sampling

In this type of sampling each and every element of the population has an equal
chance of being selected in the sample and each representative of sample is randomly
selected. However this condition should be meet for this type of sampling; the
population must contain a finite number of elements that can be listed or mapped; every
element must be mutually exclusive; and the population must be homogenous

Cluster Sampling
This sampling technique is used when the elements of population are spread over
a wide geographical area. The population is divided into sub-groups called as clusters
on the basis of their geographical allocation. The clusters ought to be homogenous
among them on the characteristic variable of the research. However, for being truly
representative sample, the selected clusters must capture the heterogeneity of
population. Here is the summarized step of conducting cluster sampling: (1) define
population; (2) divide your sample into clusters; (3) randomly select clusters to use as
your sample; and Collect data from the sample.
Example:
(1) In your climate change understanding study, your population is the 1st year college
student of Catbalogan City.
(2) You cluster is the 1st year college students by school they attended. To cove the
population, you need to include all college schools in the City. No overlapping will
occur because each student attends only one school.
(3) Assign a number to each school and use a random number generator to select
random sample. You choose the number of cluster based on how large you want
your sample size to be. This in turn is based on the estimated size of the entire 1 st
year college, your desired confidence interval, and confidence level and your best
guess of the standard deviation of the climate change understanding of 1st year
college students.

Systemic Sampling
This type of sampling is also used for homogenous population. Unlike simple
random sampling, there is no equal probability of every element been included. In this
type of sampling the elements are selected at a fixed/regular interval. The interval may
be in terms of time, space or order. For instance, element appearing after every 30
minutes, or present at a distance of two meters, or every 5th element present on a list.
Thus, this regularity and uniformity in selection makes the sampling systematic.
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Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling is where the population is divided into strata (or subgroups)
and a random sample is taken from each subgroup. A subgroup is a natural set of items.
Subgroups might be based on company size, gender or occupation (to name but a few).
Stratified sampling is often used where there is a great deal of variation within a
population or a heterogenous population. Its purpose is to ensure that every stratum is
adequately represented. Steps in conducting this method: (1) Decide how you want to
stratify/divide your population; (2) Make a table representing your strata; (3) Decide
on your sample size; (4) Use stratified sample Formula; and (5) perform random
sampling (Glen, nd)
Example:
(1) People in their twenties might have different perception on climate change than
people in their fifties.
(2) The following table shows age groups and how many people in the population are
in that strata:
(3) If you don’t know how to find a sample size, see: Sample size (how to find one). For
this example, we’ll assume your sample size is 50.
(4) Sample size of the strata = size of entire sample / population size * layer size) to
calculate the proportion of people from each group:

Number of People Number of People in

Age in Strata Sample

20-29 160 50/1000 * 160 = 8

30-39 220 50/1000 * 220 = 11

40-49 240 50/1000 * 240 = 12

50-59 200 50/1000 * 200 = 10

60+ 180 50/1000 * 180 = 9

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Note that all of the individual results from the stratum add up to your sample
size of 50: 8 + 11 + 12 + 10 + 9 = 50

(5) Perform sampling in each stratum to select your survey participants.

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING

According to Taherdoost (2016) non-random sampling sometimes called

“judgement sampling” is often associated with case study research design and qualitative
research. This judgmental sampling is in some way representative of the population of
interest without sampling at random. One of the common uses of purposive sampling is
in studies based on very small numbers of areas or sites. There are types of non-random
sampling; (1) Quota Sampling, (2) Snowball Sampling and (3) Convenience Sampling.
The following are the description of types of non-random sampling as discussed by
Taherdoost (2016).
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-random sampling technique in which participants are
chosen on the basis of predetermined characteristics so that the total sample will have
the same distribution of characteristics as the wider population.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-random sampling method that uses a few cases to help
encourage other cases to take part in the study, thereby increasing sample size. This
approach is most applicable in small populations that are difficult to access due to their
closed nature, e.g. secret societies and inaccessible professions.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is selecting participants because they are often readily and
easily available. Typically, convenience sampling tends to be a favored sampling
technique among students as it is inexpensive and an easy option compared to other
sampling techniques. Convenience sampling often helps to overcome many of the
limitations associated with research. For example, using friends or family as part of
sample is easier than targeting unknown individuals.

