M.

Sc POST GRADUATE DEGREE IN NURSING

Nursing Research And Statistics

Unit -VI

SAMPLING : Population and sample, Factors

influencing sampling and Sample size

Prof Mrs.G. Sivagami

Objectives
Define sample
Explain population
Enumerate the purpose of sampling
List characteristics of good sample
Discuss sampling process
Understand the significance of sample size.
Determine sample size.
Understand factors that may affect sample size
Use sample size in research or study.
 INTRODUCTION……

Sampling is a process of selecting representative units from an entire

population of a study.
Sample is not always possible to study an entire population; therefore, the
researcher draws a representative part of a population through sampling
process.
In other words, sampling is the selection of some part of an aggregate or
a whole on the basis of which judgments or inferences about the
aggregate or mass is made.
 Terminologies
Population
• The entire group of people of interest from whom the researcher needs
to obtain information

Element (sampling unit)

• One unit from a population

Sampling
• The selection of a subset of the population through various sampling
techniques

Sampling Frame
• Listing of population from which a sample is chosen. The sampling frame for any
probability sample is a complete list of all the cases in the population from which
your sample will be drown
Parameter
• The variable of interest
Statistic
• The information obtained from the sample about the parameter
 Population
Population: Population is the entire aggregation of all the units in which a
researcher is interested. In other words, population is the set of people or
entire to which the results of a research are to be generalized.

For example, a researcher needs to study the problems faced by

postgraduate nurses of India; in this the ‘population’ will be all the
postgraduate nurses who are Indian citizens.
 Target Population:
Target Population: A target population consist of the total number of people
or objects which are meeting the designated set of criteria. In other words, it
is the aggregate of all the cases with a certain phenomenon about which
the researcher would like to make a generalization.

For example, a researcher is interested in identifying the complication of

diabetes mellitus type-II
Accessible population:

Accessible population: It is the aggregate of cases that confirm to designated

criteria & are also accessible as subjects for a study.

For example, ‘a researcher is conducting a study on the registered nurses (RN)

working in Lions General Hospital, Mehsana’. In this case, the population for this
study is all the RNs working in Lions Hospital, but some of them may be on
leave & may not be accessible for research study. Therefore, accessible
population for this study will be RNs who meet the designated criteria & who are
also available for the research study.
 STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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 Population Vs.
Sample
Population of
Interest

Population Sa mple
Sam ple

Para mete Statistic

r
W e mea sure the sa mp le using statistics in order to
draw inferences about the population and its parameters.
 Universe
Census

Sample Population

Sample Frame

Elements
 Sample
• Sample: Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target
population, which is to be worked upon by researchers during their study.
In other words, sample consists of a subset of units which comprise the
population selected by investigators or researchers to participates in their
research project

• Element: The individual entities that comprise the samples & population
are known as elements, & an element is the most basic unit about
whom/which information is collected. An elements is also known as subject
in research. The most common element in nursing research is an individual.
 PURPOSES OF SAMPLING

Economical: In most cases, it is not possible & economical for researchers to

study an entire population. With the help of sampling, the researcher can
save lots of time, money, & resources to study a phenomenon.
Improved quality of data: It is a proven fact that when a person handles less

amount the work of fewer number of people, then it is easier to ensure the
quality of the outcome.

• Quick study results: Studying an entire population itself will take a lot of
time, & generating research results of a large mass will be almost impossible
as most research studies have time limits
• Precision and accuracy of data: Conducting a study on provides
researchers with voluminous data, & maintaining precision of that data

• To gather data about the population in order to make an inference that can
be generalized to the population
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SAMPLE

Representative

Free from bias and errors

No substitution and incompleteness

Appropriate sample size

Accessible

Low cost
 SAMPLING

• Sampling is the process by which the samples are taken from

the population to obtain information

• Sampling is the process of selecting observations (a sample) to

provide an adequate description and inferences of the
population
 What you What you
want to talk
about
Population actually
observe in
the data

Sampling Process

Sampling Sample
Frame

Inference
Steps in Sampling Process

•D e f i n e the population
•I d e n t i f y the sampling frame
•S e l e c t a s a m p l i n g d e s i g n or procedure
•D e t e r m i n e the s a m p l e size
•D r a w the s a m p l e
 Identifying and defining the target
population

Describing the accessible population &

ensuring sampling frame

Specifying the sampling unit

Specifying sampling selection methods

 Count…

Determining the sample size

Specifying the sampling plan

Selecting a desired sample

FACTORS INFLUENCING
SAMPLING PROCESS

I. Nature of the researcher

Inexperienced investigator III. Circumstances
Lack of interest Lack of time
Lack of honesty Large geographic area
Intensive workload Lack of cooperation
Inadequate supervision Natural calamities
II. Nature of the Sample
Inappropriate sampling
technique
Adequate supervision
Sample size
Defective sampling frame
 Sampling Design Process

Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling
Non- Probability
Simple Random Sampling
Sampling Convenient
S tratified Sampling
luster Sampling Judgm enta
C ystematic Sampling l Quota
Multistage Snow ball
S Sampling Sampling

Determine Appropriate
Sample Size

Execute Sampling
Design
 Significance of Sample Size
 Sample size determination is the mathematical estimation of the number of

subjects/units to be included in a study.

