Sample – is the subset of the entire population.

Module 2
Researchers in different fields want to learn
about a population and describe its properties and
characteristics. For instance, Businessman would like
to find out the most wanted brand of cellphone in the
Market. Medical laboratories would like to determine
the most effective and most popular brand of
paracetamol to the customers. Political analysts would
like to find out the acceptability and popularity ratings
of prominent leaders in the country. In this module,
you will understand the different sampling techniques,
determine acceptable sample size and learn the
different methods of collecting data and data
contextualization.
Data that we collect are of two kinds: Internal and
External Data. Internal data are those which are
generated from the activities within the specific firm or
place, while external data are those whose sources are
obtained from outside the firm.
Formula for determining the sample size:
A sample that closely represent the characteristics of the
population is called a representative sample. This can
be solved by using the Slovin’s Formula:
n
Where: n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error (usually 0.05, since the
preferred confidence level is 95%)
Example1: What is the appropriate sample size of the if
the size of the target population is 500 and if the margin
of error of 5% is used?
Solution: n

A researcher always wishes to achieve unbiased results Example2: If the margin of error in the above example is
in his or her study. One of the best ways to fulfill this is 10%, what is the acceptable sample size?
through the use of random sampling. There are four
types of Random sampling: Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling, Stratified Sampling and cluster Solution: n
sampling.

In planning statistical research, one should begin by (Note: the higher the margin of error, the smaller is the
determining what questions are to be answered to obtain sample size)
meaningful data. It is frustrating and discouraging to
have collected a set of data, which later will not answer SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
the problems proposed in the study. Sometimes it is even
impossible to collect data from the research population Two types of Sampling:
that is too large. To avoid this, researchers resort to
sampling techniques. 1. Probability Sampling – samples are chosen in
such a way that each element of the population has a
Sampling – is the process or technique of selecting a known and usually equal chance of being included in the
representative sample from the entire population. sample.
Population – refers to the entire group of 2. Non – Probability Sampling – samples are
individual or objects known to have chosen in such a way that some members of the
similar characteristics. population may not have any chance of being included
in the sample.

Four Types of Random Sampling:

Simple Random Sampling A sampling technique in which every element of the population has the same
probability of being selected for inclusion in the sample.
➢ Ex. “Lottery” or “Fish bowl” approach, and the use of the random
numbers.
Systematic Sampling A Sampling technique which is done by selecting every i th element in the population
with the starting point determined at random. i is the ratio of the population size

over the sample size; that is .

Example:
If a company which has 5, 000 employees wishes to conduct a job satisfaction
survey on
400 employees, then i is 5000/400 or approximately 13. Systematic randomization
can be done by selecting every 13th person in an employees’ list.
A sampling technique in which the population is first divided into strata and then
Stratified Random Sampling samples are randomly selected from each stratum.
Example:
You want to interview 200 students in your College to determine their opinion on
the new school policy. How are you going to choose your sample using stratified
sampling if there are 450 students in 1st year, 400 in 2nd year, 350 in 3rd year, and
300 in 4th year?
Solution:
Subdivide the population into several strata, by year level.

Population No. of Sample n

Students = 200
1st Year 450 60
2nd Year 400 53
3rd Year 350 47
4th Year 300 40
Total 1500 200

Computation:

Cluster or Area Sampling A random sampling technique in which the entire population is broken into small
groups, or clusters, and then, some of the clusters are randomly selected.
Example:
A researcher wants to determine who among the families in a small town are using
the new detergent product. How is she going to do this using the cluster sampling
technique?
Solution:
Divide the population into clusters. Use Barrios as Clusters. Choose the final
barrios by using either the simple random or a systematic sampling.
 Convenience Sampling
- The researcher chooses his most preferred
location/venue where he can conduct his study.

Example: Interviews conducted frequenttly by television news program to

get quick results.
Probability Sampling

Quota Sampling- The researcher limits the number of his samples on

the required number for the subject of his study.
Non-

Example: Target population is 1,000. 53% women and 47% men. A qouta
sample is obtained when 106 women and 94 men is already met.

Judgmental or purposive sampling

- -sample is selected based on the
criteria set by the researcher.

Example: Getting opinions of the population that are likely accessible.