Activity
Based form what was discussed, what is the sampling method applicable to
your chosen research topic for your thesis? Why?
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4.2.3 Computing the Sample Size

As stated in the previous section sample is the part of the population that helps us
to draw inferences about the population. In conducting research, collecting complete
information about the population is not possible and it is time consuming and expensive
(Banerjee 2010). Thus, we need an appropriate sample size so that we can make inferences
about the population based on that sample.
If you will only survey a small sample of certain percentage of the population, you
can never be sure that your data and result is statistically sound and an appropriate
representation of the population under surveyed. This uncertainty is called sampling
error which is measured by confidence interval. Example if your confidence level is 90%
even if you repeat your survey over and over there is 90% chance that you would get the
same result.

Slovin’s Formula
According to Ellen (2018) Slovin’s/Yamame’s formula is used to calculate the
sample size (n) given the population size (N) and a margin of error (e). It's a random
sampling technique formula to estimate sampling size. When taking statistical samples,
sometimes a lot is known about a population, sometimes a little and sometimes nothing
at all. Slovin's formula is used when nothing about the behavior of a population is known
at all.
n = N / (1 + Ne2)
Where:
 n = Number of samples,
 N = Total population and
 e = Error tolerance (level).

Example: Use Slovin’s formula to find out what sample of a population of 1,000 people
you need to take for a survey on their soda preferences.

Step 1: Figure out what you want your confidence level to be. For example, you might
want a confidence level of 95 percent (giving you an alpha level of 0.05), or you might
need better accuracy at the 98 percent confidence level (alpha level of 0.02).
Step 2. Plug your data into the formula. In this example, we’ll use a 95 percent
confidence level with a population size of 1,000.
n = N / (1 + N e2)
= 1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 2)
= 285.714286
Step 3: Round your answer to a whole number (because you can’t sample a fraction of a
person or thing!)
285.714286 = 286
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4.2.4 Data Collection Method

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables
of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes (Kabir, 2016). It is one of the most
important stages in conducting a research. If you cannot collect, the required data you
will be not be able to complete your project. This stage of the research needs thorough
planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task
successfully. Data collection starts with determining required data, followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain population and data collection proper. The following
are types of data according to Kabir (2016).

Activity
Have you ever planned and decided what types of data are you going to collect
for your research topic?

Types of Data
Qualitative Data- Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive
or nominal in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and
sentences. Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and
tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative
questions are open-ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions
and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects and
unintended consequences of a program.
Quantitative Data- Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed. Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be
classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. They use a
systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask
questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to
implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect
can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity
for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.

Classification of Data
I. Primary Data- this data is collected from first hand experiences or sources. Primary
data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary
data has not been changed or altered; therefore, its validity is greater than secondary
data. The following are methods in collecting primary data.
The main methods include:
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 Questionnaires- A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of

questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
 Interviews - Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from
participants in a study. Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual,
face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing.
 Survey- Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings.
Survey research can be specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread
goals.
 Case-studies- Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group,
event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by
using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
 Diaries- A diary is a type of self-administered questionnaire often used to record
frequent or contemporaneous events or experiences. In diary surveys, respondents
are given the self-administered form and asked to fill in the required information
when events occur (event-based diaries) or at specified times or time intervals
(time-based diaries).
 Experimental Method- The prime method of inquiry in science is the experiment.
The key features are control over variables, careful measurement, and establishing
cause and effect relationships. An experiment is an investigation in which a
hypothesis is scientifically tested.
 Statistical Method- Statistical methods are the methods of collecting, summarizing,
analyzing, and interpreting variable(s) in numerical data. Statistical methods can
be contrasted with deterministic methods, which are appropriate where
observations are exactly reproduceable or are assumed to be so.

II. Secondary Data- This data id collected from a source that has already been
published in any form. The review of literature in any research is based on
secondary data. It is collected by someone else for some other purpose.
Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands:
- Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and
other related databases.
- Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups
transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal, research-
related documents.
Secondary data is often readily available. After the expense of electronic media
and internet the availability of secondary data has become much easier. The list below
are sources of secondary data (Kabir, 2016).
 Published Printed Sources- There are varieties of published printed sources.
Their credibility depends on many factors. For example, on the writer,
publishing company and time and date when published. New sources are
preferred and old sources should be avoided as new technology and researches
bring new facts into light.
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 Books- Books are available today on any topic that you want to research. The
use of books starts before even you have selected the topic. After selection of
topics books provide insight on how much work has already been done on the
same topic and you can prepare your literature review. Books are secondary
source but most authentic one in secondary sources.
 Journals/periodicals- Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as
far as data collection is concerned. The reason is that journals provide up-to-
date information which at times books cannot and secondly, journals can give
information on the very specific topic on which you are researching rather
talking about more general topics.
 Magazines/Newspapers- Magazines are also effective but not very reliable.
Newspapers on the other hand are more reliable and in some cases the
information can only be obtained from newspapers as in the case of some
political studies.