 When a representative sample is taken from a population, the finding are

generalized to the population.

 Optimum sample size determination is required for the following reasons:

1. To allow for appropriate analysis

2. To provide the desired level of accuracy

3. To allow validity of significance test.

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 Significance of Sample Size

 If the sample is too small:

1. Even a well conducted study may fail to answer the research question

2. It may fail to detect important effect or associations

3. It may associate this effect or association imprecisely

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 Significance of Sample Size

If the sample size is too large:

1. The study will be difficult and costly
2. Time constraint
3. Available cases e.g rare disease.
4. Loss of accuracy.

• Hence, optimum sample size must be determined before commencement

of a study.

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 POWER ANALYSIS

 When the estimated sample size can not be included in a study, post-hoc
power analysis should be carried out.
 The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis is equal to 1 – β, which

is called power. The power of a test refers to its ability to detect what it is
looking for.
 the power of a test is our probability of finding what we are looking for, given its

size.
 post-hoc power analysis is done after a study has been carried out to help to

explain the results if a study which did not find any significant effects.
 Approach for Estimating Sample Size/Power
Analysis
Approaches for estimating sample size and performing power analysis
depend primarily on:
1. The study design &
2. The main outcome measure of the study

There are distinct approaches for calculating sample size for different study
designs & different outcome measures.

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 1. The Study Design

 There are many different approaches for calculating the sample size for
different study designs. Such as case control design, cohort design,
cross sectional studies, clinical trials, diagnostic test studies etc.
 Within each study design there could be more sub- designs and the sample

size calculation will vary accordingly.

 Therefore, one must use the correct approach for computing the sample size

appropriate to the study design & its subtype.

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 2.Primary Outcome Measure
Primary(1⁰) outcome measure is usually reflected in the 1⁰ research question of
the study & also depend on the study design.
 For estimating the risk in control study, it will be the odds ratio, while for cohort

study it will be the relative ratio.

 For case control study, it could be the difference in means/proportions of

exposure in case & controls, crude/adjusted odds ratio etc.

 Hence, while calculating sample size, one of these 1⁰outcome measures has to

be specified because there are distinct approach for calculating the sample size
 Statistical inference from the study results

In addition, there are also different procedure for calculating sample

size. The two approaches of drawing statistical inference from the
study result include,
1. Estimation (Confidence interval approach)
2. Hypothesis testing(Test of significance approach)
Researcher needs to select the appropriate procedure for
computing the sample size & accordingly use the approach of
drawing a statistical inference.
23 Eg: Test of significance: Chi-squared, T-test, Z-test, F-Test
 ADDITIONAL PARAMETERS

Depending upon the approach chosen for calculating the sample size, one
also needs to specify some additional parameters such as;
Hypothesis
Precision
Type I error
Type II error
Power
Effect size
Design effect

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 TYPES OF ERRORS
 Random error: Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in

the measured data due to the precision limitations of the measurement device.
 Systematic error: Systematic errors, by contrast, are reproducible inaccuracies

that are consistently in the same direction. Systematic errors are often due to a
problem which persists throughout the entire experiment.
 deviations not due to chance alone. Several factors, e.g patient selection criteria

may contribute. It can be reduced by good study design and conduct of the
experiment.
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 Example
Random Systematic

Example Example

• The cloth tape measure that you use

• You measure the mass of a ring
to measure the length of an object had
three times using the same
been stretched out from years of use.
balance and get slightly different
(As a result, all of your length
values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
measurements were too long.) The
electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g
too high for all your mass
measurements.
 How to minimize error
Random Systematic

How to minimize it
How to minimize it
• Systematic errors are difficult to detect
•Take more data. Random errors
and cannot be analyzed statistically,
can be evaluated through
because all of the data is of in the same
statistical analysis and can be
direction (either to high or too low).
reduced by averaging over a
Spotting and correcting for systematic
large number of observations
error takes a lot of care. Add or subtract
known error.
Type I Error /False Positive Error (Also known as ‘α’)

• A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null

hypothesis that is actually true in the population

Type II Error /False Negative (Also known as ‘β’)

A type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a
null hypothesis that is actually false in the population
• Although type I and type II errors can never be avoided entirely, the
investigator can reduce their likelihood by increasing the sample size
(the larger the sample, the lesser is the likelihood that it will differ
substantially from the population).
• False-positive and false-negative results can also occur because of
bias (observer, instrument, recall, etc.). (Errors due to bias, however,
are not referred to as type I and type II errors.) Such errors are
troublesome, since they may be difficult to detect and cannot usually
be quantified.
 Power(1 – β): This is the probability that the test will correctly identify a
significant difference, effect or association in the sample should one
exist in the population. Sample size is directly proportional to the power
of the study. The larger the sample size, the study will have greater
power to detect significance difference, effect or association .