Module 1
Four basic elements of Statistics
In decision making, we use statistics although some Data collection Through Interviews,
of us may not be aware of it. In this module, we questionnaires, readings,
make the students realize that to decide logically,
they need to use statistics. An inquiry could be experimentations
answered or a problem could be solved through the Organization Through graphs, figures,
use of statistics. In fact, without knowing it we use and tables
statistics in our daily activities. Careful planning presentation
and management preserves quality teaching and Analysis Through statistical tests
learning processes in our respective classrooms and hypothesis testing
(Using software
Statistics as a science study data to be able to make Applications)
decisions. Hence, it is a tool in the decision making Interpretation Explanation of findings
process. Mention that Statistics as science involves and drawing conclusions
the methods of collection, presentation, analysis, To summarize, a statistical process in
and interpretation of data to provide answers or making a decision or providing
solutions to an inquiry. One also needs to interpret solutions to a problem include the
and communicate the results of the methods following:
identified above to support a decision that one • Planning or designing the collection of
makes when faced with a problem or an inquiry. data to answer statistical questions in a
way that maximizes information content
and minimizes bias;
Statistical Investigation maybe descriptive or • Collecting the data as required in the
inferential in nature. plan;
• Verifying the quality of the data after
Descriptive statistics deals with the methods of they were collected;
organizing, summarizing and presenting a mass of
• Summarizing the information extracted
data so as to yield meaning full information, while
from the data; and
Inferential statistics deals with making
generalizations about a body of data where only a • Examining the summary statistics so that
part of it is explained. insight and meaningful information can
be produced to support decision-making
A variable is a characteristic of the element under or solutions to the question or problem at
study which assumes different values for different hand.
elements. In contrast to a variable, the value of a
constant is fixed. A variable can be dependent or Statistical Data Analysis
independent. Dependent variable is the one being Starts with data
explained in the study; while the independent • Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
variable is the one used to explain the variation in
the dependent variable. Descriptive Utilizes numerical and graphical methods
Statistics to look for patterns in the data set (Ex. A
In common usage, statistics refers to the numerical new supervisor in charge of 40 clerks
facts, as an aggregate of figures or a collection of would like to know their average salary.)
data (vital statistics, win-loss record). Inferential Draws conclusions like decisions,
Statistics predictions or generalizations about the
As a science, statistics refers to a group of methods
that used to collect, analyze, present and interpret data set. (Ex. A tire dealer wishes to
data to arrive at conclusions or make decisions. estimate the average life of a particular
brand of tire.)
Sample and Population

The population consists of all elements – individual, items, or objects – whose characteristics are being studied.
The number of elements in a population is called the population size (denoted by N).
A Sample is a portion of the population selected for study. The number of elements in a sample is called the
sample size (denoted by n)

Broad Classification of Variables

A variable usually takes on several values. But occasionally, a variable can only assume one value, then it is
called a constant. For instance, in a class of fifteen-year old, the age in years of students is constant.Variables
can be broadly classified as either quantitative or qualitative, with the latter further classified into discrete and
continuous types (see Figure below).

Quantitative Variables A variable that can be measured numerically.

Ex.
1. Distance traveled by car
2. Monthly phone Bills
Qualitative Variables A variable that cannot assume a numerical value on which mathematical
operations will have no meaning.
Ex.
1. Civil Status
2. Color
Discrete Variable A variable whose values are the result of counting. It ca assume integral values
(no intermediate value) Ex.
1. Number of condominiums built in Manila in the last five years.
2. Number of people who died of Covid – 19 in the Philippines.
Continuous Variable A variable that can assume any numerical value over a certain interval or is a
result of measurement.
Ex.
1. Length of time required to solve math problems set.
2. Amount of Soda consumed by a student in s month.
Variables according to scale of measurement

Nominal Observed data are merely classified in to various distinct categories in which no ordering is
Scale required.
Ex.
1. Type of Bank Account
2. Religious affiliation

Ordinal Scale Observed data merely classified into distinct categories with ranking implied in which the
difference in rank consistent in direction but n in magnitude.
Ex.
1. Year Level
2. Product satisfaction (VS, S, U, VU)
Interval Scale Observed data are put in an ordered scale in which the difference between the measurements
is a consistent meaningful quantity. (There are numbers below zero) Ex.
1. Body Temperature
2. Measurement of Longitude

Ratio Scale Observed data are put in an ordered scale in which the differences are meaningful and equal
at all points on the scale and a measurement of Zero (or origin) means absence of the attribute
being measured.
Ex.
1. Physical measurement (height, weight)
2. Salary
3. Speed or Acceleration