Activity
Knowing the different types and classification of data. What type and
classification of data, you will be needing and collecting for your thesis?
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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: ___________________

Year and Section: _____________________________________________________________
Part I. Multiple Choice: Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the
question.
For items 1-5, choose among the choices the method used for each research problem.
1. The researcher wants to find out about national detention rates, but is interested also
in finding out about school policy concerning detention. He decides that to do this he
needs to visit each selected school. To cut down on travel costs, he decides to use a
sampling technique. Using this method, the researcher only needs to travel to schools
within the selected geographical regions.
a. Simple Random Sampling c. Convenience Sampling
b. Cluster Sampling d. Systematic Sampling
2. The researcher is interested in carrying out semi-structured interviews with pupils
who have been on detention over the past year. However, he finds that the school has
not kept accurate records of these pupils. Also, he doesn’t want to approach the school
because he will be seen by the pupils as an authority figure attached to the school. He
happens to know a pupil who has been on detention recently and so speaks to her,
asking for names of other pupils who might be willing to talk to him. Thus, increases
the sample size.
a. Systematic Sampling c. Snowball Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Quota Sampling
3. The researcher has decided that he wishes to conduct a structured interview with all
the children who have been on detention within a year at one school. With the head
teacher’s permission, he obtains a list of all these pupils. Using this method, he
chooses a random point on the list and then every third pupil is selected.
a. Systematic Sampling c. Stratified Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Snowball Sampling
4. The researcher has decided that he wishes to concentrate on the detention rates of
pupils by GCSE subject choice. Using this method, the researcher stratifies his sample
by subject area and then chooses a random sample of pupils from each subject area.
a. Systematic Sampling c. Stratified Sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling d. Snowball Sampling
5. The researcher is a teacher himself and decides to interview colleagues, as he has
limited time and resources available to him.
a. Simple Random Sampling c. Convenience Sampling
b. Cluster Sampling d. Systematic Sampling
6. A researcher plans to conduct a survey. If the population on Catbalogan City is
1,000,000, find the sample size if the margin of error is 0.05
a. n=399.84 c. n=398.99
b. n=400.00 d. n=400.51
7. Suppose that you have a group of 3,000 city government employees and you want to
 4 | Methods of Research 43

survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. You decide that you
are happy with a margin of error of 0.02. Using Slovin's formula, you would be
required to survey n = N / (1 + Ne^2) people.
a. n= 1364.00 c. n=1634.63
b. n=1363.64 d. n= 1463.46
8. Find out what sample of a population of 7,500 people you need to take for a survey
on their favorite pets. The margin of error is 0.04.
a. n=578.33 c. 578.00
b. n=577.00 d. 579.00
9. Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is ______.
a. Primary Data c. Quantitative Data
b. Secondary Data d. Qualitative Data
10. Uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval
scale and ratio scale.
a. Secondary Data c. Primary Data
b. Qualitative Data d. Quantitative Data
11. Data collected are in the form of words and sentences.
a. Secondary Data c. Primary Data
b. Qualitative Data d. Quantitative Data
12. It is a type of sampling that every item in the population has an equal chance of being
included in sample.
a. Probability Sampling c. Quasi Sampling
b. Non-probability Sampling d. Cluster Sampling
13. It is a way of choosing a smaller, more manageable number of people to take part in
their research.
a. Population c. Sampling
b. Element d. Data Collection
14. It is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings.
a. Questionnaires c. Survey
b. Interviews d. Case Studies
15. The methods of collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting variable(s) in
numerical data.
a. Statistical Method c. Case Method
b. Experimental Method d. Survey Method

Part II. Formulate the sampling procedure and data collection process of you research
proposal (Methodology section).
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4.3 References
Ellen, S., 2018. Sampling Techniques. Retrieved from
https://sciencing.com/slovins-formula-sampling-techniques-5475547.html.
Datta, S., 2018. Sampling Methods (PDF). Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327891202_Sampling_methods
Dawson, C., 2007. A Practical guide to Research Methods. Retrieved from
https://www.loc.gov/item/2009659371/.
Glen, S. (n.d.). "Stratified Random Sample: Definition, Examples"
From StatisticsHowTo.com: Elementary Statistics for the rest of
us! https://www.statisticshowto.com/stratified-random-sample/.
Taherdoost, H., 2016. Sampling Methods in Research Methodology; How to
Choose a Sampling Technique for Research. Retrieved from
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3205035

4.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.