 Effect size: is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two

variables in a population. It is the magnitude of the effect under the
alternative hypothesis. The bigger the size of the effect in the
population, the easier it will be to find.

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 Design effect: Geographic clustering is generally used to make the study
easier & cheaper to perform.

The effect on the sample size depends on the number of clusters & the variance
between & within the cluster.

In practice, this is determined from previous studies and is expressed as a

constant called ‘design effect’ often between 1.0 &2.0. The sample sizes for
simple random samples are multiplied by the design effect to obtain the sample
size for the cluster sample.

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 Eg,odds ratio is a measure of effect size, describing the strength of

association or non-independence between two binary data values.

 Relative Risk (RR) is the risk of an event (or of developing a disease)

relative to exposure. Relative risk is a ratio of the probability of the event

occurring in the exposed group versus a non-exposed group.

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 Procedure for Calculating Sample Size.

There are four procedures that could be used for

calculating sample size:
1. Use of formulae
2. Ready made table
3. Nomograms
4. Computer software

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 Use of Formulae for Sample Size Calculation
& Power Analysis

 There are many formulae for calculating sample size & power in different

situations for different study designs.

 The appropriate sample size for population-based study is determined
largely by 3 factors

1. The estimated prevalence of the variable of interest.

2. The desired level of confidence.

3. The acceptable margin of error.

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 To calculate the minimum sample size required for accuracy, in estimating
proportions, the following decisions must be taken:
1. Decide on a reasonable estimate of key proportions(p) to be measured in the
study
2. Decide on the degree of accuracy (d) that is desired in the study. ~1%-5% or
0.01 and 0.05
3. Decide on the confidence level(Z) you want to use. Usually 95%≡1.96.
4. Determine the size (N) of the population that the sample is supposed to
represent.
5. Decide on the minimum differences you expect to find statistical
significance.

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For population >10,000.
n=Z2pq/d2

on>10,000)
n= desired sample size

Z=standard normal deviate; usually set at 1.96(or a~2), which correspond to 95%
confidence level.

p=proportion in the target population estimated to have a particular characteristics.

If there is no reasonable estimate, use 50%(i.e 0.5)

q=1-p(proportion in the target population not having the particular characteristics)

d= degree of accuracy required, usually set at 0.05 level(occasionally at 2.0)

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E.g if the proportion of a target population with certain
characteristics is 0.50, Z statistics is 1.96 & we desire accuracy
at 0.05 level, then the sample size is

n=(1.962)(0.5)(0.5)/0.052 n=384.

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 If study population is < 10,000

nf=n/1+(n)/(N)

nf= desired sample size, when study population <10,000

n= desired sample size, when the study population < 10,000 N=
estimate of the population size
Example, if n were found to be 400 and if the population size were
estimated at 1000, then nf will be calculated as follows

nf= 400/1+400/1000
nf= 400/1.4 nf=286

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Use Of Readymade Table for Sample Size Calculation

 How large a sample of patients should be followed up if an investigator

wishes to estimate the incidence rate of a disease to within 10% of it’s true
value with 95% confidence?
 The table show that for e=0.10 & confidence level of 95%, a sample size
of 385 would be needed.
 This table can be used to calculate the sample size making the desired
changes in the relative precision & confidence level .e.g if the level of
confidence is reduced to 90%, then the sample size would be 271.
 Such table that give ready made sample sizes are available for different
designs & situation

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33
 Use of Nomogram for Sample Size Calculation

 For use of nomogram to calculate the sample size, one needs to specify the

study(group 1) & the control group(group 2). It could be arbitrary or based on

study design; the nomogram will work either way.
 The researcher should then decide the effect size that is clinically important to

detect. This should be expressed in terms of % change in the response rate

compared with that of the control group.

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Use Of Computer Software for Sample Size Calculation
& Power Analysis

The following software can be used for calculating

sample size & power;
 Epi-info
 nQuerry
 Power & precision
 Sample
 STATA
 SPSS

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 Epi-info for sample size determination
In STAT CALC:

1 Select SAMPLE SIZE & POWER.

2 Select POPULATION SURVEY.

3 Enter the size of population (e.g. 15 000).

4 Enter the expected frequency (an estimate of the true prevalence, e.g.80%
± your minimum standard).

5 Enter the worst acceptable result (e.g. 75%) i.e the margin of error is 5%

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 How to use sample size formulae

Steps:
Formulate a research question

Select appropriate study design, primary outcome measure, statistical

significance.
Use the appropriate formula to calculate the sample size.

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 SUMMARY
 Sample size determination is one of the most essential component of
every research/study.
 The larger the sample size, the higher the degree accuracy, but this is
limit by the availability of resources.
 It can be determined using formulae, readymade table, nomogram or
computer software.

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 Creswell,J., W. (2012) Educational research: Planning,
Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research, 4th ed.

 Patton,
M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation
Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.